Dimensionality of Helicopter Parenting and Relations to Emotional, Decision-Making, and Academic Functioning in Emerging Adults

Informant discrepancy profiles of helicopter parenting and adult children's partner-controlling and partner-controlled behaviors

Helicopter parenting is a distinctive, intrusive parenting approach characterized by high involvement, elements of control, and limited autonomy granted. It may impact adult children's engagement in partner-controlling and partner-controlled behaviors. However, little research has assessed the patterns of parent-child perception differences regarding helicopter parenting and their connections to these behaviors. This study aimed to identify profiles of informant discrepancies regarding helicopter parenting within Chinese families and explore their associations with adult children's partner-controlling and partner-controlled behaviors. Matched data from fathers, mothers, and adult children in one hundred and ninety-six intact families were included. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was conducted, identifying four profiles: parents over child (13.78%), child moderately over mother and moderately under father (17.35%), no consistent disagreements (49.49%), and child over parents (19.39%). Children whose perceptions aligned with their parents reported fewer partner-controlling and partner-controlled behaviors, compared to those whose perceptions exceeded their parents'. Similarly, children whose perceptions were lower than their parents' also reported fewer partner-controlled behaviors compared to those with higher perceptions. The findings provide evidence for understanding dynamic patterns of informant discrepancies regarding helicopter parenting in Chinese families and support the development of family-based interventions to address partner-controlling and partner-controlled behaviors.

Learning About Sex from Different Sources: Implications for Sexual Attitudes, Sexual Knowledge, and Risky Sexual Behavior Among U.S. College Students

This exploratory cross-sectional study, guided by primary socialization theory, examined relations between four primary socialization agents of sexual learning (i.e., mothers, fathers, friends/peers, and online media) and sexual attitudes, sexual knowledge, and risky sexual behavior. Latent-variable structural equation models were tested using self-report data obtained from 515 emerging adults who had spent at least 6 months attending in-person college classes. Results showed that learning about sex from mothers was associated with more conservative sexual attitudes and lower risky sexual behavior. Sexual learning from friends/peers was linked to liberal sexual attitudes and greater sexual knowledge. Learning from online media was associated with increased sexual knowledge. To account for a shift in sexual learning patterns from before to after entry to college, we created algebraic difference scores for each source of sexual information. Greater reliance on sexual learning from friends/peers in the past 6 months of college relative to before college was associated with liberal sexual attitudes and greater sexual knowledge. Additional analyses revealed different effects of learning about sex from mothers more during college than before college between those living on campus vs. commuters living at home. The discussion emphasizes the different role that each of the primary socialization agents plays for emerging adults' sexual development, including the protective role of mothers against risky sexual behavior, the impact of friends and peers on sexual attitudes and knowledge, and the shifting dynamics of socialization processes during college.

Parental control and college students' depressive symptoms: A latent class analysis

We examined how maternal and paternal parental control (helicopter parenting, behavioral control, and psychological control) among college students are related to their depressive symptoms. We collected data from college students who attended a private university in Upstate New York (n = 455) and analyzed it using three-step latent class analysis. Latent class analysis identified four parental control latent classes: weak parental control, strong psychological control, strong helicopter parenting, and strong parental control. College students in the weak parental control class reported lower depressive symptoms than those in strong psychological control and strong parental control classes. In addition, college students in the strong helicopter parenting class reported lower depressive symptoms than those in strong psychological control and strong parental control classes. College students' depressive symptoms were not significantly different between weak parental control and strong helicopter parenting classes. Future researchers are encouraged to continue to acknowledge the characteristics of different forms of parental control and their influence on college students' quality of life in the transition to adulthood, considering the unique approaches of both parents.

Why do parents employ helicopter parenting in the post-COVID-19 era? An actor-partner interdependence mediation model

INTRODUCTION

In the post-COVID-19 era, small-scale and long-term recurrences of the pandemic can exacerbate future economic uncertainty. Previous studies have found that stressful situations are strongly associated with a controlling type of parenting. The relationship between parental perceptions of future economic uncertainty (PFEU) and helicopter parenting is currently unclear. This study aimed to examine the dyadic relationship between PFEU and helicopter parenting among Chinese parents in the postpandemic era and its underlying mechanisms from a family system perspective.

