A Pilot Evaluation of an Intervention to Improve Social Reactions to Sexual and Partner Violence Disclosures

Does No Mean No? Situational and Dispositional Factors Influence Emerging Adult Men's Intentions to Use Assault Tactics in Response to Women's Sexual Refusal During Hookups

Hookups can result in sexual assault when men do not listen to requests from women to stop. It is thus important to identify factors that influence men's decisions to override direct refusals in these situations. Presently, we administered first-person vignettes depicting a prototypical hookup wherein the woman refuses the man's attempt to escalate intimacy. Using a national sample of emerging adult men (N = 420), we found that they on average did not completely rule out coercive or forcible tactics, but those elevated on rape myth acceptance, hypermasculinity, and psychopathy were uniquely at risk of assault when controlling for several other traits known to correlate with rape. Participants also reported being likelier to use coercive sexual practices when refusals occurred at higher levels of sexual intimacy already attained. Notably, diagnostic analyses revealed that a subset of men had a disproportionate influence on the regression estimates, and that these men were not only elevated across a range of assault-relevant traits, but also endorsed higher likelihoods of using coercion and force in the face of female sexual refusal. Although removal of these cases did not substantively alter the results, exploratory analyses revealed that these individuals responded differently to situational factors in ways that suggested sexual opportunism. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Interacting with a friend after a trauma film reduces anxiety and intrusive memories

OBJECTIVE

Interpersonal factors have been linked with psychological adjustment to trauma, but how interpersonal factors influence trauma response is still unclear. Experimental paradigms such as the trauma film paradigm offer a valuable approach for studying this complex dynamic. However, few studies have used the trauma film paradigm to examine the interpersonal context of trauma response, and no studies have incorporated friends into the trauma film paradigm. The purpose of the current study was to examine how inclusion of a friend influenced reactions to a trauma analog.

METHOD

One hundred young adult females were randomized to watch a brief stressful film of a sexual assault either with or without a friend and the Friend Present condition was given an opportunity to interact following the film. Participants were evaluated on distress during the film, skin conductance, anxiety and negative affect immediately postfilm (preinteraction) and 5 minutes later (postinteraction), and intrusive memories over a three-day period.

RESULTS

No differences were found between conditions on skin conductance or subjective distress during the film. However, the Friend Present condition experienced a greater reduction in state anxiety from preinteraction to postinteraction and greater decreases in intrusive memories over the three-day period.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings show the inclusion of a friend mitigated trauma-related stress reactions and suggest that interacting with a friend aided in adaptive processing of the stressor. Findings indicate that additional work is needed to examine how platonic relationships can be targeted to improve prevention and intervention efforts in trauma-related outcomes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The Process of Online Disclosures of Interpersonal Victimization: A Systematic Review

Theory and research on disclosure of interpersonal victimization, including intimate partner violence, sexual assault, and child abuse, has produced rich scholarship promoting a greater understanding of the challenges and implications of disclosure for survivors. However, in the last decade, social media platforms have opened new online disclosure opportunities that diverge from and overlap with offline disclosure. This highlights the need for adaptation and elaboration of theorizing in this growing area of study. Thus, the study aimed to systematically review the studies published in scientific literature. The following databases were accessed Criminal Justice Abstracts, Medline PsychInfo, Social Work Abstracts, Sociological Abstracts, Web of Science database, and Google Scholar. Twenty-seven studies met the inclusion criteria of peer-reviewed status and focused on the disclosure process. A thematic analysis revealed that online disclosure of interpersonal victimization is a multi-phase (decision-making and disclosure aftermath) and multifactorial (individual, interpersonal, social, and technological) experience for survivors. Specifically, survivors' motivation was related to therapeutic goals, social support, and a desire to advocate for social change. Survivors faced numerous facilitators (e.g., inspiration from other online disclosures) and barriers (e.g., fear of triggering other survivors) to disclosure. The impact of online disclosure was divided into benefits (e.g., empowerment) and risks (e.g., undermining survivors' security). The conceptual and empirical limitations of the current research are discussed, including a need for quantitative methods with larger samples and longitudinal designs to better understand how survivors can best benefit from processes of online disclosure, while avoiding harm or re-traumatization.

