Comparison and Investigation of Exosomes Derived from Platelet-Rich Plasma Activated by Different Agonists

Extracellular vesicles from platelet-poor plasma possess anti-inflammatory and anti-catabolic effects in chondrocytes stimulated with IL-1β or synovial membrane-conditioned media

BACKGROUND

Although osteoarthritis (OA) is the most prevalent form of arthritis, there is still no effective treatment capable of combining immunomodulatory effects with cartilage repair. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent a promising new generation of cell-free therapies for OA. Blood-derived products, including plasma, are an easily available and abundant source of EVs with anti-inflammatory and regenerative properties. In this study, our objective was to analyze the effect of platelet poor plasma-derived extracellular vesicles (PPP-EVs) on stimulated OA chondrocytes in vitro. We hypothesize that PPP from healthy donors could be a suitable source of EVs that can modulate the inflammatory environment of OA chondrocytes.

METHODS

Cartilage and synovial membrane (SM) were obtained from patients with OA and whole blood from healthy donors. Synovial membrane-conditioned media (CM / SM) was analyzed using multiplex immunoassays. EVs were isolated from PPP using size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and characterized by nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), Western blot, and flow cytometry (FC). The phenotype of the chondrocytes was analyzed using fluorescence microscopy and RT-qPCR. Chondrocytes were stimulated with IL-1β or CM/SM for 24 h. The impact of PPP-EVs on stimulated chondrocyte gene expression was evaluated using RT-qPCR.

RESULTS

The PPP-EVs isolated by SEC were positive for the tetraspanins CD9, CD63, and CD81. The chondrocyte phenotype was confirmed by positive expression of Collagen II and Aggrecane. CM/SM and IL-1β caused inflammatory changes in chondrocytes, which was observed by increased expression of the genes MMP-1, MMP-3 and MMP-13, RANTES, TSG-6, and YKL-40 compared to the control. PPP-EVs added to stimulated chondrocytes for 24 h significantly decreased the expression of the chondrocyte gene YKL-40, TSG-6 and MMP-1.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we confirmed that PPP is a suitable source of EVs, which can be efficiently isolated by SEC. We found that PPP-EVs were capable of decreasing the expression of inflammatory genes in OA chondrocytes stimulated with IL-1β or CM/SM. This study provides preliminary results on PPP-EVs as an affordable and promising option to modulate the catabolic microenvironment of OA chondrocytes in vitro.

Exosomes derived from platelet-rich plasma present a novel potential in repairing knee articular cartilage defect combined with cyclic peptide-modified β-TCP scaffold

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to investigate the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of PRP-exos combined with cyclic peptide-modified β-TCP scaffold in the treatment of rabbit knee cartilage defect.

METHODS

PRP-exos were extracted and characterized by TEM, NTA and WB. The therapeutic effects were evaluated by ICRS score, HE staining, Immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR and ELISA. The repair mechanism of PRP-exos was estimated and predicted by miRNA sequencing analysis and protein-protein interaction network analysis.

RESULTS

The results showed that PRP-exos had a reasonable size distribution and exhibited typical exosome morphology. The combination of PRP-exos and cyclic peptide-modified β-TCP scaffold improved ICRS score and the expression level of COL-2, RUNX2, and SOX9. Moreover, this combination therapy reduced the level of MMP-3, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, while increasing the level of TIMP-1. In PRP-exos miRNA sequencing analysis, the total number of known miRNAs aligned across all samples was 252, and a total of 91 differentially expressed miRNAs were detected. The results of KEGG enrichment analysis and the protein-protein interaction network analysis indicated that the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway could impact the function of chondrocytes by regulating key transcription factors to repair cartilage defect.

CONCLUSION

PRP-exos combined with cyclic peptide-modified β-TCP scaffold effectively promoted cartilage repair and improved chondrocyte function in rabbit knee cartilage defect. Based on the analysis and prediction of PRP-exos miRNAs sequencing, PI3K/AKT signaling pathway may contribute to the therapeutic effect. These findings provide experimental evidence for the application of PRP-exos in the treatment of cartilage defect.

Exosome-based cell therapy for diabetic foot ulcers: Present and prospect

Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) represent a serious complication of diabetes with high incidence, requiring intensive treatment, prolonged hospitalization, and high costs. It poses a severe threat to the patient's life, resulting in substantial burdens on patient and healthcare system. However, the therapy of DFUs remains challenging. Therefore, exploring cell-free therapies for DFUs is both critical and urgent. Exosomes, as crucial mediators of intercellular communication, have been demonstrated potentially effective in anti-inflammation, angiogenesis, cell proliferation and migration, and collagen deposition. These functions have been proven beneficial in all stages of diabetic wound healing. This review aims to summarize the role and mechanisms of exosomes from diverse cellular sources in diabetic wound healing research. In addition, we elaborate on the challenges for clinical application, discuss the advantages of membrane vesicles as exosome mimics in wound healing, and present the therapeutic potential of exosomes and their mimetic vesicles for future clinical applications.

Exosomal miRNA-26b-5p from PRP suppresses NETs by targeting MMP-8 to promote diabetic wound healing

The utilization of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) has exhibited potential as a therapeutic approach for the management of diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs). However, it is currently not well understood how the diabetic environment may influence PRP-derived exosomes (PRP-Exos) and their potential impact on neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). This study aims to investigate the effects of the diabetic environment on PRP-Exos, their communication with neutrophils, and the subsequent influence on NETs and wound healing. Through bulk-seq and Western blotting, we confirmed the increased expression of MMP-8 in DFUs. Additionally, we discovered that miRNA-26b-5p plays a significant role in the communication between DFUs and PRP-Exos. In our experiments, we found that PRP-Exos miR-26b-5p effectively improved diabetic wound healing by inhibiting NETs. Further tests validated the inhibitory effect of miR-26b-5p on NETs by targeting MMP-8. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments showed that miRNA-26b-5p from PRP-Exos promoted wound healing by reducing neutrophil infiltration through its targeting of MMP-8. This study establishes the importance of miR-26b-5p in the communication between DFUs and PRP-Exos, disrupting NETs formation in diabetic wounds by targeting MMP-8. These findings provide valuable insights for developing novel therapeutic strategies to enhance wound healing in individuals suffering from DFUs.