METHODS

Questionnaire data were collected from 395 pairs of parents (Mfather  = 43.65 ± 5.30, Mmother  = 40.71 ± 5.16, Madolescent  = 13.17 ± 0.87, 45.3% male) in Jiangxi Province, China in October 2021. An actor-partner interdependence mediation model was established.

RESULTS

The results indicated that fathers' and mothers' PFEU were positively associated with their own helicopter parenting. Additionally, paternal parenting stress mediated the relationship between fathers' and mothers' PFEU and paternal helicopter parenting, whereas mothers' parenting stress mediated the association between mothers' PFEU and paternal and maternal helicopter parenting.

CONCLUSIONS

The current research provides important insights for improving Chinese family education practices in the postpandemic era.

Educational identity and maternal helicopter parenting: Moderation by the perceptions of environmental threat

This four-wave study examined longitudinal associations between maternal helicopter parenting and college students' educational identity processes over 1 year, as well as the moderating effects of mothers' perceived environmental threats (i.e., uncertainty and competition). Participants were 349 first-year university students (39.8% male, Mage  = 18.20) and their mothers (Mage  = 49.10) in Hong Kong. Latent class growth analysis identified two subgroups based on levels of mothers' threat perceptions (i.e., lower vs. higher). Multi-group random-intercept cross-lagged models found that, at the within-person level, students' reconsideration of educational commitments positively predicted helicopter parenting only for mothers with higher threat perceptions. These findings mainly support youth-driven effects on overbearing parenting behaviors. Mothers' threat perceptions might exacerbate these excessive responses to youth's academic turbulence.

The Influence of Overparenting on College Students' Career Indecision: A Moderated Mediation Analysis

Purpose

Avoiding difficulties in career decision-making has long been recognized as an important lifelong pursuit for individuals. Parental influence is an important environmental factor in college students' career decision-making. In recent years it has been shown that overparenting can be a risk factor that hinders college students' career development.

Participants and Method

This study was conducted with third-year students from four universities in Northeast China, and 743 valid questionnaires were received. With SPSS 24.0 and PROCESS plug-in, we built a moderated mediation model to examine the mediation effects of career expectation pressure and career decision self-efficacy between overparenting and career indecision and parent-adolescent expectation congruence's moderating role in this relationship.

Results

The results of this study indicate that overparenting is positively associated with college students' career indecision. Career expectation pressure and career decision self-efficacy mediate the relationship between overparenting and career indecision. In addition, parent-adolescent expectation congruence moderated the adverse relationship of overparenting on career expectation pressure and career indecision.

Conclusion

This study builds on previous research to explore the potential mechanisms of overparenting on adolescent career indecision. The results of this study may have implications for interventions in adolescent career decision-making to reduce the negative impact of overparenting on adolescent career development by providing feasible and effective interventions for overparenting families.

Limitation

Other factors (eg, proactive personality) may also have played a positive role in this relationship in this study. We hope future studies will explore the moderating effects of different personality traits.

Longitudinal Links Between Parental Failure Mindsets, Helicopter Parenting, and Fixed Mindset of Intelligence in Adolescents

Evidence for the prospective associations among parental failure mindset, helicopter parenting, and children's intelligence mindset is lacking. This three-wave longitudinal study (12 months apart between waves) addressed this research gap by testing whether perceived maternal helicopter parenting mediated the link between perceived maternal failure mindset and intelligence mindset. Participants included 525 Chinese adolescents (47.2% girls, M_age = 15.41 years, SD = 0.22). Random-intercept cross-lagged analysis suggests that mothers with stronger failure-is-debilitating mindsets are more likely to engage in helicopter parenting, which may in turn contribute to stronger endorsements of a fixed mindset of intelligence in their adolescent children. The relation between maternal helicopter parenting and children's intelligence mindset appeared to be reciprocal, i.e., children's fixed mindset may elicit more helicopter parenting over time.

How over-parenting impedes individual career exploration: a goal disengagement perspective

Individuals' early experiences can shape their lifelong development. Notably, healthy parenting experiences will build a good foundation for successful development, whereas inappropriate parenting experiences hinder healthy development. From the goal disengagement perspective, we propose that over-parenting can elicit individual goal disengagement in the development process, which hinders goal-pursuit behaviors. Data collected from 536 university students from China at three time points supported our hypotheses. Specifically, over-parenting promotes more career-exploration goal disengagement, inhibiting career-exploration behavior. In addition, the process mentioned above is more salient for individuals with a high need for parental approval. The theoretical and practical implications of this research are also discussed.

