1
|
Junaković A, Kopić J, Duque A, Rakic P, Krsnik Ž, Kostović I. Laminar dynamics of deep projection neurons and mode of subplate formation are hallmarks of histogenetic subdivisions of the human cingulate cortex before onset of arealization. Brain Struct Funct 2023; 228:613-633. [PMID: 36592215 PMCID: PMC9944618 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-022-02606-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The cingulate gyrus, as a prominent part of the human limbic lobe, is involved in the integration and regulation of complex emotional, executive, motivational, and cognitive functions, attributed to several functional regions along the anteroposterior axis. In contrast to increasing knowledge of cingulate function in the adult brain, our knowledge of cingulate development is based primarily on classical neuroembryological studies. We aimed to reveal the laminar and cellular development of the various cingulate regions during the critical period from 7.5 to 15 postconceptional weeks (PCW) before the formation of Brodmann type arealization, employing diverse molecular markers on serial histological sections of postmortem human fetal brains. The study was performed by analysis of: (1) deep projection neuron (DPN) markers laminar dynamics, (2) all transient laminar compartments, and (3) characteristic subplate (SP) formation-expansion phase. We found that DPN markers labeling an incipient cortical plate (CP) were the first sign of regional differentiation of the dorsal isocortical and ventral mesocortical belt. Remarkably, increased width of the fibrillar marginal zone (MZ) towards the limbus, in parallel with the narrowing of CP containing DPN, as well as the diminishment of subventricular zone (SVZ) were reliable landmarks of early mesocortical differentiation. Finally, the SP formation pattern was shown to be a crucial event in the isocortical cingulate portion, given that the mesocortical belt is characterized by an incomplete CP delamination and absence of SP expansion. In conclusion, laminar DPN markers dynamics, together with the SVZ size and mode of SP formation indicate regional belt-like cingulate cortex differentiation before the corpus callosum expansion and several months before Brodmann type arealization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alisa Junaković
- School of Medicine, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Janja Kopić
- School of Medicine, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Alvaro Duque
- School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Pasko Rakic
- School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Željka Krsnik
- School of Medicine, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ivica Kostović
- School of Medicine, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Kopić J, Junaković A, Salamon I, Rasin MR, Kostović I, Krsnik Ž. Early Regional Patterning in the Human Prefrontal Cortex Revealed by Laminar Dynamics of Deep Projection Neuron Markers. Cells 2023; 12:231. [PMID: 36672166 PMCID: PMC9856843 DOI: 10.3390/cells12020231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Early regional patterning and laminar position of cortical projection neurons is determined by activation and deactivation of transcriptional factors (TFs) and RNA binding proteins (RBPs) that regulate spatiotemporal framework of neurogenetic processes (proliferation, migration, aggregation, postmigratory differentiation, molecular identity acquisition, axonal growth, dendritic development, and synaptogenesis) within transient cellular compartments. Deep-layer projection neurons (DPN), subplate (SPN), and Cajal-Retzius neurons (CRN) are early-born cells involved in the establishment of basic laminar and regional cortical architecture; nonetheless, laminar dynamics of their molecular transcriptional markers remain underexplored. Here we aimed to analyze laminar dynamics of DPN markers, i.e., transcription factors TBR1, CTIP2, TLE4, SOX5, and RBP CELF1 on histological serial sections of the human frontal cortex between 7.5-15 postconceptional weeks (PCW) in reference to transient proliferative, migratory, and postmigratory compartments. The subtle signs of regional patterning were seen during the late preplate phase in the pattern of sublaminar organization of TBR1+/Reelin+ CRN and TBR1+ pioneering SPN. During the cortical plate (CP)-formation phase, TBR1+ neurons became radially aligned, forming continuity from a well-developed subventricular zone to CP showing clear lateral to medial regional gradients. The most prominent regional patterning was seen during the subplate formation phase (around 13 PCW) when a unique feature of the orbitobasal frontal cortex displays a "double plate" pattern. In other portions of the frontal cortex (lateral, dorsal, medial) deep portion of CP becomes loose and composed of TBR1+, CTIP2+, TLE4+, and CELF1+ neurons of layer six and later-born SPN, which later become constituents of the expanded SP (around 15 PCW). Overall, TFs and RBPs mark characteristic regional laminar dynamics of DPN, SPN, and CRN subpopulations during remarkably early fetal phases of the highly ordered association cortex development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Janja Kopić
- Croatian Institute for Brain Research, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Salata 12, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Alisa Junaković
- Croatian Institute for Brain Research, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Salata 12, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Iva Salamon