Platelet-rich plasma-derived exosomes promote blood-spinal cord barrier repair and attenuate neuroinflammation after spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) compromises the blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) and induces neuroinflammation, potentially exacerbating neuronal damage. This underscores the importance of maintaining BSCB integrity and mitigating neuroinflammation in SCI treatment. Our study explores an innovative approach to treating SCI by utilizing platelet-rich plasma-derived exosomes (PRP-Exos) to stabilize BSCB function and alleviate neuroinflammation. We successfully isolated exosomes from platelet-rich plasma and conducted both in vivo and in vitro experiments to assess the therapeutic effects of PRP-Exos and explore their potential mechanisms in stabilizing the BSCB, reducing neuroinflammation, and promoting neural functional recovery.In vitro results demonstrate that PRP-Exos significantly reduce the permeability of bEnd.3 cells under hypoxic-hypoglycemic conditions, thereby restoring the integrity of tight junctions. Additionally, our study elucidates the critical role of the NF-κB signaling pathway in the amelioration of neuroinflammation by PRP-Exos. In the SCI model, local injection of hydrogel-encapsulated PRP-Exos reduced Evans blue dye leakage, enhanced the expression of tight junction proteins, alleviated the inflammatory environment in the damaged area, and improved neural functional recovery. In conclusion, PRP-Exos presents a promising and effective treatment option for SCI.

Profound Properties of Protein-Rich, Platelet-Rich Plasma Matrices as Novel, Multi-Purpose Biological Platforms in Tissue Repair, Regeneration, and Wound Healing

Autologous platelet-rich plasma (PRP) preparations are prepared at the point of care. Centrifugation cellular density separation sequesters a fresh unit of blood into three main fractions: a platelet-poor plasma (PPP) fraction, a stratum rich in platelets (platelet concentrate), and variable leukocyte bioformulation and erythrocyte fractions. The employment of autologous platelet concentrates facilitates the biological potential to accelerate and support numerous cellular activities that can lead to tissue repair, tissue regeneration, wound healing, and, ultimately, functional and structural repair. Normally, after PRP preparation, the PPP fraction is discarded. One of the less well-known but equally important features of PPP is that particular growth factors (GFs) are not abundantly present in PRP, as they reside outside of the platelet alpha granules. Precisely, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) are mainly present in the PPP fraction. In addition to their roles as angiogenesis activators, these plasma-based GFs are also known to inhibit inflammation and fibrosis, and they promote keratinocyte migration and support tissue repair and wound healing. Additionally, PPP is known for the presence of exosomes and other macrovesicles, exerting cell-cell communication and cell signaling. Newly developed ultrafiltration technologies incorporate PPP processing methods by eliminating, in a fast and efficient manner, plasma water, cytokines, molecules, and plasma proteins with a molecular mass (weight) less than the pore size of the fibers. Consequently, a viable and viscous protein concentrate of functional total proteins, like fibrinogen, albumin, and alpha-2-macroglobulin is created. Consolidating a small volume of high platelet concentrate with a small volume of highly concentrated protein-rich PPP creates a protein-rich, platelet-rich plasma (PR-PRP) biological preparation. After the activation of proteins, mainly fibrinogen, the PR-PRP matrix retains and facilitates interactions between invading resident cells, like macrophages, fibroblast, and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), as well as the embedded concentrated PRP cells and molecules. The administered PR-PRP biologic will ultimately undergo fibrinolysis, leading to a sustained release of concentrated cells and molecules that have been retained in the PR-PRP matrix until the matrix is dissolved. We will discuss the unique biological and tissue reparative and regenerative properties of the PR-PRP matrix.

Characterization of Biomarkers of Thrombo-Inflammation in Patients with First-Diagnosed Atrial Fibrillation

Patients with first-diagnosed atrial fibrillation (FDAF) exhibit major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs) during follow-up. Preclinical models have demonstrated that thrombo-inflammation mediates adverse cardiac remodeling and atherothrombotic events. We have hypothesized that thrombin activity (FIIa) links coagulation with inflammation and cardiac fibrosis/dysfunction. Surrogate markers of the thrombo-inflammatory response in plasma have not been characterized in FDAF. In this prospective longitudinal study, patients presenting with FDAF (n = 80), and 20 matched controls, were included. FIIa generation and activity in plasma were increased in the patients with early AF compared to the patients with chronic cardiovascular disease without AF (controls; p < 0.0001). This increase was accompanied by elevated biomarkers (ELISA) of platelet and endothelial activation in plasma. Pro-inflammatory peripheral immune cells (TNF-α+ or IL-6+) that expressed FIIa-activated protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) (flow cytometry) circulated more frequently in patients with FDAF compared to the controls (p < 0.0001). FIIa activity correlated with cardiac fibrosis (collagen turnover) and cardiac dysfunction (NT-pro ANP/NT-pro BNP) surrogate markers. FIIa activity in plasma was higher in patients with FDAF who experienced MACE. Signaling via FIIa might be a presumed link between the coagulation system (tissue factor-FXa/FIIa-PAR1 axis), inflammation, and pro-fibrotic pathways (thrombo-inflammation) in FDAF.

Platelet-derived extracellular vesicles: a new-generation nanostructured tool for chronic wound healing

Chronic nonhealing wounds pose a serious challenge to regaining skin function and integrity. Platelet-derived extracellular vesicles (PEVs) are nanostructured particles with the potential to promote wound healing since they can enhance neovascularization and cell migration and reduce inflammation and scarring. This work provides an innovative overview of the technical laboratory issues in PEV production, PEVs' role in chronic wound healing and the benefits and challenges in its clinical translation. The article also explores the challenges of proper sourcing, extraction techniques and storage conditions, and discusses the necessity of further evaluations and combinational therapeutics, including dressing biomaterials, M2-derived exosomes, mesenchymal stem cells-derived extracellular vesicles and microneedle technology, to boost their therapeutic efficacy as advanced strategies for wound healing.

