Paternal feeding practices and styles: a systematic review

CONTEXT

Studies on parenting, including feeding styles and practices in general, have focused mainly on mothers. Consequently, there is a gap with respect to fathers in the scientific literature.

OBJECTIVE

This study's main objective is to determine paternal feeding styles toward children aged 0 to 18 years and to identify those most commonly used by men.

DATA SOURCES

The PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane, and PsycINFO databases were consulted.

DATA EXTRACTION

Articles that were not published in English, Spanish, or Italian were excluded, as well as those that referred to other subjects, those whose sample did not include men, or those studying children with pathologies that could influence their diet. All the articles ultimately included were assessed using the STROBE checklist.

DATA ANALYSIS

A total of 183 articles were found. Of these, 13 were included in the review. No trend was found for paternal parenting style, and disparities existed among the authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive styles. In terms of feeding practices, men were more likely to use coercion. The most reported feeding styles were authoritarian and permissive.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of systematic review suggest cultural and gender differences exist with respect to parenting styles and feeding styles and practices. In terms of paternal parenting styles, there is some disparity. However, when it comes to feeding, men showed a tendency toward an authoritarian feeding style and coercive feeding practices.

The combined effect of family environment and parents' characteristics on the use of food to soothe children

Parental feeding practices, such as the use of food to soothe, can be shaped by various factors, including the family environment and parents' psychological characteristics and capacities. To our knowledge, the combined effect of these factors has not been studied. Furthermore, parental feeding practices have mainly been studied in women, resulting in a gender gap in the research. This study aims to investigate the combined effect of family environment and parental characteristics on the likelihood of using food to soothe children, taking the gender of both parents into account. This cross-sectional study included a sample of 846 parents (36.3% men) of 1-year-old children from different regions of Spain. Participants completed an online survey that included questionnaires to measure whether parents used food to soothe children, the family environment, parents' characteristics, and their psychological capacities. Binary logistic regression analyses were performed to identify associations between the variables. The final model showed that, within the family environment, higher levels of dyadic adjustment between couples (OR = 0.965; p = .026) were associated with a reduced likelihood of using food to soothe children, whereas the psychological characteristic of parental fatigue (OR = 1.053; p = .007) appeared to be associated with an increased likelihood. Also associated with an increased likelihood of this practice were higher parental sense of competence (OR = 1.028; p = .029) and the attention dimension of emotional intelligence (OR = 1.043; p = .007). Our study suggests that using food to soothe children may be influenced by factors at different levels, from the quality and adjustment of the couple's relationship to parental fatigue, self-competence, and emotional intelligence. For future research, it may be worthwhile contextualizing parental practices to gain a better understanding of children's behavior.

"You just have to spread it thin": Perceptions and feeding experiences of Australian fathers of young children living with disadvantage

The role of fathers in feeding is an emerging field within child feeding literature. Fathers have unique contributions to make to family mealtimes and child eating behaviours. However, qualitative research on fathers' experiences is limited, especially in the context of disadvantage. This study explored fathers' perceptions of their roles and feeding practices and their lived experience of disadvantage through a symbolic interactionism lens. Twenty-five Australian fathers of children aged six months to five years who experienced socioeconomic disadvantage participated in semi-structured interviews. Five themes were constructed from reflexive thematic analysis: (i) responsibilities for foodwork are based on strengths, opportunities, and values, (ii) negotiating fatherhood identity from a place of tension to acceptance, (iii) struggling with financial and mental strain, and food insecurity, (iv) managing adversity whist prioritising feeding children, and (v) paternal feeding practices are driven by values, adversity, and emotions. The division of foodwork was contingent on family capability and employment, maternal gatekeeping, paternal attitudes and values, and intergenerational, cultural and gender norms around earning and childrearing. Economic, environmental, and emotional stressors triggered changes to fathers' feeding practices, often contradicting their ideals (e.g., providing alternative meals, using rewards and electronic devices, unstructured settings). Fathers described income and food-based strategies to protect children's food intake, which may involve caregivers forgoing meals. These findings provide insight into fathers' feeding experiences through recognising personal, interpersonal, and systemic enablers and barriers. Promoting optimal feeding practices should include targeted feeding support and broader structural interventions to address inequality. Fathers' experiences as they navigate child mealtime interactions within a context of adversity can be used to inform child feeding interventions to improve child health and development.