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, 675 Hoes Lane West, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
- School of Graduate Studies, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Mladen-Roko Rasin
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, 675 Hoes Lane West, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Ivica Kostović
- Croatian Institute for Brain Research, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Salata 12, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Željka Krsnik
- Croatian Institute for Brain Research, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Salata 12, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Qin J, Wang M, Zhao T, Xiao X, Li X, Yang J, Yi L, Goffinet AM, Qu Y, Zhou L. Early Forebrain Neurons and Scaffold Fibers in Human Embryos. Cereb Cortex 2021; 30:913-928. [PMID: 31298263 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhz136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural progenitor proliferation, neuronal migration, areal organization, and pioneer axon wiring are critical events during early forebrain development, yet remain incompletely understood, especially in human. Here, we studied forebrain development in human embryos aged 5 to 8 postconceptional weeks (WPC5-8), stages that correspond to the neuroepithelium/early marginal zone (WPC5), telencephalic preplate (WPC6 & 7), and incipient cortical plate (WPC8). We show that early telencephalic neurons are formed at the neuroepithelial stage; the most precocious ones originate from local telencephalic neuroepithelium and possibly from the olfactory placode. At the preplate stage, forebrain organization is quite similar in human and mouse in terms of areal organization and of differentiation of Cajal-Retzius cells, pioneer neurons, and axons. Like in mice, axons from pioneer neurons in prethalamus, ventral telencephalon, and cortical preplate cross the diencephalon-telencephalon junction and the pallial-subpallial boundary, forming scaffolds that could guide thalamic and cortical axons at later stages. In accord with this model, at the early cortical plate stage, corticofugal axons run in ventral telencephalon in close contact with scaffold neurons, which express CELSR3 and FZD3, two molecules that regulates formation of similar scaffolds in mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jingwen Qin
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory Jinan University Guangzhou, P R China
| | - Meizhi Wang
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory Jinan University Guangzhou, P R China
| | - Tianyun Zhao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center Guangzhou Medical University Guangzhou, P R China
| | - Xue Xiao
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory Jinan University Guangzhou, P R China
| | - Xuejun Li
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory Jinan University Guangzhou, P R China
| | - Jieping Yang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center Guangzhou Medical University Guangzhou, P R China
| | - Lisha Yi
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center Guangzhou Medical University Guangzhou, P R China
| | - Andre M Goffinet
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory Jinan University Guangzhou, P R China
| | - Yibo Qu
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory Jinan University Guangzhou, P R China.,Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory Guangzhou, P R China
| | - Libing Zhou
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory Jinan University Guangzhou, P R China.,Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory Guangzhou, P R China.,Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, School of Basic Medical Sciences; Institute of Neuroscience, The Second Affiliated Hospital Guangzhou Medical University Guangzhou, P R China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Yirun A, Ozkemahli G, Balci A, Erkekoglu P, Zeybek ND, Yersal N, Kocer-Gumusel B. Neuroendocrine disruption by bisphenol A and/or di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate after prenatal, early postnatal and lactational exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:26961-26974. [PMID: 33496947 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-12408-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA) and di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) are abundant endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). In recent years, studies showed that EDCs may lead to neurodevelopmental diseases. The effects of prenatal exposure to these chemicals may have serious consequences. Moreover, exposure to EDCs as a mixture may have different effects than individual exposures. The present study aimed to determine the toxicity of BPA and/or DEHP on central nervous system (CNS) and neuroendocrine system in prenatal and lactational period in Sprague-Dawley rats. Pregnant rats were randomly divided into four groups: control (received vehicle); BPA group (received BPA at 50 mg/kg/day); DEHP group (received DEHP at 30 mg/kg/day); and combined exposure group (received both BPA at 50 mg/kg/day and DEHP at 30 mg/kg/day) during pregnancy and lactation by oral gavage. At the end of lactation, male offspring (n = 6) were randomly grouped. The alterations in the brain histopathology, neurotransmitter levels and enzyme activities in the cerebrum region, oxidative stress markers, and apoptotic effects in the hippocampus region were determined at adulthood. The results showed that exposure to EDCs at early stages of life caused significant changes in lipid peroxidation, total GSH and neurotransmitter levels, and activities of neurotransmitter-related enzymes. Moreover, BPA and/or DEHP led to apoptosis and histopathologic alterations in the hippocampus. Therefore, we can suggest that changes in oxidant/antioxidant status, as well as in neurotransmitters and related enzymes, can be considered as the underlying neurotoxicity mechanisms of BPA and DEHP. However, more mechanistic studies are needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anil Yirun