Effect of platelet exosomes loaded with doxorubicin as a targeted therapy on triple-negative breast cancer cells

Exosomes have come to the fore in drug delivery systems due to their biological-based and immune-suppressing properties. In this study, we investigated the effect of doxorubicin loading of exosomes isolated from human platelets on breast cancer.Exosomes released from ADP (1 µM)-activated platelets were isolated by the ultracentrifugation method, and their size and charge were measured with a TEM and zeta sizer. Then doxorubicin (Dox) loading into exosomes (PLT-Exo-Dox) was done by electroporation and incubated with MDA-MB-231 cells. In exosome characterization, CD62 positivity was higher in platelet pellets, while CD9 positivity was higher in released exosomes. The size of PLT-Exo and PLT-Exo-Dox was 82.02 ± 5.21 nm and 116 ± 3.73 nm, with a polydispersity index of 0.26 ± 0.04 and 0.39 ± 0.06, and the Zeta potential was - 16.45 mV and 24.07 mV, respectively. The encapsulation efficiency of the preparation was 86.02 ± 6.16%, with a drug loading capacity of 4.75 ± 0.16 µg/µg of the exosome. In MDA-MB-231 cells, PLT-Exo increased cell viability, while PLT-Exo-Dox decreased in 24 h. The Annexin-V binding level and Bax gene expression were increased in PLT-Exo-Dox and Bcl-2 gene expression was decreased. This study will shed light on the development of release systems that can be effective with chemotherapeutic agents by using exosomes released by cells in the development of personalized treatments.

Core decompression combined with platelet-rich plasma-augmented bone grafting for femur head necrosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The clinical potential of biologic augmentation in core decompression and bone grafting for femoral head necrosis is widely acknowledged, with platelet-rich plasma (PRP) being a frequently employed biologic adjunct. However, its clinical application is not standardized, and high-level evidence is lacking. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of core decompression and bone grafting combined with PRP for femur head necrosis.

METHODS

Several databases were systematically retrieved for randomized controlled trials comparing core decompression and bone grafting combined with or without PRP. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted following the PRISMA 2020 and AMSTAR 2 guidelines. The study is registered with PROSPERO under the code CRD42022361007, and it is also listed in the research registry under the identification number reviewregistry1537.

RESULTS

Eleven studies with 642 participants (742 hips) were included. The pooled estimates revealed that when core decompression and bone grafting were combined with PRP, the Harris hip score (mean difference: 7.98; 95% CI: 5.77-10.20; P <0.001), visual analog scale (SMD: -0.68; 95% CI: -0.96 - -0.40; P <0.001) and the pain component of Harris hip score (SMD: 8.4; 95% CI: 4.12-12.68; P <0.001), and reduction of radiographic progression [risk ratio (RR): 0.40; 95% CI: 0.27-0.59; P <0.001] were superior to core decompression and bone grafting alone. Fewer patients with treatment failure (RR: 0.27; 95% CI: 0.14-0.52; P <0.001) and higher good-to-excellent results (RR: 1.48; 95% CI: 1.17-1.86; P <0.001) were observed in treatment groups than control groups. Meanwhile, the pooled analysis substantiated the superior safety profile of PRP (RR: 0.29; 95% CI: 0.11-0.77; P =0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of core decompression and bone grafting with PRP is superior to the approach without PRP, demonstrating enhanced effectiveness in terms of function, pain relief, and radiographic progression. Additionally, it results in lower rates of treatment failure and adverse events. However, further high-quality RCTs are needed to evaluate their effectiveness due to methodological and implementation limitations observed in the existing evidence.

In-situ gelation of fibrin gel encapsulating platelet-rich plasma-derived exosomes promotes rotator cuff healing

Although platelet-rich plasma-derived exosomes (PRP-Exos) hold significant repair potential, their efficacy in treating rotator cuff tear (RCT) remains unknown. In light of the potential for clinical translation of fibrin gel and PRP-Exos, we evaluated their combined impact on RCT healing and explored suitable gel implantation techniques. In vitro experiments demonstrated that PRP-Exos effectively enhanced key phenotypes changes in tendon stem/progenitor cells. Multi-modality imaging, including conventional ultrasound, shear wave elastography ultrasound, and micro-computed tomography, and histopathological assessments were performed to collectively evaluate the regenerative effects on RCT. The regenerated tendons exhibited a well-ordered structure, while bone and cartilage regeneration were significantly improved. PRP-Exos participated in the healing process of RCT. In-situ gelation of fibrin gel-encapsulated PRP-Exos at the bone-tendon interface during surgery proved to be a feasible gel implantation method that benefits the healing outcome. Comprehensive multi-modality postoperative evaluations were necessary, providing a reliable foundation for post-injury repair.

Platelet-rich plasma-derived exosomes promote rotator cuff tendon-bone healing

BACKGROUND

Rotator cuff tear (RCT) is the most common type of shoulder joint injury, platelet-rich plasma-derived exosomes (PRP-exos) are highly promising in tissue repair and regeneration. The purpose of this study was to determine the function of PRP-exos in rotator cuff tendon-bone healing.

METHODS

PRP-exos were isolated from the rabbit whole blood by differential ultracentrifugation and characterized through transmission electron microscopy assay, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and western blotting. Alkaline phosphatase and Von Kossa staining were used to show tendon-derived stem cell (TDSC) differentiation. RT-qPCR and western blotting were performed to detect COL II, SOX-9, and TIMP-1. To determine the therapeutic effects of PRP-exos in vivo. Thirty New Zealand white rabbits were divided into control, model, and PRP-exos groups. The RCT animal model was constructed. The changes in tendon-bone tissue were determined by HE staining. Contents of COL-II, SOX-9, and TIMP-1 were determined by immunohistochemistry staining.

RESULTS

PRP-exos were successfully isolated from rabbit blood. PRP-exos promoted TDSC proliferation and differentiation and also induced tendon-specific markers COL II, SOX-9, and TIMP-1 production. In vivo study revealed that PRP-exos promoted early healing of injured tendons. Rabbits treated with PRP-exos had better tissue arrangement in the tear site. Additionally, the contents of COL II, SOX-9, and TIMP-1 were also increased in the RCT rabbit model after PRP-exos treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

PRP-exos enhanced tendon-bone healing by promoting TDSC proliferation and differentiation. This finding indicates that PRP-exos can serve as a promising strategy to treat rotator cuff tendon-bone healing.