Universal Sexual Violence Intervention Effects in a Cluster-Randomized Trial: Moderation by Sexual Orientation

Sexual minority (e.g., gay/lesbian, bisexual, and queer) students are more likely than their heterosexual peers to experience sexual violence (SV) during college. Interventions that prevent SV and improve SV care-seeking behaviors for sexual minority students are lacking. Giving Information for Trauma Support and Safety (GIFTSS) is an evidence-based universal SV intervention implemented by providers during college health and counseling visits. Compared to controls, GIFTSS participants reported greater self-efficacy to use SV harm reduction strategies and SV disclosure during clinical visits. However, GIFTSS' effectiveness for sexual minority participants is unknown. The current study examines whether sexual orientation moderates GIFTSS' effects on numerous SV-related outcomes (i.e., to test whether intervention effects at 4 and 12 months differed based on sexual orientation). Across 28 college campuses in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, 2,291 students participated in a two-arm cluster-randomized controlled trial. We used mixed models with two- and three-way interaction terms to test whether sexual orientation modified GIFTSS' effects at 4- and 12-month follow-up on participants': SV recognition; knowledge of and self-efficacy to enact SV harm reduction strategies; intentions to intervene; knowledge of and self-efficacy to use SV-related services; SV disclosure during visits; and recent SV exposure. Overall, 22.1% of participants were sexual minorities (n = 507). Sexual orientation moderated GIFTSS effectiveness as indicated by significant three-way interaction (p = .01) at 12-month follow-up, and knowledge of SV services decreased for heterosexual participants (β = -.23) but increased for sexual minority participants (β = .23). Our study indicates that universal provider-based education may promote greater knowledge of SV services among sexual minority than heterosexual participants, and population-specific interventions are needed that reduce sexual minority students' SV exposure, service utilization, and other critical aspects of SV prevention on university campuses.Clinical Trial Registration: Registry name: College Health Center-based Alcohol and Sexual Violence Intervention (GIFTSS), Registration number: NCT02355470, Web link: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02355470, Deidentified individual participant data will not be made available.

Conducting Virtual Interviews With Sexual Assault Survivors and Their Informal Supports During COVID-19 and Beyond

The current paper describes the author's experience conducting virtual interviews with sexual assault survivors and their informal supports (e.g., family, friend, partner) during the COVID-19 pandemic, drawing on past and present interviewing experiences with this population, and the recent literature on best practices for virtual interviewing and survivor/trauma-informed research methods. The experience of pivoting from past projects using face-to-face interview methods to doing virtual interviews with this population is presented and critically analyzed. Potential advantages and drawbacks of various methods and adaptations for doing virtual interviews in a dyadic sample of survivors and their informal supports are described to facilitate future research using virtual methods with sexual assault survivors and their informal supporters. Issues related to access (e.g., e.g., age, gender, race, ability, poverty) to interview participation are also noted as in need of more consideration. Finally, the impact on interviewers of doing this work in virtual versus face-to-face contexts is discussed.

Scoping Review of Intimate Partner Violence Prevention Programs for Undergraduate College Students

Recognizing that intimate partner violence (IPV) negatively affects college students' health and well-being, colleges offer preventive interventions to address these effects. However, scholarly evidence on this effort has been limited, such that we know little about the risk factors addressed, theoretical approaches, target outcomes, and other essential intervention characteristics. To address this gap, this study reviewed evidence-based IPV preventive interventions conducted in U.S. colleges reported in 25 peer-reviewed articles and dissertations published between 2010 and 2020. Findings showed that IPV preventive interventions for college students were designed to address multilevel risk factors of IPV, typically via bystander interventions and emerging skill-building interventions. Most IPV preventive interventions were theoretically driven primary preventions or a combination of primary and secondary preventions. Most studies of program outcomes focus on awareness of IPV and bystander roles, but 44% of the included articles measured participants' behavioral outcomes (e.g., actual bystander behavior, reaction to IPV disclosure, IPV screening behavior, social emotional skill use, or decreased rates of IPV perpetration) based on participants' use of skill-building components (e.g., bystander strategies, healthy relationship skills, conflict resolution, communication skills, empathy, and self-regulation). Student participants in the included studies were predominantly white (>60%) and only two studies included any Latinx students or students at historically Black colleges and universities. This review indicates that future IPV prevention practice, policy, and research must further define and explore how multilevel IPV prevention approaches can address the various systems level of needs among diverse student subpopulations.