Dads at Mealtimes: Associations between Food Security, Household and Work Chaos, and Paternal Feeding Practices among Australian Fathers Living with Disadvantage

Understanding how fathers engage in feeding while experiencing disadvantage is important for family-focused interventions. A cross-sectional online survey involving 264 Australian fathers was conducted to explore feeding involvement and the relationships between feeding practices, food insecurity, and household and work chaos. Practices related to coercive control, structure, and autonomy support were measured for two age groups (<2 years and 2-5 years). Multivariable linear regression was used to examine the associations for each practice. Three-quarters of the sample were food insecure, impacting adults more than children, and correlated with household chaos. Food insecurity was associated with increased 'persuasive feeding' and 'parent-led feeding' in younger children. Household chaos was positively associated with coercive control practices in both younger and older child groups, with the strongest associations for 'using food to calm' and 'overt restriction', respectively. In older child groups, household chaos was negatively associated with 'offer new foods' and 'repeated presentation of new foods'. Structure practices had no significant relationships with any factors, and work chaos did not predict any feeding practices. These findings emphasize a need for societal and structural support to address food insecurity and household chaos. Tailored strategies are crucial to support fathers in responsive feeding.

Children's eating behavior and weight-related outcomes: A latent profile analysis of parenting style and coparenting

Parenting style is associated with children's eating behavior, yet less is known about how parenting style and coparenting are both related to children's eating behavior (food approach behavior and palatable food intake) and weight-related outcomes (concern about child weight and perceived child weight). The aims of the current research were 1) to determine family profiles based on parenting style and coparenting, 2) to examine whether the family profiles were associated with parent (sex, BMI, age) and child (sex, age) characteristics, and 3) to examine whether the family profiles differed in children's outcomes. Parents (n = 185; Mage = 36.38 years, SD = 7.69) of 3- to 8-year-old children completed an online survey. Latent profile analysis revealed three family profiles: 1) Responsive and Cooperative, 2) Minimally Structured, and 3) Demanding and Competitive. The family profiles were not related to any parent or child characteristics. The Responsive and Cooperative family profile was associated with the lowest food approach behavior, palatable food intake, and weight-related outcomes, followed by the Minimally Structured family profile, and finally the Demanding and Competitive family profile with the highest scores. These findings suggest family dynamics play an important role in children's propensity to engage in food approach behavior and palatable food intake.

A Latent Profile Analysis of Lie-Telling to Parents and Friends during Adolescence

Adolescence has been suggested to be a time of heightened lie-telling. The current study used a latent profile analysis to examine unique patterns of lie-telling for lies told to parents and friends during adolescence as well as whether adjustment indicators (relationship quality, depressive symptoms, social anxiety, externalizing problems) could be used to predict group membership. These patterns were examined among 828 10- to 16- year-olds (Mage = 12.39, SD = 1.69, 49.9% male). In both relationships, 5-profile solutions emerged; most adolescents reported very infrequent lie-telling, while a small portion (less than 5%) told high rates of lies. Adjustment indicators predicted group membership. Depressive symptoms, social anxiety, parent relationship quality, and externalizing problems predicted group membership for lying to parents. Depressive symptoms and social anxiety predicted group membership for lying to friends. The findings indicate that high rates of lie-telling found in previous research may be driven by a small number of prolific lie-tellers.

Parent-reported child appetite moderates relationships between child genetic obesity risk and parental feeding practices

Background

Food parenting practices are associated with child weight. Such associations may reflect the effects of parents' practices on children's food intake and weight. However, longitudinal, qualitative, and behavioral genetic evidence suggests these associations could, in some cases, reflect parents' response to children's genetic risk for obesity, an instance of gene-environment correlation. We tested for gene-environment correlations across multiple domains of food parenting practices and explored the role of parent-reported child appetite in these relationships.

Materials and methods

Data on relevant variables were available for N = 197 parent-child dyads (7.54 ± 2.67 years; 44.4% girls) participating in RESONANCE, an ongoing pediatric cohort study. Children's body mass index (BMI) polygenic risk score (PRS) were derived based on adult GWAS data. Parents reported on their feeding practices (Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire) and their child's eating behavior (Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire). Moderation effects of child eating behaviors on associations between child BMI PRS and parental feeding practices were examined, adjusting for relevant covariates.