The Synergistic Effects of Hyaluronic Acid and Platelet-Rich Plasma for Patellar Chondropathy

Musculoskeletal disorders are increasingly prevalent worldwide, causing significant socioeconomic burdens and diminished quality of life. Notably, patellar chondropathy (PC) is among the most widespread conditions affecting joint structures, resulting in profound pain and disability. Hyaluronic acid (HA) and platelet-rich plasma (PRP) have emerged as reliable, effective, and minimally invasive alternatives. Continuous research spanning from laboratory settings to clinical applications demonstrates the numerous advantages of both products. These encompass lubrication, anti-inflammation, and stimulation of cellular behaviors linked to proliferation, differentiation, migration, and the release of essential growth factors. Cumulatively, these benefits support the rejuvenation of bone and cartilaginous tissues, which are otherwise compromised due to the prevailing degenerative and inflammatory responses characteristic of tissue damage. While existing literature delves into the physical, mechanical, and biological facets of these products, as well as their commercial variants and distinct clinical uses, there is limited discussion on their interconnected roles. We explore basic science concepts, product variations, and clinical strategies. This comprehensive examination provides physicians with an alternative insight into the pathophysiology of PC as well as biological mechanisms stimulated by both HA and PRP that contribute to tissue restoration.

The effect of ovarian injection of autologous platelet rich plasma in patients with poor ovarian responder: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective

To evaluate the effects of ovarian injection of autologous platelet rich plasma (aPRP) on patients with poor ovarian responder (POR) based on the existing clinical evidence.

Methods

According to systematic review and meta-analysis, we comprehensively searched nine databases established as of September 6, 2023, and evaluated the impact of ovarian PRP infusion on poor ovarian responder. The research results include serum follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH) and anti-Mullerian hormone(AMH) levels, antral Follicle Count(AFC), oocyte number, and embryo number. The Newcastle Ottawa Scale (NOS) was used to evaluate the quality of inclusion in trials.

Results

Add up to 10 studies consisting of 793 participants were included in the meta-analysis. A review of existing evidence showed that intraovarian injection of PRP has significant therapeutic effects in increasing levels of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) (SMD=0.44,95% CI [0.07,0.81], p=0.02), antral follicle count (AFC) (MD=1.15,95% CI [0.4,1.90], p=0.003), oocyte count (MD=0.91, 95% CI [0.40, 1.41], p=0.0004), and embryo number (MD=0.78, 95% CI [0.5,1.07], p<0.0001). We compared the relevant data of patients before and after treatment after 2 months of intervention. It can be seen that ovarian injection of PRP treatment for 2 months has better effects in reducing FSH levels, increasing AMH levels, increasing antral follicle count, and increasing the number of oocytes and embryos (p<0.05). When the dose of PRP injected into each ovary was ≥ 4ml, there was also a significant correlation (p<0.05) with improving the number of AFC, oocytes and embryos. Significant heterogeneity existed among the studies.

Conclusion

The pooled results suggest that intra-ovarian injection of PRP can promote ovarian regeneration and improve the reproductive outcomes of patients with ovarian dysfunction. This therapy may have significant clinical potential in improving sex hormone levels, increasing AFC, oocyte count, and embryo count. However, this findings still requires more rigorous and extensive trials worldwide to determine the value of intra-ovarian injection of PRP in POR patients.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk, Identifier CRD42023451232.

The value of platelet-rich plasma-derived extracellular vesicles in modern medicine

Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) has been widely used in clinical practice. The mechanism by which PRP promotes tissue repair lies in the release of multiple growth factors upon platelet activation, which accelerates the proliferation and differentiation of repair cells and the synthesis of extracellular matrix. In recent years, as extracellular vesicles (EVs) research has increased and intensified, it has been found that EVs also play an important role in tissue repair. This article provides a comprehensive review of the role of PRP and PRP-derived extracellular vesicles (PRP-EVs) in tissue repair. It discusses the biological characteristics, extraction, identification, activation, and preservation of PRP-EVs. It also reviews their applications in orthopedics and wound repair. The article highlights the importance of PRP-EVs in modern medicine and suggests that they could be a promising natural nanocarrier.

Exosomes derived from platelet-rich plasma promote diabetic wound healing via the JAK2/STAT3 pathway

Diabetic non-healing wounds are bringing a heavy burden on patients and society. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) has been widely applied in tissue regenerating for containing various growth factors. Recently, PRP-derived exosomes (PRP-Exos) have been proved to be more effective than PRP in tissue regeneration. However, few studies have investigated the therapeutic potential of PRP-Exos in diabetic wound healing to date. Therefore, we extracted and identified exosomes derived from PRP and tested its promoting effect on diabetic wound healing in vivo and in vitro. We found that high glucose (HG) inhibited cell proliferation and migration and induced apoptosis through ROS-dependent activation of the JNK and p38 MAPK signaling pathways. PRP-Exos can stimulate fibroblast functions and accelerate diabetic wound healing. The benefits of PRP-Exos may be attributed to its capability to prevent HG-induced ROS-dependent apoptosis via the PDGF-BB/JAK2/STAT3/Bcl-2 signaling pathway. This illustrates the therapeutic potential of PRP-Exos in diabetic wounds.

A comprehensive review on the composition, biogenesis, purification, and multifunctional role of exosome as delivery vehicles for cancer therapy

All forms of life produce nanosized extracellular vesicles called exosomes, which are enclosed in lipid bilayer membranes. Exosomes engage in cell-to-cell communication and participate in a variety of physiological and pathological processes. Exosomes function via their bioactive components, which are delivered to target cells in the form of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. Exosomes function as drug delivery vehicles due to their unique properties of innate stability, low immunogenicity, biocompatibility, biodistribution, accumulation in desired tissues, low toxicity in normal tissues, and the stimulation of anti-cancer immune responses, and penetration capacity into distance organs. Exosomes mediate cellular communications by delivering various bioactive molecules including oncogenes, oncomiRs, proteins, specific DNA, messenger RNA (mRNA), microRNA (miRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), and circular RNA (circRNA). These bioactive substances can be transferred to change the transcriptome of target cells and influence tumor-related signaling pathways. After considering all of the available literature, in this review we discuss the biogenesis, composition, production, and purification of exosomes. We briefly review exosome isolation and purification techniques. We explore great-length exosomes as a mechanism for delivering a variety of substances, including proteins, nucleic acids, small chemicals, and chemotherapeutic drugs. We also talk about the benefits and drawbacks of exosomes. This review concludes with a discussion future perspective and challenges. We hope that this review will provide us a better understanding of the current state of nanomedicine and exosome applications in biomedicine.