Development and Initial Assessment of an Emotional Support Provision Training Intervention for Interpersonal Support Providers in the Context of Chronic Illness

This study reports on the development and pilot testing of an emotional support provision training intervention for interpersonal support providers to those with chronic illnesses. Using findings from a needs assessment in combination with existing theory and research, we created a training framework consisting of verbal person-centered message design, empathic listening, and communicated perspective-taking. Then, we recruited 282 individuals to participate in a pre-training questionnaire, the online training module, a post-training questionnaire, and a two-week post-training questionnaire. Outcome variables included emotional support knowledge, efficacy, and intentions, as well as general support efficacy, response efficacy, and quality. Repeated measures MANCOVA revealed significant increases from T1 to T2 for all variables of interest. These increases were sustained at T3 for emotional support knowledge and efficacy, and support provision response efficacy. Participants rated the training favorably and provided helpful suggestions for improvement. This study answers the call for more theoretically-grounded support interventions that not only assess theory in real-world settings, but also help people better their supportive communication skills.

Social Reactions to Disclosure of Sexual Violence Experienced by Sexual and Gender Minority Young Adults: Comparisons of Sexual and Gender Minority Recipients Versus Cisgender/Heterosexual Recipients

Sexual and gender minority (SGM) individuals are at an increased risk of experiencing sexual violence (SV). Social reactions received upon disclosure of SV impact survivors' mental health, and this may be more extreme when social reactions are provided by other SGM individuals. The purpose of the current study was to understand the SV disclosure experiences of SGM young adults, including the identity of disclosure recipients and the quality of the social reactions received by SGM and cisgender/heterosexual disclosure recipients. Additionally, the current study sought to examine how the SGM identity of the disclosure recipient and the quality of the social reactions received were associated with mental health outcomes (depression, post-traumatic stress disorder [PTSD], and alcohol use) among SGM SV survivors. SGM-identifying participants (N = 110) completed a 10-min survey on Qualtrics that was distributed through Prime Panels. Results revealed that 83% of participants (SGM survivors of SV) disclosed their SV experience to other SGM individuals. SGM disclosure recipients provided more positive social reactions and fewer negative social reactions than cisgender/heterosexual disclosure recipients. Regression models indicated that positive social reactions from cisgender/heterosexual recipients were associated with a decrease in depression scores. Negative social reactions from SGM recipients were associated with an increase in depression scores. Unexpectedly, positive social reactions from SGM recipients, while negative social reactions from cisgender/heterosexual recipients, were associated with an increase in PTSD scores. No associations were found between social reactions and alcohol use. Findings highlight the importance of social reactions and disclosure experiences on SGM survivors' mental health and mitigation opportunities to improve these disclosure experiences.

Predictors of Rape Myth Acceptance Among South Asian Students in Canada

Transmission of rape myths is expected in every culture, yet limited research exists on rape myth acceptance (RMA) within global South Asian (SA) diasporas. We examined whether gender, attitudes toward gender roles, and patriarchal beliefs contributed to RMA among young SA adults in Canada. An ethnically diverse sample of 116 (ages 17-25) students, comprising equal numbers of men and women and domestic and international students, completed an online survey. SA students were generally egalitarian with low RMA similar to the majority of North American samples. As predicted, male gender, traditional attitudes towards SA women, and patriarchal beliefs were strong predictors of RMA.

Aspects of Selective Sexual Assault Disclosure: Qualitative Interviews With Survivors and Their Informal Supports

Two-thirds of survivors typically disclose their experience to informal supports (e.g., friends, family, partners) at some point following sexual assault, but little in-depth research has addressed specific aspects of disclosure. In the current study, a diverse sample of 45 sexual assault survivors and their informal support providers (SP; e.g., family, friends, romantic partners) were interviewed separately about experiences of disclosure, social reactions, and help-seeking following the assault. Narrative data on the overarching thematic category of selective disclosure were analyzed using thematic analysis methods. Several subthemes emerged specific to (a) the circumstances of disclosure (prompted or coerced), (b) withholding details (framing disclosures to avoid rape myths and blame, strategic use of language, protecting others by not disclosing or limiting details), and (c) sharing details (selecting who was told, selecting trusted others for disclosure, selective details told to specific people, sharing with strangers easier). Implications are drawn for future research on aspects of selective disclosure of sexual assault and clinical practice implications for supporting survivors and their informal support networks.