Associations between Profiles of Helicopter Parenting and Decisional Procrastination among Chinese Adolescents

Adolescence is a critical period for the development of decision-making skills. Helicopter parenting may lead to adolescents' decisional procrastination because it hinders the satisfaction of their basic psychological needs and impairs their self-systemic processes. Nevertheless, little is known about helicopter parenting and its influence on adolescent development in China. The current study aimed to examine the profiles of helicopter parenting among Chinese adolescent boys and girls, as well as their associations with adolescent decisional procrastination. Matched data on fathers (M_age = 44.86), mothers (M_age = 42.88), and children (M_age = 16.22, 59.9% female) from six hundred and ninety-nine families were included in this study. The results indicated four helicopter parenting profiles among Chinese adolescent boys and three among adolescent girls. Adolescent boys' decisional procrastination was more closely associated with mothers' helicopter parenting. In contrast, adolescent girls' decisional procrastination was associated with both fathers' and mothers' helicopter parenting. These findings demonstrate helicopter parenting patterns in Chinese culture and their links to adolescent decisional procrastination, providing practical paths for family education improvement.

Helicopter Parenting and Emotional Problems in Chinese Emerging Adults: Are there Cross-lagged Effects and the Mediations of Autonomy?

Although evidence suggests that helicopter parenting causes emotional problems in emerging adults, how emotional problems in emerging adults affect helicopter parenting and the mediating role of autonomy in reciprocal relationships is little known. Therefore, this study collected data from 418 Chinese university students (80.1% female; M_age = 18.71, SD = 1.15) three times (in the second, fourth, and fourteenth months after enrollment) about perceived helicopter parenting, emotional issues (anxiety and depressive symptoms), and autonomy. The results of the cross-lagged panel models showed that emotional problems in emerging adults predicted the later assessment of helicopter parenting, the reverse relationship between the two variables was not the case. Emerging adults' emotional issues at Time 1 reduced their autonomy at Time 2, leading to increased helicopter parenting behaviors at Time 3. However, helicopter parenting at Time 1 did not affect emerging adults' autonomy at Time 2, which also had no relation to their emotional problems at Time 3. These findings suggest that helicopter parenting is more likely a reaction to maladjustment in emerging adults than an influencing factor. The research clarifies changes in parent-child interactions during the transition to adulthood and will help promote the adaptation of emerging adults in college.

Helicopter parenting during emerging adulthood: Consequences for career identity and adaptability

This study explores the relationship between parental over involvement and the career development of emerging adults. Specifically, it investigates how emerging adults’ career meta competencies of vocational identity formation and career adaptability relate to perceived helicopter parenting. Participants included 491 emerging adults studying in a Canadian University (74.1% female, average age = 20.4 years old). We begin by reviewing the commonalities between helicopter parenting and other parenting constructs and styles. Next, using structural equation modeling, we explore the relationships between perceived helicopter parenting and the components of vocational identity (exploration: in depth exploration, in breadth; commitment: career commitment, identification with commitment; and reconsideration: career self doubt, career flexibility) and career adaptability, as well as the relationships between identity components and career adaptability. Third, we explore the association between perceived helicopter parenting and identity status progress (i.e., achievement, foreclosure, moratorium, undifferentiated, and searching moratorium). Results indicate that individuals reporting higher levels of perceived helicopter parenting experience significantly lower levels of career adaptability and in-depth exploration. Furthermore, these individuals report higher levels of career self doubt and are more likely to be in the vocational identity status of searching moratorium. Limitations and future research directions are discussed.

Cutting the cord? Parenting emerging adults with chronic pain

The role of parent factors, such as distress and protective behaviors, on pain and functional outcomes of emerging adults living with chronic pain has been largely unexplored. The effects of helicopter parenting and developmental changes occurring during this transition period between adolescence and adulthood (commonly defined as the ages between 18 and 30 years) may exacerbate the pain experience and have the potential to influence chronic pain management. Clinical practice, with an additional focus on supporting the parent(s), may aid in meeting the needs of this population. In this paper, we review the available literature on (a) the socio-cultural shift in parenting over the past decade with a focus on helicopter parenting; (b) the impact of this parenting style on the pain experience and outcomes of emerging adults living with chronic pain; (c) provide recommendations for chronic pain management with a focus on the parent-emerging adult dyad; and (d) conclude with future research recommendations. This narrative review is the first to consider the impacts and outcomes of helicopter parenting on emerging adults with chronic pain.