Advances in Platelet Rich Plasma-Derived Extracellular Vesicles for Regenerative Medicine: A Systematic-Narrative Review

The use of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) has gained increasing interest in recent decades. The platelet secretome contains a multitude of growth factors, cytokines, chemokines, and other biological biomolecules. In recent years, developments in the field of platelets have led to new insights, and attention has been focused on the platelets' released extracellular vesicles (EVs) and their role in intercellular communication. In this context, the aim of this review was to compile the current evidence on PRP-derived extracellular vesicles to identify the advantages and limitations fortheir use in the upcoming clinical applications. A total of 172 articles were identified during the systematic literature search through two databases (PubMed and Web of Science). Twenty publications met the inclusion criteria and were included in this review. According to the results, the use of PRP-EVs in the clinic is an emerging field of great interest that represents a promising therapeutic option, as their efficacy has been demonstrated in the majority of fields of applications included in this review. However, the lack of standardization along the procedures in both the field of PRP and the EVs makes it extremely challenging to compare results among studies. Establishing standardized conditions to ensure optimized and detailed protocols and define parameters such as the dose or the EV origin is therefore urgent. Further studies to elucidate the real contribution of EVs to PRP in terms of composition and functionality should also be performed. Nevertheless, research on the field provides promising results and a novel basis to deal with the regenerative medicine and drug delivery fields in the future.

Platelet-Rich Plasma Power-Mix Gel (ppm)-An Orthobiologic Optimization Protocol Rich in Growth Factors and Fibrin

Platelet- and fibrin-rich orthobiologic products, such as autologous platelet concentrates, have been extensively studied and appreciated for their beneficial effects on multiple conditions. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and its derivatives, including platelet-rich fibrin (PRF), have demonstrated encouraging outcomes in clinical and laboratory settings, particularly in the treatment of musculoskeletal disorders such as osteoarthritis (OA). Although PRP and PRF have distinct characteristics, they share similar properties. The relative abundance of platelets, peripheral blood cells, and molecular components in these orthobiologic products stimulates numerous biological pathways. These include inflammatory modulation, augmented neovascularization, and the delivery of pro-anabolic stimuli that regulate cell recruitment, proliferation, and differentiation. Furthermore, the fibrinolytic system, which is sometimes overlooked, plays a crucial role in musculoskeletal regenerative medicine by regulating proteolytic activity and promoting the recruitment of inflammatory cells and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in areas of tissue regeneration, such as bone, cartilage, and muscle. PRP acts as a potent signaling agent; however, it diffuses easily, while the fibrin from PRF offers a durable scaffolding effect that promotes cell activity. The combination of fibrin with hyaluronic acid (HA), another well-studied orthobiologic product, has been shown to improve its scaffolding properties, leading to more robust fibrin polymerization. This supports cell survival, attachment, migration, and proliferation. Therefore, the administration of the "power mix" containing HA and autologous PRP + PRF may prove to be a safe and cost-effective approach in regenerative medicine.

Multichannel Recovery Potential with Activated Autologous Intraovarian Platelet-Rich Plasma and Its Derivatives

Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is an 'orthobiologic' with recognized roles in plastic surgery, musculoskeletal disorders, dentistry, dermatology, and more recently, 'ovarian rejuvenation'. Intraovarian PRP involves a complex secretome discharged after platelet activation, comprising multiple cytokine mediators delivered surgically to older or inactive ovarian tissue. Loss of oocyte meiotic fidelity and impaired fertilization accompanying advanced maternal age are already managed by IVF, but only with eggs provided by younger donors. However, if the observed effect of rectifying embryo ploidy error can be proven beyond case reports and small series, activated PRP (or its condensed plasma cytokines) would deliver a welcome therapeutic disruption that is difficult to overstate. Because shortcomings in ovarian function are presently addressed mainly by pharmacological approaches (i.e., via recombinant gonadotropins, GnRH analogs, or luteal support), autologous PRP would represent an unusual departure from these interventions. Given the diversity of platelet cargo proteins, the target response of intraovarian PRP is probably not confined to oocytes or follicles. For example, PRP manipulates signal networks driving improved perfusion, HOX regulation, N-glycan post-translational modification, adjustment of voltage-gated ion channels, telomere stabilization, optimization of SIRT3, and ribosome and mitochondria recovery in older oocytes. While multichannel signals operating on various pathways are not unique to reproductive biology, in intraovarian PRP this feature has received little study and may help explain why its standardization has been difficult. Against this background, our report examines the research themes considered most likely to shape clinical practice.

Platelet-Derived Microparticles and Autoimmune Diseases

Extracellular microparticles provide a means of cell-to-cell communication and can promote information exchanges between adjacent or distant cells. Platelets are cell fragments that are derived from megakaryocytes. Their main functions are to stop bleeding, regulate inflammation, and maintain the integrity of blood vessels. When platelets are activated, they can perform related tasks by secreting platelet-derived microparticles that contain lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and even organelles. There are differences in the circulating platelet levels in many autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, and Sjogren's syndrome. In this paper, the latest findings in the research field of platelet-derived microparticles are reviewed, including the potential pathogenesis of platelet-derived microparticles in various types of immune diseases, their potential as related markers, and for monitoring the progress and prognosis of disease treatment are expounded.

Annexin-V positive extracellular vesicles level is increased in severe COVID-19 disease

Objectives

To evaluate extracellular vesicles levels in a cohort of SARS-CoV-2's patients hospitalized in an intensive care unit with and without COVID-19 associated thromboembolic events.

Methods

In this study, we aim to assess endothelial and platelet membrane-derived extracellular vesicles levels in a cohort of SARS-CoV-2 patients with and without COVID-19-associated thromboembolic events who were hospitalized in an intensive care unit. Annexin-V positive extracellular vesicles levels were prospectively assessed by flow cytometry in one hundred twenty-three critically ill adults diagnosed with acute respiratory distress syndrome associated with a SARS-CoV-2 infection, ten adults diagnosed for moderate SARS-CoV-2 infection and 25 healthy volunteers.

Results

On our critically ill patients, thirty-four patients (27.6%) had a thromboembolic event, Fifty-three (43%) died. Endothelial and platelet membrane-derived extracellular vesicles were drastically increased in SARS-CoV-2 patients hospitalized in the ICU compared to healthy volunteers. Moreover a slighty higher small/large ratio for platelets membrane-derived extracellular vesicles in patients was linked to thrombo-embolic events.