Perceptions of Anticipated Peer Support for Survivors of Sexual Violence Among Students with Minoritized Identities

Peers' attitudes toward survivors of sexual violence can impact their willingness to disclose. Students with minoritized identities may perceive and experience their campus environments as less supportive than peers with privileged identities. The purpose of this study was to examine perceptions of anticipated peer support for sexual violence survivors, using a cross-sectional study of 2,727 students. Linear regression modeling showed significant associations between students with minoritized identities and lower scores on perceptions of anticipated peer support for survivors. There were also several important interactions between specific overlapping student identities. The findings suggest that students with minoritized identities perceive anticipated peer support less favorably than those with privileged identities.

Social Reactions to Disclosures of Intimate Partner Stalking and Unwanted Pursuit Behaviors: Associations With PTSD, Academic Outcomes, and Empowerment

Among college survivors of unwanted pursuit behaviors (UPBs; 40.1%, n = 189) or intimate partner stalking (IPS, i.e., UPBs causing emotional distress; 32.1%, n = 151), the present study examined effects of social reactions to disclosures on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology, academic outcomes, and personal empowerment. Compared to UPB survivors, IPS survivors were more likely to disclose and reported higher positive and negative reactions to disclosure as well as greater frequency of UPBs/IPS, IPV, and PTSD symptoms. Among both groups, only negative social reactions were positively associated with PTSD symptoms. However, among IPS (but not UPB) survivors, only positive social reactions were related to academic outcomes and empowerment when controlling for PTSD and IPS frequency. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Associations among posttraumatic growth, demographic characteristics, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and trauma type, with a focus on sexual violence

This study assessed posttraumatic growth (PTG) across multiple trauma types and by demographic characteristics (i.e., sex, age, education). Moreover, we examined the association between PTG and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms as well as the characteristics and predictors of PTG after sexual violence. A phone survey was conducted in a nationally representative sample of 1,766 Icelandic adults. In total, 1,528 individuals reported having experienced some form of trauma and were included in the analysis, and 563 reported experiencing sexual violence. Interpersonal trauma (e.g., sexual violence, emotional abuse, and domestic violence) was associated with the highest levels of PTG. Moderate levels of PTSD symptoms were associated with the highest levels of PTG, whereas high- or low-level PTSD symptoms were related to less PTG. Women reported significantly more PTG than men, d = 0.16 and survivors of sexual violence reported significantly more PTG than individuals who reported other forms of trauma exposure, d = 0.28. Among sexual violence survivors, no demographic factors were associated with PTG, but cumulative trauma and positive social reactions were significantly related to higher levels of PTG. This study highlights that personal growth can result from aversive experiences and suggests a curvilinear association between PTG and PTSD symptoms.

College students' perceptions of alcohol's role in disclosures of sexual assault and intimate partner violence

Objective: Much is known about how alcohol increases the risk of sexual assault or intimate partner violence victimization during college. This research qualitatively explores perceptions about how alcohol influences disclosures about these events to informal supports. Participants: Participants included college students who received a disclosure wherein they or the survivor were drinking during the disclosure (n = 81). Methods: Responses were coded with regard to who was drinking and whether the effect of drinking during the disclosure was perceived as positive, negative, mixed, or neutral/none. Results: Participants perceived alcohol to have both positive (e.g., increasing the likelihood of discussing difficult topics) and negative (e.g., cognitive impairment increased negative emotions) effects on disclosures. Conclusion: Prevention and intervention efforts should identify targeted strategies (e.g., remembering one or two easy and helpful phrases; revisiting the topic again while sober) to help survivors and disclosure recipients have constructive conversations in the presence of alcohol.