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Toxicology, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Toxicology, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Gizem Ozkemahli
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Toxicology, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Toxicology, Erzincan Binali Yildirim University, Erzincan, Turkey
| | - Aylin Balci
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Toxicology, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Pinar Erkekoglu
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Toxicology, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Naciye Dilara Zeybek
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Nilgun Yersal
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Belma Kocer-Gumusel
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Toxicology, Lokman Hekim University, Ankara, Turkey.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Olfactory neuroepithelium alterations and cognitive correlates in schizophrenia. Eur Psychiatry 2019; 61:23-32. [PMID: 31260908 DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2019.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Revised: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Few studies have investigated alterations of olfactory neuroepithelium (ONE) as a biomarker of schizophrenia, and none its association with cognitive functioning. METHOD Fresh ONE cells from twelve patients with schizophrenia and thirteen healthy controls were collected by nasal brushing, cultured in proper media and passed twelve times. Markers of cell proliferation (BrdU incorporation, Cyclin-D1 and p21 protein level) were quantified.Cognitive function was measured using Brief Neuropsychological Examination-2. PRIMARY OUTCOME proliferation of ONE cells from schizophrenic patients at passage 3. Secondary outcome: association between alteration of cell proliferation and cognitive function. RESULTS Fresh ONE cells from patients showed a faster cell proliferation than those from healthy controls at passage 3. An opposite trend was observed at passage 9, ONE cells of patients with schizophrenia showing slower cell proliferation as compared to healthy controls. In schizophrenia, overall cognitive function (Spearman's rho -0.657, p < 0.01), verbal memory - immediate recall, with interference at 10 s and 30 s (Spearman's rho from -0.676 to 0.697, all p < 0.01) were inversely associated with cell proliferation at passage 3. CONCLUSION Fresh ONE cells collected by nasal brushing might eventually represent a tool for diagnosing schizophrenia based upon markers of cell proliferation, which can be easily implemented as single-layer culture. Cell proliferation at passage 3 can be regarded as a promising proxy of cognitive functioning in schizophrenia. Future studies should replicate these findings, and may assess whether ONE alterations are there before onset of psychosis, serving as an early sign in patients with at risk mental state.
Collapse
|
6
|
Geertsen SS, Willerslev-Olsen M, Lorentzen J, Nielsen JB. Development and aging of human spinal cord circuitries. J Neurophysiol 2017; 118:1133-1140. [PMID: 28566459 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00103.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Revised: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 05/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The neural motor circuitries in the spinal cord receive information from our senses and the rest of the nervous system and translate it into purposeful movements, which allow us to interact with the rest of the world. In this review, we discuss how these circuitries are established during early development and the extent to which they are shaped according to the demands of the body that they control and the environment with which the body has to interact. We also discuss how aging processes and physiological changes in our body are reflected in adaptations of activity in the spinal cord motor circuitries. The complex, multifaceted connectivity of the spinal cord motor circuitries allows them to generate vastly different movements and to adapt their activity to meet new challenges imposed by bodily changes or a changing environment. There are thus plenty of possibilities for adaptive changes in the spinal motor circuitries both early and late in life.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Svend Sparre Geertsen
- Neural Control of Movement Research Group, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark.,Department of Nutrition, Exercise, and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark; and
| | - Maria Willerslev-Olsen
- Neural Control of Movement Research Group, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark.,Elsass Institute, Charlottenlund, Denmark
| | - Jakob Lorentzen