Results

Of the 12 parental feeding practices, 2 were associated with child BMI PRS, namely, restriction for weight control (β = 0.182, p = 0.011) and teaching about nutrition (β = -0.217, p = 0.003). Moderation analyses demonstrated that when children had high genetic obesity risk and showed moderate/high (vs. low) food responsiveness, parents were more likely to restrict food intake to control weight.

Conclusion

Our results indicate that parents may adjust their feeding practices in response to a child's genetic propensity toward higher or lower bodyweight, and the adoption of food restriction to control weight may depend on parental perceptions of the child's appetite. Research using prospective data on child weight and appetite and food parenting from infancy is needed to further investigate how gene-environment relationships evolve through development.

Children's media use and food approach behavior: Associations with temperament and food parenting

Children's media use has been found to be associated with obesogenic eating and obesity risk. Children's temperament and food parenting have been found to be important factors associated with children's eating behavior. The current study examined whether children's temperament and food parenting moderated the associations between children's media use and children's food approach behaviors. Parents (n = 214) of children between 3- to 5- years old were recruited to complete an online survey. Findings showed that children's temperament (i.e., negative affectivity and effortful control) and food parenting (i.e., coercive control) moderated the relationship between children's media use and children's food approach behavior. The results suggest that children's temperament and food parenting play important roles in understanding the relationship among children's media use and children's eating behavior.

Associations of mothers' and fathers' structure-related food parenting practices and child food approach eating behaviors during the COVID pandemic

BACKGROUND

During the COVID-19 pandemic, many mothers and fathers have spent more time at home with their children, warranting consideration of parenting practices around food during the pandemic as influences on obesogenic eating behaviors among children. Structure-related feeding practices, particularly around snacking, may be particularly challenging yet influential in the pandemic setting. Parent sex and levels of feeding-related co-operation among parents (co-feeding) are understudied potential influences on parent-child feeding relationships.

METHODS

We investigated relationships between structure-related parent feeding and child food approach behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic, while considering potential moderating influences of parent sex and co-feeding levels. An online survey was completed by 318 parents (206 mothers and 112 fathers) of 2-12-year-olds who were living in states with statewide or regional lockdowns in May/June 2020 within the US. Mothers and fathers were drawn from different families, with each survey corresponding to a unique parent-child dyad. Parental stress/mental health, co-feeding (Feeding Coparenting Scale), structure-related food and snack parenting (Feeding Practices and Structure Questionnaire and Parenting around SNAcking Questionnaire), and child eating behaviors (Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire) were assessed. Relationships of parents' structure-related food and snack parenting practices with their child's emotional overeating and food responsiveness behaviors were examined using structural equation modelling. Further, we investigated whether these relations were moderated by parent sex or level of co-feeding.

RESULTS

Parent sex differences were seen in parental stress, mental health, and co-feeding, but not in structure-related food and snack parenting or child food approach eating behaviors. Structure-related food parenting was negatively associated with emotional overeating. However, structure-related snack parenting was positively associated with emotional overeating and food responsiveness. While regression paths varied between mothers vs. fathers, as well as by co-feeding levels, neither parent sex nor co-feeding levels significantly moderated relationships between parent feeding and child eating variables.

CONCLUSIONS

Future studies of food and snack parenting and co-operation in relation to feeding among mothers and fathers within a familial unit may be critical to identify intervention strategies that draw on all family resources to better navigate future disruptive events such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Mothers' experiences of their own parents' food parenting practices and use of coercive food-related practices with their children

The current research examines the relationships between mothers' experiences of the ways in which they were provided food as a child, their current eating behaviours, and their use of coercive food parenting practices with their own child. Mothers (N = 907 (M = 37 years, SD = 7.7)) completed an online/paper survey that included validated measures of food parenting practices and eating behaviours. Regression analyses show that mothers' experiences of being provided food as a child, and their current eating behaviours are significant unique predictors of engagment in coercive food-related parenting practices with their child. Exploratory mediation analyses further show that the relationship between mothers' experiences of being provided food as a child and use of coercive food-related parenting practices with their child is partially mediated by mothers' eating behaviours. The findings indicate concordance between mothers' experiences of being provided food as a child and use of the same coercive food-related parenting practices with their child. Furthermore, maternal experiences of food-related parenting practices as a child are the strongest predictors of use coercive food parenting practices with their own child. There may be value in focussing on the food-related experiences mothers had as a child in addition to their existing eating behaviours prior to food-related parenting practice intervention. Longitudinal research is needed to strengthen the current findings and to further understand the links identified.