Patterns of Violence Victimization and Disclosure Among Transgender/Gender Nonconforming and Cisgender Latinx College Students

Although research on sexual violence experiences of minoritized college students has increased in recent years, little is known about the experiences of Latinx students. Even less knowledge is available on whether such violence and disclosure experiences vary by gender identity. The present study addressed this gap by exploring the rates of sexual violence and disclosure patterns after experiences of sexual violence among Latinx college students. Using data from the 2019-2020 Healthy Minds Study, a national sample of Latinx college students was analyzed (n = 6,690). Descriptive statistics, χ² tests, and one-way analyses of variance were conducted to explore differences in gender identity, sexual violence victimization, and disclosure type. Multiple logistic regression analyses were used to estimate the association between (1) gender identity and sexual violence victimization and (2) gender identity and sexual violence disclosure while controlling for various sociodemographic measures. Results indicated sexual violence victimization occurred at significantly higher rates among transgender/gender nonconforming and cisgender women Latinx students, compared to cisgender men. Transgender/gender nonconforming students who experienced sexual violence were significantly less likely to make any disclosure of sexual violence when compared to cisgender men. These findings highlight the extent to which experiences of sexual violence among Latinx students differ based on their gender identity. It also brings attention to the need for campus programming to attend to students who often face structural barriers because of their intersecting identities, specifically transgender/gender nonconforming Latinx students.

Disclosure Recipients' Perceptions Related to Helping Victims of Dating and Sexual Violence

To date, research on social reactions to dating and sexual violence (DSV) disclosure has largely neglected the perspective of disclosure recipients. Moreover, few studies have explored disclosure recipients' perceptions of the victim and perceptions of their own effectiveness in helping as well as the correlates of these perceptions. The purpose of this study was to address these gaps in the literature. Participants were 783 college students (73.0% female) who reported receiving a DSV disclosure in the past 6 months. Participants who provided more negative social reactions to victim disclosures were less likely to empathize with the victim and more likely to feel victim blame/burdensomeness and confusion/ineffectiveness in their responses. Conversely, those providing more positive social reactions were more likely to empathize with the victim and were less likely to report victim blame/burdensomeness and confusion/ineffectiveness. Further, recipients with a DSV victimization history were more likely to report empathy for the victim. Being a man and having higher post-traumatic stress symptoms were associated with greater victim blame/burdensomeness, while the victim approaching the recipient to disclose and DSV experiences that occurred long ago were associated with lower victim blame/burdensomeness. Finally, depressive symptoms, receiving disclosures from a stranger/casual friend, and less frequent discussion about the incident were significantly associated with increased confusion/ineffectiveness. These findings suggest that perceptions of the victim and helping effectiveness, and factors associated with them, may be promising targets of programs seeking to reduce negative and increase positive social reactions to DSV disclosures.

LGBTIQ CALD People's Experiences of Intimate Partner Violence: A Systematic Literature Review

BACKGROUND

Experience of surviving intimate partner violence (IPV) is well documented in research, policing practices, newspapers, and awareness campaigns domestically and internationally. Arguably, those who have survived IPV and have their experiences reflected within society undergo a transformative experience of empowerment. As society recognises and validates their experience has occurred, and responds to it, accordingly, as some survivors have targeted services and interventions to assist in this transformation. However, for LGBTIQ-identifying peoples, experiences of IPV are poorly understood in contemporary society, which is further exacerbated for LGBTIQ-identifying CALD people as they continue to remain hidden.

AIM AND OBJECTIVE

The systematic literature review aims to explore the experiences of this group in their development of resilience following an abusive and violent relationship.

METHODS

Of the potential 230 identified studies, 5 studies met the eligibility criteria. In line with the eligibility criteria, these studies were first reviewed by title, then by abstract and then by full text. Of those studies which the research team deemed relevant for inclusion, their reference lists where also reviewed to determine if any further relevant studies could be identified using this strategy. As a result of the above process, five (5) studies met the eligibility criteria and were included in the study.

RESULTS

From data extraction, three major themes emerged: Intimate Partner Violence as Experienced by LGBTIQ survivors, Marginalised Identity and Types of Survivorship. While refined, these themes capture a more robust set of sub-themes that identify the diverse ways in which LGBTIQ survivors experience responses to their victimised status as experienced in IPV situations.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the review found that resilient outcomes for LGBTIQ CALD survivors remain misunderstood and missing within the literature. There is a propensity to focus on negative coping strategies and an exclusive focus on LGBTIQ CALD vulnerabilities. Future research requires investigation into strategies and support that move beyond coping to include resilient outcomes and support systems that allow manifestations of resilience.

