A Vicious Cycle: A Social-Psychological Account of Extreme Racial Disparities in School Discipline

Teachers' Implementation of the Identity Project Is Associated With Increases in U.S. High School Students' Ethnic-Racial Identity Exploration

Ethnic-racial identity formation has significant consequences for positive youth development. Existing findings support the efficacy of the Identity Project, a school-based ethnic-racial identity intervention, when delivered by researchers; however, effectiveness of the program when delivered by teachers is unknown. This study examined changes in adolescents' (N = 180; 42.2% male, 50.6% female, 6.7% another gender identity; Mage = 14.11, SD = 0.33; 38.3% Latinx, 33.9% White, 15.0% Black, 9.4% Asian American, 3.3% another ethnoracial background) ethnic-racial identity exploration as a function of their teachers' implementation of the Identity Project. Findings indicated that ethnic-racial identity exploration significantly increased from pretest to posttest, and this did not vary based on familial ethnic-racial socialization, student-teacher ethnoracial match/mismatch, gender, immigrant status, or ethnoracial background. This study provides preliminary evidence that U.S. educators can be trained to efficaciously implement the Identity Project with high school students and, furthermore, that this approach to program dissemination may not only facilitate scale-up but also result in greater gains for adolescents relative to research-led implementations.

Systematic review of the associations of SWPBS with exclusionary discipline and disproportionality in U.S. schools

In response to patterns of educational inequity, many schools implement system-wide behavioral frameworks to reduce exclusionary discipline. School-wide positive behavior supports (SWPBS) is one such framework that seeks to support socially appropriate behavior by enhancing the capacity of schools to implement research-validated practices. However, there remains to be a systematic analysis of the extent to which SWPBS improves educational equity by reducing disparities in exclusionary discipline. The purpose of the systematic review was to evaluate research on the association of SWPBS with exclusionary discipline and racial discipline disproportionality. In total, 42 articles met the full inclusion criteria of a literature search conducted between 2018 and 2020. Study results were mixed regarding whether SWPBS was associated with reductions in exclusionary discipline and only a few studies provided evidence that SWPBS helps reduce exclusionary discipline disproportionality. Limitations of this research signal a need for attention to both data disaggregation and root causes of continued disproportionate discipline practices.

Using National Data to Understand the Contextual Factors and Negative Experiences that Explain Racial Differences in the School Misbehavior of Ninth Grade Boys and Girls

The literature linking adulthood criminality to cumulative disadvantage and early school misbehavior demonstrates that understanding the mechanisms underlying student behavior and the responses of teachers and administrators is crucial in comprehending racial/ethnic disparities in actual or perceived school misbehavior. We use data on 19,160 ninth graders from the nationally representative High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 to show that boys' and girls' negative achievement and negative experiences with teachers relate more closely to school misbehavior than the contextual measures (e.g., negative peer climate, proportion Black) that have often been emphasized as most salient for misbehavior. Differences in negative achievement and experiences completely explain Black boys', Latinx boys', and Black girls' heightened levels of school misbehavior relative to White youth, and Asian boys' and girls' lower levels of school misbehavior. In contrast, differences in negative achievement and experiences only partially explain Latinx girls' higher levels of school misbehavior relative to White girls.

Black and White Adults' Racial and Gender Stereotypes of Psychopathology Symptoms in Black and White Children

Adults' judgments of children's behaviors play a critical role in assessment and treatment of childhood psychopathology. Judgments of children's psychiatric symptoms are likely influenced by racial biases, but little is known about the specific racial biases adults hold about children's psychiatric symptoms, which could play a critical role in childhood mental health disparities. This study examined one form of such biases, racial stereotypes, to determine if White and Black adults hold implicit and explicit racial stereotypes about common childhood psychopathology symptoms, and if these stereotypes vary by child gender and disorder type. Participants included 82 self-identified Black men, 84 Black woman, 1 Black transgender individual, 1 Black genderfluid individual, 81 White men, and 85 White women. Analyses of implicit stereotypes revealed that White adults associated psychopathology symptoms more strongly with Black children than did Black adults (p < .001). All adults held stronger implicit racial stereotypes for oppositional defiant disorder, anxiety, and depression than for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (p < .001). For explicit stereotypes, White adults generally associated psychopathology symptoms more with Black children than did Black adults but effects varied across child gender and disorder type. As the first study to examine racial and gender stereotypes across common childhood psychopathology symptoms, these findings point to a need for further investigation of the presence and impact of racial biases in the mental healthcare system for Black youth and to identify interventions to mitigate the impacts of racial biases to inform racial equity in mental healthcare in the United States.