How Parenting and Family Characteristics Predict the Use of Feeding Practices among Parents of Preschoolers: A Cross-Sectional Study in Beijing, China

Parental coercive and structured feeding practices are linked with children’s weight gain. Thus, identifying their predictors will assist in childhood obesity prevention. We explored how parents’ concerns and perceptions of children’s weight, parenting stress, parenting competence, parents’ family roles, and only child status (of both parent and child) predict the use of restriction, pressure to eat, and monitoring practices among parents of preschoolers. Parent–child dyads (n = 2990) were recruited in Beijing in 2019. Parenting competence, parents’ weight perceptions and feeding practices were assessed using the Chinese version of Parenting Sense of Competence Scale and Child Feeding Questionnaire (CFQ), respectively. Parenting stress and other variables were collected through self-administered questionnaires. Multivariate linear associations between parents’ weight perceptions and feeding practices were significant among normal-weight children. Parents’ concerns about children being overweight were positively associated with restriction and monitoring, and negatively associated with pressure to eat. Higher levels of parenting stress and parenting competence significantly improved the adoption of restriction and pressure to eat. Parents’ only child status and that of children had an impact on parents’ feeding practices. The fathers’ feeding preferences were substantially different from what mothers preferred. In conclusion, such parenting and family characteristics significantly influenced feeding practices of preschoolers’ parents. These were long neglected in China.

Content and Validity of Claims Made about Food Parenting Practices in United Kingdom Online News Articles

The objective of this study was to qualitatively summarise the content of online news articles pertaining to food parenting practices and determine whether this content is substantiated by the scientific literature. News article data were identified and collected from United Kingdom online news published during 2010–2017 period using the News on the Web corpus. A coding framework was used to categorise the content of news articles to identify information related to food parenting practices. Then, claims made about food parenting practices were extracted from relevant news articles. Each claim was evaluated to determine the extent to which any claims were supported by the available scientific research evidence. The study identified ten claims across thirty-two relevant online news articles. Claims made across the news articles reported on the following food parenting practices: food restrictions, food-based threats and bribes, pressure to eat, use of food to control negative emotions, food availability, food preparation, and meal and snack routines. Eight out of the ten claims identified did not refer to scientific research evidence. News articles frequently lacked detail and information to explain to readers why and how the use of certain food parenting practices could have a lasting impact on children’s health outcomes. Considering the influence that news media has on parents, the reporting of food parenting practices in news articles should aim to provide a balanced view of the published scientific evidence and recognise the difficulties and barriers that prevent the use of helpful and healthy food parenting practices. The study results in this paper could be used to aid and structure of the dissemination of food parenting practice research findings in the media, inform public health education to influence perceptions of unhelpful food parenting practices, and promote parental use of responsive food parenting practices.

The Lived Experiences of Fathers in Mealtimes: A Thematic Synthesis of Qualitative Literature

The paternal experience of family mealtimes is an emerging field within qualitative literature. Previous quantitative studies suggest that differences exist between fathers’ and mothers’ mealtime behaviours, particularly in response to fussy eating. However, qualitative research has not yet focused exclusively on fathers’ fussy eating experiences. This metasynthesis aimed to provide insights into the general paternal experience, inclusive of their fussy eating responses. Thematic synthesis methodology was adopted to achieve this process and consisted of a systematic search resulting in the inclusion of 16 studies (18 papers). The direct quotations presented within each study were subjected to three stages of analysis to produce three analytical themes, supported by eight descriptive themes. The analytical themes presented were: (1) environmental influences on fathers’ mealtime experiences; (2) attitudes and emotions of fathers during mealtimes; and (3) observable behaviours of fathers during mealtimes. These themes highlighted the complexity of the mealtime experience from a paternal perspective. Multidirectional relationships were identified between each mealtime component (i.e., the environment, attitudes, emotions and behaviours) as evidenced by the paternal commentary presented. The findings also provided insights into fathers’ fussy eating experiences, recognising that fathers should be considered as individuals in the presence of mealtime intervention.