A Systematic Review of "Helicopter Parenting" and Its Relationship With Anxiety and Depression

Background

Emerging evidence suggests that overprotective and controlling parenting, often referred to as "helicopter parenting" may have negative implications on the child's mental health such as anxiety and depression. However, no systematic review on the topic exists.

Objective

Conducting a systematic review to identify all studies where the relationship between helicopter parenting and symptoms of anxiety and/or depression have been investigated.

Method

A systematic literature search conducted the 3rd of November 2021 yielded 38 eligible studies. Since helicopter parenting is a fairly new construct, this review considered parental control and overprotective parenting to be dimensions of helicopter parenting and thus, eligible for the study. Study quality was assessed in accordance with Campbells Validity Typology.

Results

The majority of the studies included in this review found a direct relationship between helicopter parenting and symptoms of anxiety and depression. However, validity problems undermine these findings with regarding to assessing the causal relationship between helicopter parenting and these symptoms. There were no longitudinal studies of sufficient quality to determine if helicopter parenting precedes the outcome of anxiety and depression.

Conclusion

Even though the majority of the studies included in this systematic review found a relationship between helicopter parenting and anxiety and depression, the evidence for this relationship is insufficient and must be investigated further. Findings suggest that it is important to include both maternal and paternal parenting style in future studies as they could affect the outcome of anxiety and depression differently.

Systematic Review Registration

PROSPERO 2020 CRD42020167465, https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=167465.

A multidimensional construct of helicopter parenting and college students' game and social media addictive behaviors: A cross-cultural study in South Korea and China

Introduction

We explored latent classes of helicopter parenting among Korean and Chinese college students. In addition, we examined whether these latent classes of helicopter parenting are related to Korean and Chinese students' game and social media addictive behaviors.

Methods

A three-step latent class analysis was conducted using 452 students from six universities in South Korea and 372 students from four universities in China.

Results and discussion

We identified four distinct helicopter parenting latent classes among the parents of Korean and Chinese students: weak, strong, academic management, and academic and schedule management. We also found that Korean students in the strong class reported significantly higher levels of game and social media addictive behaviors than those in the other three classes, but this did not hold for Chinese students. This finding indicates that the association between helicopter parenting and college students' game and social media addictive behaviors can be differentiated within Asian cultural contexts.

Ethical concerns relating to genetic risk scores for suicide

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) provide valuable information in research contexts regarding genomic changes that contribute to risks for complex psychiatric conditions like major depressive disorder. GWAS results can be used to calculate polygenic risk scores (PRS) for psychiatric conditions, such as bipolar disorder or schizophrenia, as well as for other traits, such as obesity or hypertension. Private companies that provide direct-to-consumer (DTC) genetic testing sometimes report PRS for a variety of traits. Recently, the first well-powered GWAS study for suicide death was published. PRS reports that claim to assess suicide risk are therefore likely to appear soon in the DTC setting. We describe ethical concerns regarding the commercial use of GWAS results related to suicide. We identify several issues that must be addressed before PRS for suicide risk is made available to the public through DTC: (a) the potential for misinterpretation of results, (b) consumers' perceptions about determinism and behavior change, (c) potential contributions to stigma, discrimination, and health disparities; and (d) ethical problems regarding the testing of children and vulnerable adults. Tests for genetic prediction of suicidality may eventually have clinical significance, but until then, the potential for individual and public harm significantly outweighs any potential benefit. Even if genetic prediction of suicidality improves significantly, information about genetic risk scores must be distributed cautiously, with genetic counseling, and with adequate safeguards.

Is helicopter parenting stifling moral courage and promoting moral disengagement? Implications for the training and development of millennial managers

Purpose

This paper aims to examine the ethical foundations of Gen Z individuals by studying the impact of helicopter parenting on moral courage and moral disengagement. In addition, this study considers the implications for Millennial generation managers that are likely to be supervising this current generational cohort.

Design/methodology/approach

Hypotheses were tested using a two-wave online survey of 215 undergraduate students.