Who you know influences where you go: Intergroup contact attenuates bias in trainee teachers' school preferences

The vicious cycle of educational inequality may be maintained and perpetuated by teachers' lack of desire to work in socioeconomically deprived communities. Across two studies (Ntotal = 606), we experimentally investigated whether teachers' aversions to such settings could be mitigated by contact experiences with (a) people experiencing financial hardship and (b) children from disadvantaged backgrounds. Trainee teachers rated their levels of desire to work in schools that varied in terms of the socioeconomic backgrounds and diversity of their student populations. They also reported their contact experiences. Although, overall, teachers showed an aversion to working in a school that served a diverse and low-income community compared to one with average student demographics, this effect was attenuated when teachers had more prior contact with both close others in financial hardship and children from disadvantaged backgrounds. These findings were replicated across both studies. Further analyses also revealed that the relation between contact and school desirability may, at least in part, be mediated by changes in teaching self-efficacy. These findings demonstrate the potential value of teachers' contact with other groups as a method of reducing bias in education.

Children and adolescents rectify unequal allocations of leadership duties in the classroom

Little is known about how children and adolescents evaluate unequal teacher allocations of leadership duties based on ethnicity-race and gender in the classroom. U.S. boys and girls, White (40.7%), Multiracial (18.5%), Black/African American (16.0%), Latine (14.2%), Asian (5.5%), Pacific Islander (0.4%), and other (4.7%) ethnic-racial backgrounds, 8-14 years, N = 275, evaluated teacher allocations of high-status leadership positions favoring specific ethnic-racial or gender groups during 2018-2021. Adolescents, more than children, negatively evaluated unequal teacher allocations of leadership duties that resulted in group-based inequalities, expected peers who shared the identity of a group disadvantaged by the teacher's allocation to view it more negatively than others, and rectified inequalities. Understanding perceptions of teacher-based bias provides an opportunity for interventions designed to create fair and just classrooms that motivate all students to achieve.

The Biased Enforcement of Rarely Followed Rules

We examined whether the enforcement of phantom rules-frequently broken and rarely enforced codified rules-varies by the race of the rule breaker. First, we analyzed whether race affects when 311 calls, a nonemergency service, end in arrest in New York City. Across 10 years, we found that calls from census blocks of neighborhoods consisting of mostly White individuals were 65% less likely to escalate to arrest than those where White people were the numerical minority. Next, we experimentally manipulated transgressor race and found that participants (N = 393) who were high in social dominance orientation were more likely to route 311 calls to 911 when the transgressor was Black (vs. White). We also explored the subjective experience of phantom rule enforcement; People of color report they are more likely to be punished for violating phantom rules compared to White people. Overall, we find evidence of racism in the enforcement of phantom rules.

Managers Can Support Employees in Working-Class Contexts by Promoting Growth Mindsets

White-collar workplaces are critical "gateway" contexts. They play a crucial role in providing valuable opportunities and upward social mobility. Some groups are less likely, however, to feel they belong in these settings. For example, those with a college degree may feel relatively at ease. However, those without may be uncertain about whether they will be fully included. We examine one possibility for addressing these class-based belonging gaps. A growing education literature demonstrates the power of growth mindsets. We extend this research to the workplace and test its benefits. In two preregistered experiments (N = 1,777), we find that endorsing growth mindsets can support working-class (WK) individuals. When managers have a growth mindset, WK individuals report high sense of belonging. The effect occurred because managers with growth mindsets reduced identity threat. A preregistered survey of employees in the real world (N = 300) triangulated these findings. Sense of belonging was higher among those who believed their manager had a growth mindset. Furthermore, they reported greater job satisfaction and commitment. These findings have important implications for the growing conversation on addressing class divides.

The spillover effect of school suspensions on adolescents' classroom climate perceptions and academic achievement

Proponents of exclusionary discipline claim that removing disruptive peers from the classroom benefits well-behaved students. Given educators' increasingly widespread use of suspensions in response to adolescents' minor behavioral infractions (e.g., dress code violations, backtalk), it is critical that we examine whether this theory translates into practice. Using two independent samples (Study 1: N = 1305 adolescents enrolled in 64 math classrooms; Mage = 13.00 years, range = 10-16; 53% White, 41% Black, 6% Other race; 50% girls; 64% economically disadvantaged. Study 2: N = 563 adolescents enrolled in 40 science classrooms; Mage = 12.83 years, range = 10-16; 55% White, 40% Black, 5% Other race; 51% girls; 62% economically disadvantaged), we adopted a two-study approach to examine the mediational role of classroom climate perceptions in the link between classroom-level suspension rates for minor infractions and adolescents' math and science achievement. Results indicated that high classroom-level rates of suspensions for minor infractions were associated with poor academic outcomes among suspended students as well as their non-suspended classmates. Students' classroom climate perceptions mediated the links between classroom suspension rates and non-suspended students' academic outcomes. Shifting away from strict and punitive disciplinary schedules may grant school-based adults the ability to create classroom climates more attuned to adolescents' developmental and learning needs.