Feeding coparenting: Associations with coercive control, structure-based, and autonomy-promoting food parenting

Feeding coparenting refers to how two parents work together in the child feeding domain. However, little is known about feeding coparenting in relation to food parenting. The current study seeks to examine 1) whether parent demographics (i.e., sex, age, BMI, and employment status) and parent concern about child weight are related to feeding coparenting (i.e., Shared Views, Active Engagement, Solo Parenting) and 2) whether feeding coparenting is related to food parenting (i.e., coercive control feeding, structure-based feeding, autonomy-promoting feeding). Parents (n = 160) of 3- to 5-year old children completed an online survey. Parents' sex, employment status, and concern about child weight were related to feeding coparenting (Shared Views, Active Engagement, Solo Parenting). After controlling for those variables, feeding coparenting was related to structure-based (Shared Views and Active Engagement) and autonomy-promoting feeding (Active Engagement). However, none of the feeding coparenting variables were associated with coercive control feeding. These findings illuminate the importance of understanding how parents' feeding coparenting relationship plays a part in food parenting.

Parenting and childhood obesity: Validation of a new questionnaire and evaluation of treatment effects during the preschool years

Objectives

Parenting is an integral component of obesity treatment in early childhood. However, the link between specific parenting practices and treatment effectiveness remains unclear. This paper introduces and validates a new parenting questionnaire and evaluates mothers’ and fathers’ parenting practices in relation to child weight status during a 12-month childhood obesity treatment trial.

Methods

First, a merged school/clinical sample (n = 558, 82% mothers) was used for the factorial and construct validation of the new parenting questionnaire. Second, changes in parenting were evaluated using clinical data from the More and Less Study, a randomized controlled trial (RCT) with 174 children (mean age = 5 years, mean Body Mass Index Standard Deviation Score (BMI SDS) = 3.0) comparing a parent support program (with and without booster sessions) and standard treatment. Data were collected at four time points over 12 months. We used linear mixed models and mediation models to investigate associations between changes in parenting practices and treatment effects.

Findings

The validation of the questionnaire (9 items; responses on a 5-point Likert scale) revealed two dimensions of parenting (Cronbach’s alpha ≥0.7): setting limits to the child and regulating one’s own emotions when interacting with the child, both of which correlated with feeding practices and parental self-efficacy. We administered the questionnaire to the RCT participants. Fathers in standard treatment increased their emotional regulation compared to fathers in the parenting program (p = 0.03). Mothers increased their limit-setting regardless of treatment allocation (p = 0.01). No treatment effect was found on child weight status through changes in parenting practices.

Conclusion

Taken together, the findings demonstrate that the new questionnaire assessing parenting practices proved valid in a 12-month childhood obesity trial. During treatment, paternal and maternal parenting practices followed different trajectories, though they did not mediate treatment effects on child weight status. Future research should address the pathways whereby maternal and paternal parenting practices affect treatment outcomes, such as child eating behaviors and weight status.

Gender differences in the supply of alcohol to adolescent daughters and sons

Background: Parents are the main supplier of alcohol to children but it is not known whether mothers and fathers equally contribute to the supply of alcohol to their female and male children as these children transition to adulthood.Objectives: i) to determine whether the gender of the parent is associated with the gender of the adolescent offspring when alcohol is supplied and ii) whether the gender of the parent supplying is associated with gender differences in adolescent binge drinking and alcohol related harms.Methods: Longitudinal cohort of 1,927 (males = 1052) Australian adolescents (mean age 12.9 years), recruited in 2010/11 from schools in Australia and surveyed annually for six years. We assessed the association between adolescent and parent gender related to subsequent adolescent drinking, binge drinking (>4 standard drinks), and alcohol-related harms.Results: At mean age of 12.9 years about one in ten children report parental supply of alcohol which increases to about four in ten children by 17.8 years. Mothers consistently more often supply their daughters with alcohol than their sons, [Wave 5 OR 1.77 (1.53,2.05)], while mothers less often supply sons than their daughters, [Wave 5 OR 0.82 (0.71,0.95)]. Mothers' supply of alcohol to daughters predicts substantially increased odds of daughters binge drinking, [OR 1.67 (1.10,2.53)] and experiencing alcohol related harms, [OR 1.65 (1.10,2.48)].Conclusion: There is a need to involve both mothers and fathers and to equally target female and male children in programs to reduce the harmful consequences of parental supply of alcohol to their children.