Conclusion

A comparison between total annexin-V positive extracellular vesicles levels in severe and moderate SARS-CoV-2 infection and healthy controls showed a significant increase in patients with severe infection and their sizes could be considered as biomarkers of SARS-CoV-2 associated thrombo-embolic events.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate derived from PRP-Exos promotes angiogenesis in diabetic wound healing via the S1PR1/AKT/FN1 signalling pathway

Background

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), a key regulator of vascular homeostasis and angiogenesis, is enriched in exosomes derived from platelet-rich plasma (PRP-Exos). However, the potential role of PRP-Exos-S1P in diabetic wound healing remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the underlying mechanism of PRP-Exos-S1P in diabetic angiogenesis and wound repair.

Methods

Exosomes were isolated from PRP by ultracentrifugation and analysed by transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis and western blotting. The concentration of S1P derived from PRP-Exos was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The expression level of S1P receptor1-3 (S1PR1-3) in diabetic skin was analysed by Q-PCR. Bioinformatics analysis and proteomic sequencing were conducted to explore the possible signalling pathway mediated by PRP-Exos-S1P. A diabetic mouse model was used to evaluate the effect of PRP-Exos on wound healing. Immunofluorescence for cluster of differentiation 31 (CD31) was used to assess angiogenesis in a diabetic wound model.

Results

In vitro, PRP-Exos significantly promoted cell proliferation, migration and tube formation. Furthermore, PRP-Exos accelerated the process of diabetic angiogenesis and wound closure in vivo. S1P derived from PRP-Exos was present at a high level, and S1PR1 expression was significantly elevated compared with S1PR2 and S1PR3 in the skin of diabetic patients and animals. However, cell migration and tube formation were not promoted by PRP-Exos-S1P in human umbilical vein endothelial cells treated with shS1PR1. In the diabetic mouse model, inhibition of S1PR1 expression at wounding sites decreased the formation of new blood vessels and delayed the process of wound closure. Bioinformatics analysis and proteomics indicated that fibronectin 1 (FN1) was closely related to S1PR1 due to its colocalization in the endothelial cells of human skin. Further study supported that FN1 plays an important role in the PRP-Exos-S1P-mediated S1PR1/protein kinase B signalling pathway.

Conclusions

PRP-Exos-S1P promotes angiogenesis in diabetic wound healing via the S1PR1/protein kinase B/FN1 signalling pathway. Our findings provide a preliminary theoretical foundation for the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers using PRP-Exos in the future.

Small extracellular vesicles are released ex vivo from platelets into serum and from residual blood cells into stored plasma

Small extracellular vesicles (sEV) purified from blood have great potential clinically as biomarkers for systemic disease; however interpretation is complicated by release of sEV ex vivo after blood taking. To quantify the problem and devise ways to minimise it, we characterised sEV in paired serum, plasma and platelet poor plasma (PPP) samples from healthy donors. Immunoblotting showed twofold greater abundance of CD9 in sEV fractions from fresh serum than from fresh plasma or PPP. MACSPlex confirmed this, and showed that proteins expressed on platelet sEV, either exclusively (CD41b, CD42a and CD62P) or more widely (HLA-ABC, CD24, CD29 and CD31) were also twofold more abundant; by contrast non-platelet proteins (including CD81) were no different. Storage of plasma (but not serum) increased abundance of platelet and selected leukocyte sEV proteins to at least that of serum, and this could be recapitulated by activating cells in fresh plasma by Ca2+, an effect abrogated in PPP. This suggests that a substantial proportion of sEV in serum and stored plasma were generated ex vivo, which is not the case for fresh plasma or PPP. Thus we provide strategies to minimise ex vivo sEV generation and criteria for identifying those that were present in vivo.

Is autologous platelet activation the key step in ovarian therapy for fertility recovery and menopause reversal?

Platelets are a uniquely mammalian physiologic feature. As the only non-marine vertebrates to experience menopause, humans have a substantial post-reproductive lifespan and are believed to have a limited, non-renewable oocyte supply. Ovarian reserve typically declines after about age 35yrs, marking losses which cannot be recovered by available fertility medications. When in vitro fertilization fails due to low or absent ovarian response, gonadotropin adjustments are often ineffectual and if additional oocytes are occasionally harvested, egg quality is usually poor. This problem was confronted by Greek researchers who developed a new surgical method to insert autologous platelet-rich plasma (PRP) into ovaries; the first ovarian PRP success to improve reproductive outcomes was published from Athens in 2016. This innovation influenced later research with condensed platelet-derived growth factors, leading to correction of oocyte ploidy error, normal blastocyst development, and additional term livebirths. Yet women's health was among the last clinical domains to explore PRP, and its role in 'ovarian rejuvenation' remains unsettled. One critical aspect in this procedure is platelet activation, a commonly overlooked step in the cytokine release cascade considered essential for successful transition of undifferentiated ovarian stem cells to an oocyte lineage. Poor activation of platelets thus becomes an unforced error, potentially diminishing or even negating post-treatment ovarian follicular response. To answer this query, relevant theory, current disagreements, and new data on platelet activation are presented, along with clinical challenges for regenerative fertility practice.

Rejuvenation of tendon stem/progenitor cells for functional tendon regeneration through platelet-derived exosomes loaded with recombinant Yap1