The Feasibility of a Novel Recruitment Protocol for Collecting Survivor Data via Disclosure Recipient Referrals

The current arricle describes a novel recruitment protocol for collecting data from sexual assault and intimate partner violence survivors referred to research studies by individuals to whom they had previously disclosed. Challenges in both recruiting participants and interpreting data are described. Only 35.8% of cases had usable data for both survivors and disclosure recipients, suggesting that this referral method had limited success in recruiting matched pairs. Suggestions for modifications to improve the protocol for future research are offered. Potential advantages and drawbacks of various methods for recruiting dyads are described in order to facilitate future research on survivors' disclosure processes, social reactions, and the influence of social reactions on survivor recovery.

Social Network Changes and Disclosure Responses after Sexual Assault

Social support after sexual assault is important for recovery, but violence and recovery may also challenge relationships. We examined functional and structural social support changes following sexual assault and their association with mental health. College women (N=544) with and without a sexual assault history completed a cross-sectional survey assessing current and past egocentric social networks. Functional support (perceived global support, assault disclosure, perceived helpfulness of responses) and structural support (network density, size, retention) were examined. Multilevel models revealed that, relative to non-survivors, survivors reported smaller, less dense past networks, but similarly sized current networks. Survivors retained less of their networks than non-survivors, and network members who provided unhelpful responses to disclosure were less likely to be retained. Structural equation modeling revealed that, among survivors, perceived unhelpful responses to disclosure and a greater loss of network members were associated with worse mental health. Findings suggest that survivors may experience a restructuring of social networks following sexual assault, especially when network members respond in unhelpful ways to disclosure. Although survivors appeared to build new relationships, this restructuring was associated with more mental health problems. It is possible that interventions to improve post-assault social network retention may facilitate recovery.

Latent Profiles of Social Reactions to Sexual Assault Disclosure Among Undergraduate Women

The types of social reactions that victims receive when they disclose experiences of sexual assault are important for post-trauma recovery. Using a person-centered analytic approach, we identified latent profiles based upon the nature of two types of negative (turning against and unsupportive acknowledgment) and two types of positive (emotional support and informational/tangible aid) reactions received by 300 undergraduate women who disclosed sexual assault. Analyses identified four latent profiles characterized by (a) moderate emotional support/low negative reactions, (b) moderate emotional support/moderate negative reactions, (c) high positive/some unsupportive acknowledgment reactions, and (d) moderate positive/high negative reactions. Differences between the profiles in sexual assault acknowledgment, self- and perpetrator-blame, and some assault-related characteristics (victim injury but not victim or perpetrator intoxication) were identified. Group comparisons revealed that the two profiles characterized by greater negative reactions reported greater posttraumatic stress, whereas the profile characterized by moderate support/moderate negative reactions reported greater depression. No differences were identified for hazardous alcohol use. Findings highlight the importance of addressing negative reactions to sexual assault disclosure as potential barriers to recovery. Colleges may benefit from programming targeted at disclosure recipients as part of violence prevention efforts. A broader societal shift is also imperative to eliminate stigmatization of victims. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ’s website at: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/03616843211038924 .

A Mixed-Method Process Evaluation of an Intervention to Improve Social Reactions to Disclosures of Sexual Assault and Partner Abuse

Because of the high rates and deleterious consequences of sexual assault (SA) and partner abuse (PA) on college campuses, there is a proliferation of programming to both prevent and respond to these issues. Most research to date, however, presents outcome evaluation data on these programs and neglects to present process evaluation data which are critical for program refinement and dissemination. The purpose of this study was to present process evaluation data (i.e., acceptability and feasibility) specific to a program that endeavored to increase positive and decrease negative social reactions from disclosure recipients to individuals disclosing SA and PA. Participants were 303 students who completed the program and participated in postintervention surveys and a subset of students (n = 18) who completed exit interviews. Results documented that the program was both feasible and acceptable, as evidenced by high satisfaction ratings. Important suggestions were also provided for how to improve the program, such as reducing repetition and making scenarios more realistic. Finally, participants who reported higher program engagement and more program usage generally reported more intentions to provide positive social reactions, less intentions to provide negative social reactions, and less actual negative social reactions. This information is useful not only for adapting the current program discussed herein but also for program developers and preventionists wishing to create similar programming to effectively prevent and improve response to SA and PA.