Is the Prospective Link between Parental Stress and Adolescent Snack Intake or Weight Outcome Mediated by Food Parenting Practices?

Parental stress may influence adolescents’ food intake and weight development over time, however, it is largely unknown why this is the case. This study examines whether the link between parental stress and adolescents’ snack intake and weight outcome is mediated by food parenting practices (FPPs). Participants included 400 parents and their adolescent children (aged 12–16) who completed questionnaires. The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) was used to assess parental general stress levels and the Adolescent Food Parenting Questionnaire (AFPQ) to assess FPPs. Multiple mediation analyses with parallel mediators were performed, with parental general stress as an independent variable and adolescent snack intake and zBMI as dependent variables. FPPs (autonomy support, coercive control, modeling, healthy structure, snack structure) were entered as mediators in the model, adjusted for covariates. Autonomy support mediated the link between parental general stress and adolescent savory snack and sweet snack intake at follow-up. Parents who reported higher stress levels provided less autonomy support, which resulted in more adolescent snacking. None of the other FPPs mediated any link between parental stress and intake or weight outcome, and no significant indirect effects were observed with zBMI as an outcome variable. Further research should replicate this finding and may further examine underlying mechanisms.

Are fathers' and mothers' food parenting practices differentially associated with children's eating behaviors?

Little is known about how fathers' food parenting practices (FPP) are linked with children's eating behaviors and whether these associations differ from mothers. This study examined associations between paternal and maternal FPP and eating behaviors among children aged 5-12 years. A sample of 565 parents (53% fathers) completed: 1) the FPP item bank, which measured 11 FPP constructs from three domains of parenting (control, autonomy promotion, and structure) and 2) the Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ), to assess four constructs (emotional overeating, food responsiveness, satiety responsiveness and food fussiness). Multivariable linear regressions evaluated associations between FPP and CEBQ constructs, and models were run separately for fathers and mothers. Similarities emerged between fathers and mothers: 1) use of restriction for weight practices were positively associated with emotional overeating and food responsiveness; 2) use of practices to accommodate the child around food and use of practices to involve the child were positively and negatively associated, respectively, with food fussiness; and 3) use of practices to accommodate the child, or coercive controlling practices, was positively associated with emotional overeating. Differences emerged between fathers and mothers in terms of FPP associated with children's food and satiety responsiveness, with a greater number of fathers' FPP predictive of these behaviors. Although similarities exist between mothers and fathers, these findings suggest that fathers likely exert a unique influence on their children's eating behaviors and stress the need for interventions to account for the role each parent plays promoting healthy eating habits.

The relationship between parental food parenting practices & child eating behavior: A comparison of mothers and fathers

The objective of this study was to compare the relationships between food parenting practices and child eating behavior among mothers and fathers of young children. This cross-sectional study recruited mothers (n = 127) and fathers (n = 118) of children (4.2 ± 1.3 years old) to complete surveys (face-to-face and online). Each parent completed the Comprehensive Food Parenting Questionnaire, Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire, and demographic questions. Linear regressions were used to compare the relationships between parental food parenting practices and children's eating behaviors with parent sex as a moderator. Child age and sex served as control variables in each regression. Parent sex was a significant moderator in several relationships between parent food parenting practices and child eating behavior. In the relationship between parental restriction for health (ß = -.14, p = .014) and monitoring (ß = -.13, p = .028) and child slowness in eating, the slope of the interaction was significantly higher for mothers, meaning that when mothers and fathers use the same level of restriction for health and monitoring, child slowness in eating is higher for children of mothers. When mothers and fathers used the same level of restriction for weight, child food responsiveness (ß = .13, p = .003) and emotional overeating (ß = .12, p = .046) was significantly higher for children of fathers. There may be differences in how mothers and fathers implement food parenting practices and/or differences in how these practices impact children. Specifically, for fathers, it seems that the use of restriction for weight is more detrimental for children's eating behaviors compared to when mothers use the same level of restriction for weight.