- Neural Control of Movement Research Group, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark.,Elsass Institute, Charlottenlund, Denmark
| | - Jens Bo Nielsen
- Neural Control of Movement Research Group, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark; .,Elsass Institute, Charlottenlund, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Höglund Carlsson L, Saltvedt S, Anderlid BM, Westerlund J, Gillberg C, Westgren M, Fernell E. Prenatal ultrasound and childhood autism: long-term follow-up after a randomized controlled trial of first- vs second-trimester ultrasound. ULTRASOUND IN OBSTETRICS & GYNECOLOGY : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF ULTRASOUND IN OBSTETRICS AND GYNECOLOGY 2016; 48:285-288. [PMID: 27184020 DOI: 10.1002/uog.15962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Revised: 05/10/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To analyze whether the frequency of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in a cohort of Swedish children differs between those exposed to ultrasound in the 12(th) week and those exposed to ultrasound in the 18(th) week of gestation. METHODS The study cohort consisted of approximately 30 000 children born between 1999 and 2003 to mothers who had been randomized to a prenatal ultrasound examination at either 12 or 18 weeks' gestation as part of the framework for a study on nuchal translucency screening. The outcome measure in the present study was the rate of ASD diagnoses among the children. Information on ASD diagnoses was based on data from the Swedish social insurance agency concerning childcare allowance granted for ASD. RESULTS Between 1999 and 2003, a total of 14 726 children were born to women who underwent a 12-week ultrasound examination and 14 596 to women who underwent an 18-week ultrasound examination. Of these, 181 (1.2%) and 176 (1.2%) children, respectively, had been diagnosed with ASD. There was no difference in ASD frequency between the early and late ultrasound groups. CONCLUSIONS Women subjected to at least one prenatal ultrasound examination at either 12 or 18 weeks' gestation had children with similar rates of ASD. However, this result reflects routine care 10-15 years ago in Sweden. Today, higher intensity ultrasound scans are performed more frequently, at earlier stages during pregnancy and for non-medical purposes, implying longer exposure time for the fetus. This change in the use of ultrasound necessitates further follow-up study of the possible effects that high exposure to ultrasound during the gestational period has on the developing brain. Copyright © 2016 ISUOG. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Höglund Carlsson
- Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Pediatrics, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - S Saltvedt
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - B-M Anderlid
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery and Centre for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet and Department of Clinical Genetics, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - J Westerlund
- Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - C Gillberg
- Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - M Westgren
- Center for Fetal Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital and Division of Clintec, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - E Fernell
- Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Schizophrenia: a tale of two critical periods for prefrontal cortical development. Transl Psychiatry 2015; 5:e623. [PMID: 26285133 PMCID: PMC4564568 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2015.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2015] [Revised: 05/06/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a disease of abnormal brain development. Considerable evidence now indicates that environmental factors have a causative role in schizophrenia. Elevated incidence of the disease has been linked to a wide range of disturbances in the prenatal environment and to social factors and drug intake during adolescence. Here we examine neurodevelopment of the prefrontal cortex in the first trimester of gestation and during adolescence to gain further insight into the neurodevelopmental processes that may be vulnerable in schizophrenia. Early embryonic development of the prefrontal cortex is characterized by cell proliferation, including renewal of progenitor cells, generation of early transient cell populations and neurogenesis of subcortical populations. Animal models show that curtailing early gestational cell proliferation produces schizophrenia-like pathology in the prefrontal cortex and mimics key behavioral and cognitive symptoms of the disease. At the other end of the spectrum, elimination of excitatory synapses is the fundamental process occurring during adolescent maturation in the prefrontal cortex. Adverse social situations that elevate stress increase dopamine stimulation of the mesocortical pathway and may lead to exaggerated synaptic pruning during adolescence. In a non-human primate model, dopamine hyperstimulation has been shown to decrease prefrontal pyramidal cell spine density and to be associated with profound cognitive dysfunction. Development of the prefrontal cortex in its earliest stage in gestation and in its final stage in adolescence represents two critical periods of vulnerability for schizophrenia in which cell proliferation and synaptic elimination, respectively, may be influenced by environmental factors.