Predictors of uptake and retention in an intervention to improve social reactions to disclosures of sexual assault and partner abuse

Objective Examine uptake (e.g., initial session participation) and retention (e.g., booster session participation) in an intervention about responding to sexual assault and partner abuse disclosures. Participants: Participants were 836 students (primarily White; upper-middle class) at a medium-sized university. Method: Participants completed baseline surveys, were invited to a two-session intervention, and responded to a follow-up survey. Results: Initial session attendance was 36.2% (n = 303); of those, 83.1% (n = 252) attended the booster. Female, sexual minority students, and students with fewer prior negative reactions, and higher initial session satisfaction were more likely to attend than other students. Participants' reported reasons for not attending included scheduling problems and topic discomfort. Participants reported that remote attendance and higher cash incentives would have made attendance more likely. Conclusion: Findings indicate the draw of cash incentives, a need to reach high-risk students and integrate into existing organizations, and the potential for individualized prevention.

"I've Never Told Anyone": A Qualitative Analysis of Interviews With College Women Who Experienced Sexual Assault and Remained Silent

The purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of the decision made by some college women who are raped to tell no one. In-depth interviews were conducted with 15 college women between the ages of 19-24 who had never shared their sexual assault with anyone prior to speaking to the researchers. This study provides a systematic investigation of the factors underlying women's decisions to remain silent. The knowledge and understanding gained from these in-depth interviews offer insight for individuals and institutions to support these students and for the development of future efforts encouraging women survivors to tell someone.

Bidirectional associations between alcohol use and intimate partner violence and sexual assault victimization among college women

Whereas some prior studies have explored whether alcohol increases the risk for victimization and/or whether distress resulting from victimization increases the risk for alcohol use, few studies have simultaneously tested these bidirectional hypotheses among a high-risk sample (i.e., undergraduate women), while including both sexual assault (SA) and intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization, and exploring potential moderating effects of PTSD symptoms on these paths. Among 631 college women, the present study tested these bidirectional associations using cross-lagged panel models across two measurement periods (i.e., Time 1 [T1] and Time 2 [T2], six months later). Results suggested that T1 alcohol use increased risk for T2 SA (but not T2 IPV victimization), and PTSD symptoms moderated this association; at lower levels of PTSD symptoms, there were no significant associations between alcohol use and subsequent SA victimization, whereas at higher levels of PTSD symptoms, alcohol use predicted subsequent SA victimization. By contrast, the opposite directional hypothesis was not supported; neither T1 lifetime SA nor IPV were associated with T2 drinking, regardless of the level of their PTSD symptoms. Prevention and intervention efforts should simultaneously address risk factors for alcohol use and victimization using trauma-informed practices.

Prospective Predictors of Receiving Disclosures of Intimate Partner Violence and Sexual Assault Among College Students

OBJECTIVE

Previous research has indicated that many undergraduates receive disclosures of sexual assault and intimate partner violence (IPV) from their peers; however, much of this research has been cross-sectional. The present study assessed the extent to which demographic characteristics and victimization history predicted whether participants received disclosures over the subsequent 6 months. Directional hypotheses assessed whether psychological symptoms and attitudes predicted, or were consequences of, disclosures at follow-up.

METHOD

College students (n = 867) from a broader treatment intervention study completed pretest (Time 1) and 6-month follow-up surveys (Time 2).

RESULTS

Individuals who reported new disclosures at follow-up (56%) were more likely to be women, have previous experience receiving either sexual assault or IPV disclosures, and have experienced sexual assault or IPV victimization in their lifetime and across the follow-up period. Sexual orientation did not predict receipt of disclosures at follow-up; intervention group did not moderate these relationships. Results of longitudinal structural equation models found that although higher Time 1 posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and depressive symptoms predicted disclosure status at follow-up, Time 1 disclosure status did not predict subsequent increases in posttraumatic stress disorder and depressive symptoms. Attitudinal variables were not significantly associated with disclosures reported at Time 1 or follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest the importance of attending to personal experiences of victimization within interventions aiming to improve responses to disclosure. Although individuals with higher distress are more likely to receive subsequent disclosures, disclosure does not appear to lead to increases in long-term psychological distress.