The regenerative capabilities including self-renewal, migration and differentiation potentials shift from the embryonic phase to the mature period of endogenous tendon stem/progenitor cells (TSPCs) characterize restricted functions and disabilities following tendon injuries. Recent studies have shown that tendon regeneration and repair rely on multiple specific transcription factors to maintain TSPCs characteristics and functions. Here, we demonstrate Yap, a Hippo pathway downstream effector, is associated with TSPCs phenotype and regenerative potentials through gene expression analysis of tendon development and repair process. Exosomes have been proven an efficient transport platform for drug delivery. In this study, purified exosomes derived from donor platelets are loaded with recombinant Yap1 protein (PLT-Exo-Yap1) via electroporation to promote the stemness and differentiation potentials of TSPCs in vitro. Programmed TSPCs with Yap1 import maintain stemness and functions after long-term passage in vitro. The increased oxidative stress levels of TSPCs are related to the phenotype changes in duplicative senescent processes. The results show that treatment with PLT-Exo-Yap1 significantly protects TSPCs against oxidative stressor-induced stemness loss and senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) through the NF-κB signaling pathway. In addition, we fabricate an Exos-Yap1-functioned GelMA hydrogel with a parallel-aligned substrate structure to enhance TSPCs adhesion, promote cell stemness and force regenerative cells toward the tendon lineage for in vitro and in vivo tendon regeneration. The application of Exos-Yap1 functioned implant assists new tendon-like tissue formation with good mechanical properties and locomotor functions in a full-cut Achilles tendon defect model. Thus, PLT-Exo-Yap1-functionalized GelMA promotes the rejuvenation of TSPCs to facilitate functional tendon regeneration. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first study to explore that the hippo pathway downstream effector Yap is involved in tendon aging and repair processes, and is associated with the regenerative capabilities of TSPCs. In this syudy, Platelet-derived exosomes (PLT-Exos) act as an appropriate carrier platform for the delivery of recombinant Yap1 into TSPCs to regulate Yap activity. Effective Yap1 delivery inhibit oxidative stress-induced senescence associated phenotype of TSPCs by blocking ROS-mediated NF-κb signaling pathway activation. This study emphasizes that combined application of biomimetic scaffolds and Yap1 loaded PLT-Exos can provide structural support and promote rejuvenation of resident cells to assist functional regeneration for Achilles tendon defect, and has the prospect of clinical setting.

Preparation and In Vitro Osteogenic Evaluation of Biomimetic Hybrid Nanocomposite Scaffolds Based on Gelatin/Plasma Rich in Growth Factors (PRGF) and Lithium-Doped 45s5 Bioactive Glass Nanoparticles

Bone tissue engineering is an emerging technique for repairing large bone lesions. Biomimetic techniques expand the use of organic-inorganic spongy-like nanocomposite scaffolds and platelet concentrates. In this study, a biomimetic nanocomposite scaffold was prepared using lithium-doped bioactive-glass nanoparticles and gelatin/PRGF. First, sol-gel method was used to prepare bioactive-glass nanoparticles that contain 0, 1, 3, and 5%wt lithium. The lithium content was then optimized based on antibacterial and MTT testing. By freeze-drying, hybrid scaffolds comprising 5, 10, and 20% bioglass were made. On the scaffolds, human endometrial stem cells (hEnSCs) were cultured for adhesion (SEM), survival, and osteogenic differentiation. Alkaline phosphatase activity and osteopontin, osteocalcin, and Runx2 gene expression were measured. The effect of bioactive-glass nanoparticles and PRGF on nanocomposites' mechanical characteristics and glass-transition temperature (T _g) was also studied. An optimal lithium content in bioactive glass structure was found to be 3% wt. Nanoparticle SEM examination indicated grain deformation due to different sizes of lithium and sodium ions. Results showed up to 10% wt bioactive-glass and PRGF increased survival and cell adhesion. Also, Hybrid scaffolds revealed higher ALP-activity and OP, OC, and Runx2 gene expression. Furthermore, bioactive-glass has mainly increased ALP-activity and Runx2 expression, whereas PRGF increases the expression of OP and OC genes. Bioactive-glass increases scaffold modulus and T _g continuously. Hence, the presence of both bioactive-glass and nanocomposite scaffold improves the expression of osteogenic differentiation biomarkers. Subsequently, it seems that hybrid scaffolds based on biopolymers, Li-doped bioactive-glass, and platelet extracts can be a good strategy for bone repair.

Platelet-Derived Exosomes in Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS), the main cause of many cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), is a progressive inflammatory disease characterized by the accumulation of lipids, fibrous elements, and calcification in the innermost layers of arteries. The result is the thickening and clogging of these vessel walls. Several cell types are directly involved in the pathological progression of AS. Among them, platelets represent the link between AS, inflammation, and thrombosis. Indeed, besides their pivotal role in hemostasis and thrombosis, platelets are key mediators of inflammation at injury sites, where they act by regulating the function of other blood and vascular cell types, including endothelial cells (ECs), leukocytes, and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). In recent years, increasing evidence has pointed to a central role of platelet-derived extracellular vesicles (P-EVs) in the modulation of AS pathogenesis. However, while the role of platelet-derived microparticles (P-MPs) has been significantly investigated in recent years, the same cannot be said for platelet-derived exosomes (P-EXOs). For this reason, this reviews aims at summarizing the isolation methods and biological characteristics of P-EXOs, and at discussing their involvement in intercellular communication in the pathogenesis of AS. Evidence showing how P-EXOs and their cargo can be used as biomarkers for AS is also presented in this review.

Platelets and platelet extracellular vesicles in drug delivery therapy: A review of the current status and future prospects

Platelets are blood cells that are primarily produced by the shedding of megakaryocytes in the bone marrow. Platelets participate in a variety of physiological and pathological processes in vivo, including hemostasis, thrombosis, immune-inflammation, tumor progression, and metastasis. Platelets have been widely used for targeted drug delivery therapies for treating various inflammatory and tumor-related diseases. Compared to other drug-loaded treatments, drug-loaded platelets have better targeting, superior biocompatibility, and lower immunogenicity. Drug-loaded platelet therapies include platelet membrane coating, platelet engineering, and biomimetic platelets. Recent studies have indicated that platelet extracellular vesicles (PEVs) may have more advantages compared with traditional drug-loaded platelets. PEVs are the most abundant vesicles in the blood and exhibit many of the functional characteristics of platelets. Notably, PEVs have excellent biological efficacy, which facilitates the therapeutic benefits of targeted drug delivery. This article provides a summary of platelet and PEVs biology and discusses their relationships with diseases. In addition, we describe the preparation, drug-loaded methods, and specific advantages of platelets and PEVs targeted drug delivery therapies for treating inflammation and tumors. We summarize the hot spots analysis of scientific articles on PEVs and provide a research trend, which aims to give a unique insight into the development of PEVs research focus.