Collapse
|
9
|
Catts VS, Fung SJ, Long LE, Joshi D, Vercammen A, Allen KM, Fillman SG, Rothmond DA, Sinclair D, Tiwari Y, Tsai SY, Weickert TW, Shannon Weickert C. Rethinking schizophrenia in the context of normal neurodevelopment. Front Cell Neurosci 2013; 7:60. [PMID: 23720610 PMCID: PMC3654207 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2013.00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The schizophrenia brain is differentiated from the normal brain by subtle changes, with significant overlap in measures between normal and disease states. For the past 25 years, schizophrenia has increasingly been considered a neurodevelopmental disorder. This frame of reference challenges biological researchers to consider how pathological changes identified in adult brain tissue can be accounted for by aberrant developmental processes occurring during fetal, childhood, or adolescent periods. To place schizophrenia neuropathology in a neurodevelopmental context requires solid, scrutinized evidence of changes occurring during normal development of the human brain, particularly in the cortex; however, too often data on normative developmental change are selectively referenced. This paper focuses on the development of the prefrontal cortex and charts major molecular, cellular, and behavioral events on a similar time line. We first consider the time at which human cognitive abilities such as selective attention, working memory, and inhibitory control mature, emphasizing that attainment of full adult potential is a process requiring decades. We review the timing of neurogenesis, neuronal migration, white matter changes (myelination), and synapse development. We consider how molecular changes in neurotransmitter signaling pathways are altered throughout life and how they may be concomitant with cellular and cognitive changes. We end with a consideration of how the response to drugs of abuse changes with age. We conclude that the concepts around the timing of cortical neuronal migration, interneuron maturation, and synaptic regression in humans may need revision and include greater emphasis on the protracted and dynamic changes occurring in adolescence. Updating our current understanding of post-natal neurodevelopment should aid researchers in interpreting gray matter changes and derailed neurodevelopmental processes that could underlie emergence of psychosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vibeke S. Catts
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Schizophrenia Research InstituteSydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaSydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Samantha J. Fung
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Schizophrenia Research InstituteSydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaSydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Leonora E. Long
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Schizophrenia Research InstituteSydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaSydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Dipesh Joshi
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Schizophrenia Research InstituteSydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaSydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Ans Vercammen
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Schizophrenia Research InstituteSydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaSydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychology, Australian Catholic UniversitySydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Katherine M. Allen
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Schizophrenia Research InstituteSydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaSydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Stu G. Fillman
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Schizophrenia Research InstituteSydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaSydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Debora A. Rothmond
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Schizophrenia Research InstituteSydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaSydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Duncan Sinclair
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Schizophrenia Research InstituteSydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaSydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Yash Tiwari
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Schizophrenia Research InstituteSydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaSydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Shan-Yuan Tsai
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Schizophrenia Research InstituteSydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaSydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Thomas W. Weickert
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Schizophrenia Research InstituteSydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaSydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Cynthia Shannon Weickert
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Schizophrenia Research InstituteSydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research AustraliaSydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Wang WZ, Oeschger FM, Montiel JF, García-Moreno F, Hoerder-Suabedissen A, Krubitzer L, Ek CJ, Saunders NR, Reim K, Villalón A, Molnár Z. Comparative aspects of subplate zone studied with gene expression in sauropsids and mammals. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 21:2187-203. [PMID: 21368089 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhq278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