Associations between Coparenting Quality and Food Parenting Practices among Mothers and Fathers in the Guelph Family Health Study

Coparenting quality and food parenting practices have been shown to have a strong influence on child outcomes. However, little is known about whether coparenting quality may influence food parenting practices. This study aimed to investigate how coparenting quality is associated with both mothers’ and fathers’ food parenting practices. A cross-sectional analysis was conducted of 58 mothers and 40 fathers enrolled in the Guelph Family Health Study. The Coparenting Relationship Scale and the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire were used to measure coparenting and food parenting practices, respectively. Linear regressions using generalized estimating equations were used to examine associations between coparenting quality and food parenting practices in mothers and fathers. Among mothers, higher coparenting quality was associated with lower use of food for emotional regulation, restriction of food for health, and child control of food intake and with higher encouragement of a balanced and varied diet, provision of a healthy home environment, and modeling of healthy eating behaviors. Among fathers, higher coparenting quality was associated with lower pressure to eat and with higher encouragement of a balanced and varied diet and provision of a healthy home environment. Coparenting quality is associated with food parenting practices among both mothers and fathers. Interventions aiming to improve food parenting practices should include fathers and should consider targeting parents’ coparenting relationship.

Investigating the Efficacy of Genetic, Environmental, and Multifactorial Risk Information When Communicating Obesity Risk to Parents of Young Children

BACKGROUND

Effectively communicating with parents about children's obesity risk is of critical importance for preventive medicine and public health.

PURPOSE

The current study investigates the efficacy of communications focused on two primary causes of obesity: genes and environment.

METHODS

We compared parental feeding responses to messages focused on (i) genetics alone, (ii) family environment alone, (iii) genetics-family environment interaction (G × FE), and (iv) no causal message. We also examined whether parental guilt mediates the effect of message type on feeding. Our sample consisted of 190 parents, half mothers and half fathers, of children 3-7 years old. After receiving one of the four types of messages, parents chose foods for their child using the Virtual Reality Buffet measure. Parents responded to questionnaires in the lab and at 1-week follow-up.

RESULTS

In the VR Buffet, parents did not feed their children differently in message provision conditions versus control. There were, however, differences among message provision conditions wherein mothers who received any genetic information chose higher-calorie meals in the VR Buffet. At 1-week follow-up, parents who received information about genetics alone reported feeding their child more junk food and fatty meat on self-report food frequency assessments; there were no such differences for sugary beverages, sugary foods, or fast foods. Parental guilt was typically higher for participants who received family environment information alone but did not mediate the relation between information provision and feeding outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

While none of the messages improved feeding above the control condition, GxFE messages were associated with a better overall profile of outcomes. As such, it may be beneficial for messaging for parents about children's obesity risk to include content that reflects the complexity of genetic and environmental contributions to obesity risk.

Fathers' food parenting: A scoping review of the literature from 1990 to 2019

BACKGROUND

While food parenting is a robust area of inquiry, studies have largely focused on mothers. Given the diversity of family structures today and increases in fathers' engagement in caregiving, fathers' food parenting warrants attention.

OBJECTIVE

We present a scoping review of research on fathers' food parenting (1990-2019). Eligible studies included peer-reviewed research published in English documenting fathers' food parenting and presenting results for fathers separate from mothers.

RESULTS

Seventy-seven eligible studies were identified. Most studies were based in the U.S (63.6%) and utilized a cross-sectional design (93.5%). Approximately half of studies used a validated measure of food parenting (54.5%) and slightly less than 30% utilized theory (28.6%). Many studies did not report information on fathers' residential status (37.7%) or their relationship to the target child (biological vs social) (63.6%). Content analysis of study findings showed that: fathers are involved in food parenting, but at lower levels than mothers; there are few consistent mother-father differences in food parenting practices; and fathers' controlling food parenting is linked with negative nutrition outcomes in children while responsive food parenting is linked with positive child outcomes.

CONCLUSION

To better inform family interventions to prevent childhood obesity, future food parenting research with fathers should recognize the diversity of family structures and utilize prospective, theory-based, designs.

Coparenting in the feeding context: perspectives of fathers and mothers of preschoolers

PURPOSE

This study examined how fathers and mothers coparent around child feeding.

METHODS

Father-mother pairs (N = 30) of preschool-aged children (M child age = 4.1 years old) participated in joint or group interview sessions.