Findings

Helicopter parenting was associated with lower levels of moral courage and an elevated propensity to morally disengage in a sample of Gen Z individuals. The impact of helicopter parenting on these moral foundations was mediated by the children’s increased desire for continued parental involvement in their lives.

Practical implications

Similar to the Gen Z students surveyed in this study, many Millennials were raised by helicopter parents, thus, it is likely that they are also prone to moral disengagement and low moral courage. Furthermore, Millennial managers will be managing Gen Z workers. Thus, many companies will need to enhance their efforts in providing Millennial managers with business ethics training aimed at developing moral courage and reducing moral disengagement.

Originality/value

This study examines a previously unidentified antecedent of moral courage and moral disengagement

Association of depression and suicidal ideation with parenting style in adolescents

OBJECTIVES

To study the association of depression and suicidal ideation with parenting style in adolescents.

METHODS

The cluster sampling method was used to select 6 195 junior and senior high school students in Xinxiang City of Henan Province, China, from 2014 to 2018. The survey tools included a general social information questionnaire, the Parental Bonding Instrument, and the Kutcher Adolescent Depression Scale (11 items). A multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to identify the association of depression and suicidal ideation with parenting style in adolescents.

RESULTS

There were 6 194 valid questionnaires in total, including 2 586 boys (41.75%) and 3 608 girls (58.25%), with a mean age of (16.4±1.9) years (range: 11-20 years). Among these 6 194 students, 1 333 (21.52%) had depression, and 508 (8.20%) had suicidal ideation. Depression in adolescents was positively correlated with maternal control (OR=1.059, P<0.001) and paternal control (OR=1.061, P<0.001), but negatively correlated with maternal care (OR=0.937, P<0.001) and paternal care (OR=0.917, P<0.001). Suicide ideation in adolescents was positively correlated with maternal control (OR=1.110, P<0.001) and paternal control (OR=1.076, P<0.001), but negatively correlated with maternal care (OR=0.895, P<0.001) and paternal care (OR=0.914, P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Parental care may decrease the risk of depression and suicide ideation, while parental control may increase the risk of depression and suicide ideation in adolescents. Citation.

Access to a high resource environment protects against accelerated maturation following early life stress: A translational animal model of high, medium and low security settings

Early life exposure to a low security setting, characterized by a scarcity of resources and limited food access, increases the risk for psychiatric illness and metabolic dysfunction. We utilized a translational rat model to mimic a low security environment and determined how this manipulation affected offspring behavior, metabolism, and puberty. Because food insecurity in humans is associated with reduced access to healthy food options the "low security" rat manipulation combined a Western diet with exposure to a limited bedding and nesting manipulation (WD-LB). In this setting, dams were provided with limited nesting materials during the pups' early life (P2-P10). This manipulation was contrasted with standard rodent caging (SD) and environmental enrichment (EE), to model "medium security" and "high security" environments, respectively. To determine if transitioning from a low to high security environment improved outcomes, some juvenile WD-LB offspring were exposed to EE. Maternal care was impacted by these environments such that EE dams engaged in high quality care when on the nest, but spent less time on the nest than SD dams. Although WD-LB dams excessively chased their tails, they were very attentive to their pups, perhaps to compensate for limited resources. Offspring exposed to WD-LB only displayed subtle changes in behavior. However, WD-LB exposure resulted in significant metabolic dysfunction characterized by increased body weight, precocious puberty and alterations in the hypothalamic kisspeptin system. These negative effects of WD-LB on puberty and weight regulation were mitigated by EE exposure. Collectively, these studies suggest that both compensatory maternal care and juvenile enrichment can reduce the impact of a low security environment. Moreover, they highlight how utilizing diverse models of resource (in)stability can reveal mechanisms that confer vulnerability and resilience to early life stress.

Involving Parents/Family in Treatment during the Transition from Late Adolescence to Young Adulthood: Rationale, Strategies, Ethics, and Legal Issues

The progression from adolescence to adulthood is a time of tremendous change, characterized by issues of identity formation, autonomy, and shifting relationship dynamics. The family is embedded in all aspects of this transition and serves as both a protective support and a limiting factor, a complicated duality that raises psychological, ethical, and legal issues. This article discusses the influence of familial factors and provides assessment strategies for evaluating the family in relation to treatment of transitional age youth. It is increasingly evident that family engagement is a significant contributor to outcomes for transitional age youth seeking mental health treatment.