There is currently a debate about the evolutionary origin of the earliest generated cortical preplate neurons and their derivatives (subplate and marginal zone). We examined the subplate with murine markers including nuclear receptor related 1 (Nurr1), monooxygenase Dbh-like 1 (Moxd1), transmembrane protein 163 (Tmem163), and connective tissue growth factor (Ctgf) in developing and adult turtle, chick, opossum, mouse, and rat. Whereas some of these are expressed in dorsal pallium in all species studied (Nurr1, Ctgf, and Tmem163), we observed that the closely related mouse and rat differed in the expression patterns of several others (Dopa decarboxylase, Moxd1, and thyrotropin-releasing hormone). The expression of Ctgf, Moxd1, and Nurr1 in the oppossum suggests a more dispersed subplate population in this marsupial compared with mice and rats. In embryonic and adult chick brains, our selected subplate markers are primarily expressed in the hyperpallium and in the turtle in the main cell dense layer of the dorsal cortex. These observations suggest that some neurons that express these selected markers were present in the common ancestor of sauropsids and mammals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhi Wang
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Marsál K. Exposure to ultrasound in utero: epidemiology and relevance of neuronal migration studies. ULTRASOUND IN MEDICINE & BIOLOGY 2010; 36:1221-1223. [PMID: 20447752 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2010.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2009] [Revised: 03/04/2010] [Accepted: 03/15/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Despite that epidemiological studies did not indicate negative effects on neurological development of offspring when exposed to diagnostic ultrasound, possible association with nonright-handedness in males could not be excluded. In addition, an experimental study on fetal mice suggested that prolonged ultrasound exposure may cause mild disturbance in neuronal migration. No doubt, further studies are warranted. The present knowledge of the potential bioeffects of ultrasound suggests that, when using ultrasound for examinations in pregnancy, fetal scanning without medical indication should be avoided and that adherence to ALARA principle (use of energy "as low as reasonably achievable") is compulsory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karel Marsál
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Guidi S, Bonasoni P, Ceccarelli C, Santini D, Gualtieri F, Ciani E, Bartesaghi R. Neurogenesis impairment and increased cell death reduce total neuron number in the hippocampal region of fetuses with Down syndrome. Brain Pathol 2007; 18:180-97. [PMID: 18093248 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00113.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously obtained evidence for reduced cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus (DG) of fetuses with Down syndrome (DS), suggesting that the hippocampal hypoplasia seen in adulthood may be caused by defective early neuron production. The goal of this study was to establish whether DS fetuses (17-21 weeks of gestation) exhibit reduction in total cell number in the DG, hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus (PHG). Volumes of the cellular layers and cell number were estimated with Cavalieri's principle and the optical fractionator method, respectively. We found that in DS fetuses all investigated structures had a reduced volume and cell number. Analysis of cell phenotype showed that DS fetuses had a higher percentage of cells with astrocytic phenotype but a smaller percentage of cells with neuronal phenotype. Immunohistochemistry for Ki-67, a marker of cycling cells, showed that DS fetuses had less proliferating cells in the germinal zones of the hippocampus and PHG. We additionally found that in the hippocampal region of DS fetuses there was a higher incidence of apoptotic cell death. Results show reduced neuron number in the DS hippocampal region and suggest that this defect is caused by disruption of neurogenesis and apoptosis, two fundamental processes underlying brain building.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Guidi
- Dipartimento di Fisiologia Umana e Generale, Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
González M, Cabrera-Socorro A, Pérez-García CG, Fraser JD, López FJ, Alonso R, Meyer G. Distribution patterns of estrogen receptor alpha and beta in the human cortex and hippocampus during development and adulthood. J Comp Neurol 2007; 503:790-802. [PMID: 17570500 DOI: 10.1002/cne.21419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The expression of estrogen receptors (ERs) in the developing and adult human brain has not been clearly established, although estrogens are crucial for neuronal differentiation, synapse formation, and cognitive functions. By using immunohistochemistry, we have studied the distribution of ER alpha and ER beta in human cerebral cortex and hippocampus from early prenatal stages to adult life. ER alpha was detected in the cortex at 9 gestational weeks (GW), with a high expression in proliferating zones and the cortical plate. The staining intensity decreased gradually during prenatal development but increased again from birth to adulthood. In contrast, ER beta was first detected at 15 GW in proliferating zones, and at 16/17 GW, numerous ER beta immunopositive cells were also observed in the cortical plate. ER beta expression persisted in the adult cortex, being widely distributed throughout cortical layers II-VI. In addition, from around 15 GW to adulthood, ER alpha and ER beta were expressed in human hippocampus mainly in pyramidal cells of Ammon's horn and in the dentate gyrus. Western blotting and immunohistochemistry in the adult cerebral cortex and hippocampus revealed lower protein expression of ER alpha compared with ER beta. Double immunostaining showed that during fetal life both ERs are expressed in neurons as well as in radial glia, although only ER alpha is expressed in the Cajal-Retzius neurons of the marginal zone. These observations demonstrate that the expression of ER alpha and ER beta displays different spatial-temporal patterns during human cortical and hippocampal development and suggest that both ERs may play distinct roles in several processes related to prenatal brain development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miriam González