The role of allogeneic platelet-rich plasma in patients with diabetic foot ulcer: Current perspectives and future challenges

The frequency of chronic cutaneous wounds are sharply increasing in aging populations. Patients with age-related diseases, such as diabetes, tumors, renal failure and stroke are prone to soft tissue and skin injury, compounded by slowed healing in aging. Imbalance of wound inflammation, loss of growth factor secretion, and impairment of tissue repair abilities are all possible reasons for failed healing. Therefore, it is vital to explore novel approaches to accelerate wound healing. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) as a cell therapy has been widely applied for tissue repair and regeneration. PRP promotes wound healing by releasing antimicrobial peptides, growth factors and micro-RNAs. Medical evidence indicates that autologous platelet-rich plasma (au-PRP) can promote wound healing effectively, safely and rapidly. However, its clinical application is usually restricted to patients with chronic cutaneous wounds, generally because of other severe complications and poor clinical comorbidities. Allogeneic platelet-rich plasma (al-PRP), with abundant sources, has demonstrated its superiority in the field of chronic wound treatment. Al-PRP could overcome the limitations of au-PRP and has promising prospects in clinical applications. The aim of this review is to summarize the current status and future challenges of al-PRP in chronic cutaneous wound management. We also summarized clinical cases to further describe the application of al-PRP for chronic wounds in clinical practice.

The Role of Platelet-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Immune-Mediated Thrombosis

Platelet-derived extracellular vesicles (PEVs) play important roles in hemostasis and thrombosis. There are three major types of PEVs described based on their size and characteristics, but newer types may continue to emerge owing to the ongoing improvement in the methodologies and terms used to define various types of EVs. As the literature on EVs is growing, there are continuing attempts to standardize protocols for EV isolation and reach consensus in the field. This review provides information on mechanisms of PEV production, characteristics, cellular interaction, and their pathological role, especially in autoimmune and infectious diseases. We also highlight the mechanisms through which PEVs can activate parent cells in a feedback loop.

Extracellular vesicles and lipoproteins - Smart messengers of blood cells in the circulation

Blood cell-derived extracellular vesicles (BCEVs) and lipoproteins are the major circulating nanoparticles in blood that play an important role in intercellular communication. They have attracted significant interest for clinical applications, given their endogenous characteristics which make them stable, biocompatible, well tolerated, and capable of permeating biological barriers efficiently. In this review, we describe the basic characteristics of BCEVs and lipoproteins and summarize their implications in both physiological and pathological processes. We also outline well accepted workflows for the isolation and characterization of these circulating nanoparticles. Importantly, we highlight the latest progress and challenges associated with the use of circulating nanoparticles as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic interventions in multiple diseases. We spotlight novel engineering approaches and designs to facilitate the development of these nanoparticles by enhancing their stability, targeting capability, and delivery efficiency. Therefore, the present work provides a comprehensive overview of composition, biogenesis, functions, and clinical translation of circulating nanoparticles from the bench to the bedside.

Isolation of Platelet-Derived Exosomes from Human Platelet-Rich Plasma: Biochemical and Morphological Characterization

Platelet-Rich Plasma (PRP) is enriched in molecular messengers with restorative effects on altered tissue environments. Upon activation, platelets release a plethora of growth factors and cytokines, either in free form or encapsulated in exosomes, which have been proven to promote tissue repair and regeneration. Translational research on the potential of exosomes as a safe nanosystem for therapeutic cargo delivery requires standardizing exosome isolation methods along with their molecular and morphological characterization. With this aim, we isolated and characterized the exosomes released by human PRP platelets. Western blot analysis revealed that CaCl₂-activated platelets (PLT-Exos-Ca²⁺) released more exosomes than non-activated ones (PLT-Exos). Moreover, PLT-Exos-Ca²⁺ exhibited a molecular signature that meets the most up-to-date biochemical criteria for platelet-derived exosomes and possessed morphological features typical of exosomes as assessed by transmission electron microscopy. Array analysis of 105 analytes including growth factors and cytokines showed that PLT-Exos-Ca²⁺ exhibited lower levels of most analytes compared to PLT-Exos, but relatively higher levels of those consistently validated as components of the protein cargo of platelet exosomes. In summary, the present study provides new insights into the molecular composition of human platelet-derived exosomes and validates a method for isolating highly pure platelet exosomes as a basis for future preclinical studies in regenerative medicine and drug delivery.

Why might ovarian rejuvenation fail? Decision analysis of variables impacting reproductive response after autologous platelet-rich plasma

Experience with platelet-rich plasma (PRP) has accumulated from use in dental restoration, post-infarct myocardial repair, tendon surgery, pain management, and aesthetic enhancements. Reproductive medicine joined this arena in 2016, beginning with reports of menopause reversal and fertility recovery after autologous PRP for senescent ovaries. Although recent publications have highlighted benefits of 'ovarian rejuvenation', the absence of randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial data has limited its acceptance. Because selection bias tends to underreport negative outcomes, reliable estimates cannot be calculated for how often intraovarian PRP is unsuccessful. Ample information is available, however, to permit an operational root-cause analysis when failures are considered. This assessment uses a PRP treatment care path with a decision theory model to critique pre-intake screening, baseline audit, sample processing, ovarian tissue placement method, equipment selection, and follow-up monitoring. These branched choice points enable interventions likely to determine outcome. Specimen handling for intraovarian PRP merits particular scrutiny, since enormous variation in platelet protocols already exists across unrelated clinical areas. As a new addition to fertility practice, intraovarian PRP requires validation of safety and efficacy to gain wider support. Borrowing PRP knowledge from other domains can facilitate this goal, ideally with appreciation of aspects unique to intraovarian use.

Characterization and Therapeutic Use of Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Platelets

Autologous blood products, such as platelet-rich plasma (PRP), are gaining increasing interest in different fields of regenerative medicine. Although growth factors, the main components of PRP, are thought to stimulate reparation processes, the exact mechanism of action and main effectors of PRP are not fully understood. Plasma contains a high amount of extracellular vesicles (EVs) produced by different cells, including anucleated platelets. Platelet-derived EVs (PL-EVs) are the most abundant type of EVs in circulation. Numerous advantages of PL-EVs, including their ability to be released locally, their ease of travel through the body, their low immunogenicity and tumourigenicity, the modulation of signal transduction as well as the ease with which they can be obtained, has attracted increased attention n. This review focuses briefly on the biological characteristics and isolation methods of PL-EVs, including exosomes derived from platelets (PL-EXOs), and their involvement in the pathology of diseases. Evidence that shows how PL-EVs can be used as a novel tool in medicine, particularly in therapeutic and regenerative medicine, is also discussed in this review.