RESULTS

Three themes emerged from the qualitative analysis: (1) couples' division of labor regarding feeding tasks seemed to align with stereotypical gender roles; (2) couples noted that they attempted healthier family eating habits in comparison to families of origin and recognized the influence of extended family on their attempts at healthier feeding; (3) couples agreed on the importance of family mealtime, routines, and healthy meals, yet disagreed on strategies to limit unhealthy foods and achieve harmonious family meals.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified processes of coparenting and child feeding areas that were particularly challenging to manage among parents, which could be important targets for childhood obesity interventions.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

V, descriptive study.

Fathers' attachment representations and infant feeding practices

This study examined how fathers' adult attachment representations, assessed before the birth of their first child, predict feeding practices with their 8-month-old infants. Fathers have been underrepresented in child feeding research, particularly in longitudinal and observational studies. Feeding is a key parenting task of infancy and a growing number of studies have begun to explore the connection between attachment and parental feeding practices and behavior, revealing a clear link between mothers' adult attachment and how they feed their children. This is the first longitudinal examination of attachment as a prenatal predictor of fathers' infant feeding behavior. Participants were 118 first-time fathers and their infants. Adult Attachment Interviews were conducted in the third trimester of pregnancy, and father-infant feeding interactions were observed at home when the infant was 8-months-old. Videotaped feedings were coded using Chatoor's Feeding Scale (1997). Compared to other fathers, (1) those with secure attachment representations were more attuned to their infants during feeding, (2) those with dismissing representations were less attuned, and (3) those with unresolved trauma displayed more controlling behaviors. Fathers were more controlling with their sons than their daughters across all attachment representations. Study results suggest that father's infant feeding behaviors may influence by their own attachment representations. The links to fathers' controlling feeding practices are noteworthy because of the negative implications controlling parental feeding practices can have on child outcomes. The prediction of paternal feeding behaviors from assessments conducted prenatally has important intervention implications.

Development and preliminary validation of a feeding coparenting scale (FCS)

Evidence is growing that fathers, along with mothers, play an important role in children's eating and obesity risk. Qualitative work with a small sample found that the roles of fathers and mothers are not mutually exclusive in shaping their child's eating behaviors, rather fathers and mothers may relate to one another in their roles as parents in food parenting (i.e., feeding coparenting). There is currently no self-reported measure of how fathers and mothers coparent around child feeding. However, it would be useful in order to be able to assess this construct more broadly. Hence, based on prior qualitative work and findings related to the roles of fathers and mothers in food parenting, we developed a feeding coparenting scale (FCS). Parent responses on the FCS and measures of related constructs (i.e., relationship satisfaction, traditional gender-role attitudes, general coparenting, and perceived involvement in child feeding tasks) that were hypothesized to relate to feeding coparenting were assessed among 307 parents (n = 178 females) of preschool-aged children through Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) in order to examine the validity and reliability of the FCS. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to examine the psychometric properties of the FCS. Three factors emerged: 1) shared positive views and values in child feeding, 2) active engagement in child feeding, and 3) solo parenting in child feeding. A total feeding coparenting score was also calculated. Support for construct validity of the measure with constructs hypothesized to be associated with FCS (e.g., relationship satisfaction) was observed. The internal consistency of the FCS total and subscales was adequate for whole sample, fathers, and mothers. Results suggest that the FCS may be a useful tool for assessing how mothers and fathers work together with each other in the child feeding domain.

The Influence of Fathers on Children's Physical Activity and Dietary Behaviors: Insights, Recommendations and Future Directions

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Although fathers have an important influence on their children's well-being, their unique influence on child lifestyle behaviors has been largely overlooked in the literature. To inform and encourage future research, this paper provides an overview of existing studies that have examined the influence of fathers on the physical activity and dietary behaviors of their children.

RECENT FINDINGS

While the available data indicate that fathers' behaviors and parenting practices likely play an important role in promoting healthy behaviors in children, the evidence base is limited by a reliance on observational designs and small, ungeneralizable samples. This paper also provides a summary of the methods, research findings, and experiential insights we have gained while conducting the "Healthy Dads, Healthy Kids" randomized controlled trials, which tested the efficacy and effectiveness of a socio-culturally targeted program that engages fathers to improve their own health and the health of their children. The paper concludes with a series of recommendations for recruiting and engaging fathers and a summary of directions for future research.