Age and Sexual Orientation Moderated the Effects of a Bystander-Focused Interpersonal Violence Prevention Program for High School Students

The objective of the current paper was to identify moderating factors of a bystander-focused violence prevention program for adolescents, Bringing in the Bystander-High School Curriculum. Participants were 2,403 high school students from 25 schools in northern New England (M age = 15.8 years; 50.9% female; 85.1% White, 84.5% heterosexual) who participated in a cluster-randomized controlled trial. We examined impact among different social groups (i.e., by race, gender, age, poverty, sexual orientation) using moderation analyses. The intervention effects for the past 12-month sexual harassment and stalking perpetration were stronger for younger participants and heterosexual participants; poverty, race, and gender did not moderate any program effects. Findings indicate that future prevention research should consider additional targets for older adolescents that may improve intervention program efficacy. An urgent need exists for interventions that are effective for sexual minority adolescents.

Exploring the association between anticipated and actual responses to disclosures of intimate partner violence and sexual assault

Victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) and sexual assault (SA) commonly disclose their experiences to friends or family members, or within other personal relationships. Disclosure recipients' responses to these disclosures are associated with victims' mental health. Previous research has separately measured both actual responses to IPV/SA and anticipated responses to IPV/SA (e.g., response to a hypothetical scenario) from the perspective of disclosure recipients. Yet, little research has described the association between disclosure recipients' anticipated and actual responses. The aim of the current paper was to use a prospective design to examine the association between disclosure recipients' anticipated and actual responses to IPV/SA, including positive and negative social reactions, perceptions of victim responsibility, empathy, and confusion and ineffectiveness about how to respond. Participants (N = 126 college students aged 18-23; 70.6% women) answered questions about their anticipated responses to a hypothetical IPV/SA disclosure scenario, and then six months later answered the same questions about their actual responses to an actual disclosure of IPV/SA. Although most anticipated and actual responses were significantly associated, associations were moderate in size. Some associations were stronger for participants with a closer relationship to the victim, for participants who had their own victimization history, for women, and for men. Individuals can predict their responses to some degree, but are not totally accurate in doing so.

Examining moderators of the relationship between social support and self-reported PTSD symptoms: A meta-analysis

Social support is one of the most robust predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Yet, little is known about factors that moderate the relationship between social support and PTSD symptom severity. This meta-analysis estimated the overall effect size of the relationship between self-reported social support and PTSD severity and tested meaningful demographic, social support, and trauma characteristics that may moderate this association using both cross-sectional and longitudinal effect sizes. A comprehensive search identified 139 studies with 145 independent cross-sectional effect sizes representing 62,803 individuals and 37 studies with 38 independent longitudinal effect sizes representing 25,792 individuals. Study samples had to comprise trauma-exposed, nonclinical adult populations to be included in the analysis. Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses revealed a near medium overall effect size (rcross = -.27; 95% CI [-.30, -.24]; rlong = -.25; 95% CI [-.28, -.21]) with a high degree of heterogeneity (cross-sectional I2 = 91.6, longitudinal I2 = 86.5). Both cross-sectional and longitudinal moderator analyses revealed that study samples exposed to natural disasters had a weaker effect size than samples exposed to other trauma types (e.g., combat, interpersonal violence), studies measuring negative social reactions had a larger effect size than studies assessing other types of social support, and veteran samples revealed larger effect sizes than civilian samples. Several other methodological and substantive moderators emerged that revealed a complex relationship between social support and PTSD severity. These findings have important clinical implications for the types of social support interventions that could mitigate PTSD severity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

A program to improve social reactions to sexual and dating violence disclosures reduces posttraumatic stress in subsequently victimized participants

Objective: Research consistently documents the high rates and deleterious outcomes of dating and sexual violence (DSV) among college students. Thus, there is an urgency to identify cost-effective interventions that can mitigate the negative outcomes associated with these forms of violence. The purpose of the current study was to conduct secondary analyses to assess whether a two-session, face-to-face social support intervention (i.e., Supporting Survivors and Self) would confer psychological benefits for participants who subsequently experienced DSV victimization. Method: Participants were 187 full-time undergraduate students from a university in the northeastern United States who reported at least one form of DSV in the six months following implementation of the program. Results: No intervention effect was identified for self-blame or depressive symptoms among subsequent victims. However, the intervention led to lower levels of overall posttraumatic stress symptoms, including avoidance and changes in cognition and mood symptoms, for participants who experienced unwanted sexual intercourse and/or physical intimate partner violence in the treatment versus the control condition. Gender did not moderate intervention effects. Conclusion: Overall, results suggest that interventions aimed at providing social support to survivors may lead to some benefits for individuals who are subsequently victimized. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).