- Department of Human Anatomy, University of La Laguna School of Medicine and Institute of Biomedical Technologies, Tenerife, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Bystron I, Molnár Z, Otellin V, Blakemore C. Tangential networks of precocious neurons and early axonal outgrowth in the embryonic human forebrain. J Neurosci 2006; 25:2781-92. [PMID: 15772338 PMCID: PMC6725137 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4770-04.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We used a combination of immunohistochemistry and carbocyanine dye tracing to study neurons and their processes in the human embryonic forebrain, 4-7 weeks after conception, before the onset of synaptogenesis. We discovered a widespread network of precocious MAP2 (microtubule-associated protein 2)-immunoreactive cells, with long, nonaxonal processes, before the appearance of the cortical plate and the establishment of thalamocortical connectivity. Dye tracing revealed that the processes of these precocious cells form tangential links between intermediate zones of the thalamus, ganglionic eminence, hypothalamus, and cortical preplate. The spatiotemporal distribution and morphology of the precocious neurons in the cortical preplate suggest that they are generated outside the cerebral wall rather than in the local ventricular zone. The first thalamocortical axons and axons of preplate cells extend across diencephalo-telencephalic and striatocortical boundaries before the arrival of the first cortical plate neurons. Precocious cells may provide initial communication between subdivisions of the embryonic brain as well as guidance cues for navigation of growing axons and/or transverse neuronal migration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irina Bystron
- University Laboratory of Physiology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, United Kingdom.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Miettinen R, Riedel A, Kalesnykas G, Kettunen HP, Puoliväli J, Soininen H, Arendt T. Reelin-immunoreactivity in the hippocampal formation of 9-month-old wildtype mouse: effects of APP/PS1 genotype and ovariectomy. J Chem Neuroanat 2006; 30:105-18. [PMID: 16081247 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2005.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2005] [Revised: 06/01/2005] [Accepted: 06/10/2005] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Reelin, an extracellular matrix protein has an important role in the migration, correct positioning and maturation of neurons during development. Though it is generally down-regulated in the postnatal period, expression of this large glycoprotein continues in the adult brain in some cell populations. In the present study, we examined the distribution of reelin-immunoreactivity (-ir) in the hippocampal formation of 9-month-old wildtype mice (WT). Then, reelin-ir in normal mice was compared to that of transgenic mice (APP/PS1) carrying mutated human APP and PS1 genes, which are linked to the familial form of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The APP/PS1 mice were additionally burdened with a second risk factor for AD, namely depletion of circulating gonadal hormones by ovariectomy (APP/PS1 + OVX). The analyses revealed that in adult WT reelin-ir is expressed by Cajal-Retzius cells and a subgroup of interneurons throughout the hippocampal formation. In addition, layer II projection neurons in the lateral entorhinal subfields are reelin-ir. Interestingly, ovariectomy decreases the number of reelin-ir cells in the hilus in WT mice, whereas AD-related genotype alone induces only a non-significant reduction. Unexpectedly, additional stress, e.g., depletion of gonadal hormones, does not aggravate the slight reduction in the reelin cell number in the APP/PS1 mice. We propose that the changes in normal reelin-ir are linked to disturbances in repair mechanisms in which APP/PS1 and gonadal hormones are involved and which are perturbed in neurodegenerative conditions, namely AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Riitta Miettinen
- Department of Neuroscience and Neurology, University of Kuopio, Finland.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Abstract
Cajal-Retzius (CR) cells of the developing neocortex secrete Reelin (Reln), a glycoprotein involved in neuronal migration. CR cells selectively express p73, a p53 family member implicated in cell survival and apoptosis. Immunocytochemistry in prenatal human telencephalon reveals a complex sequence of migration waves of p73- and Reln-immunoreactive (IR) neurons into the cortical marginal zone (MZ). At early preplate stages, p73/Reln-IR cells arise in distinct sectors of the telencephalon, including cortical primordium and ganglionic eminences. After the appearance of the cortical plate, further p73/Reln-IR cells originate in the medial periolfactory forebrain. In addition, p73 marks a novel cell population that appears at the choroid-cortical junction or cortical hem before the emergence of the dorsal hippocampus. A pronounced mediolateral gradient in the density of p73/Reln-IR neurons in the neocortical MZ at 8 gestational weeks suggests that a subset of CR cells migrate tangentially from cortical hem and taenia tecta into neocortical territory. This hypothesis is supported by the absence of p73-transcripts in prospective neocortex of p73-/-mice at embryonic day 12 (E12), whereas they are present in cortical hem and taenia tecta. In the p73-/- preplate, Reln is faintly expressed in a calretinin-positive cell population, not present in this form in the E12 wild-type cortex. At P2, Reln-IR CR cells are undetectable in the p73-/- cortex, whereas Reln-expression in interneurons is unchanged. Our results point to a close association between p73 and Reln in CR cells of the developing neocortex, with a partial dissociation in early preplate and basal telencephalon, and to a p73-mediated role of the cortical hem in neocortical development.
Collapse
|