Spotlighting racism in schools: Teacher mentors and the mediating effect of school safety

Youth are more likely to succeed when they feel safe at school and have access to caring relationships with adults. Systemic racism interrupts access to these assets. Within schools, racially/ethnically minoritized youth encounter policies rooted in racism, leading to decreased perceptions of school safety. Having a teacher mentor may mitigate some of the harmful effects of systemic racism and discriminatory practices. Yet, teacher mentors may not be accessible to all students. In this study, the authors tested a putative explanatory hypothesis for differences between Black and white children's access to teacher mentors. Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health were used. Linear regression models were used to predict access to teacher mentors, and a mediational analysis was conducted to determine the effect of school safety on the relationship between race and teacher mentor access. Results indicate that students from higher SES backgrounds and those with parents who have greater educational attainment are more likely to have a teacher mentor. Furthermore, Black students are less likely than white students to have a teacher mentor, and school safety mediates that relationship. The implications of this study suggest that challenging institutional racism and structures may improve perceptions of school safety and teacher mentor accessibility.

Teachers' Beliefs, Values, and Likelihood of Talking about Group-Based Discrimination

A teacher survey (N = 290) based on the social reasoning developmental model investigated (1) beliefs and values about using class time for discussing discrimination and reported frequency of discussing discrimination based on different social identities and (2) factors predicting teachers' frequency for discussing racial discrimination in the classroom. Most participants reported beliefs that all five identities were worth discussing in class, yet teachers most strongly believed that wealth, race, and native language affect students' education. Higher beliefs that prejudice can change, school support, and beliefs that race affects students' education predicted higher teacher reports for talking about racial discrimination.

National patterns of vulnerable decision points in school discipline

In this study, we identified the specific discipline decision situations (i.e., vulnerable decision points [VDPs]) that contribute most to racial discipline disparities from a sample of 2020 schools across the United States. We also examined how much VDPs contributed to overall discipline disparities and the extent to which there was similarity among the strongest VDPs within each school. Last, we directly compared the VDP that contributed most to disparities in each school to situations with the highest rates of office discipline referrals (ODRs) to identify the extent of agreement with overall school discipline patterns. We found the most common VDPs within schools to be subjective behaviors (e.g., defiance, disruption) in classrooms throughout the day, with ODRs for physical aggression contributing notably to disparities among the top 10 VDPs. The strongest single VDP accounted for an average of 17% of racial disparities across the school and the top three VDPs accounted for 37% of disparities. The strongest three VDPs within schools also were remarkably consistent across behavior and location. Finally, there was moderate agreement between situations with the most ODRs and those with the strongest racial disparities, with 63% of schools in the sample having VDPs identical to their situations with most ODRs. In the absence of prescriptive analysis of their own school data, the results of this study provide school leaders and intervention researchers with more precise, promising targets for intervention to increase educational equity.

Highlighting health consequences of racial disparities sparks support for action

Racial disparities arise across many vital areas of American life, including employment, health, and interpersonal treatment. For example, one in three Black children lives in poverty (versus one in nine white children), and, on average, Black Americans live four fewer years compared with white Americans. Which disparity is more likely to spark reduction efforts? We find that highlighting disparities in health-related (versus economic) outcomes spurs greater social media engagement and support for disparity-mitigating policy. Further, reading about racial health disparities elicits greater support for action (e.g., protesting) compared with economic- or belonging-based disparities. This occurs in part because people view health disparities as violating morally sacred values, which enhances perceived injustice. This work elucidates which manifestations of racial inequality are most likely to prompt Americans to action.

Longitudinal relationships among exclusionary school discipline, adolescent substance use, and adult arrest: Public health implications of the school-to-prison pipeline

PURPOSE

Exclusionary school discipline is an initiating component of the school-to-prison pipeline that is racialized and may lead to short- and long-term negative substance use and criminal legal outcomes. However, these impacts, and racial disparities therein, have not been well explored empirically at the individual-level.

PROCEDURES

We analyzed data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (1995-2009). We fit survey-weighted multivariable logistic regression models to estimate reciprocal relationships between exclusionary discipline and adolescent substance use, between these factors and subsequent exposure to the adult criminal legal system, and whether these relationships were modified by race or ethnicity.

RESULTS

We found that students reporting substance use had 2.07 (95% CI 1.57, 2.75) times greater odds of reporting subsequent school discipline, and students exposed to school discipline had 1.59 (95% CI 1.26, 2.02) times greater odds of reporting subsequent substance use. Substance use and school discipline were associated with 2.69 (95% CI 2.25, 3.22) and 2.98 (95% CI 2.46, 3.60) times the odds of reporting subsequent adult criminal legal system exposure, respectively. There was little evidence of effect modification by race/ethnicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings indicate that school discipline and substance use are reciprocally associated and have direct implications for adolescent health and future criminal legal system exposure.

A pragmatic clinical effectiveness trial of a novel alternative to punishment for school-based substance use infractions: study protocol for the iDECIDE curriculum

Background

Adolescents who use alcohol and other drugs on school campuses are at heightened risk for adverse consequences to their health and wellbeing. Schools have historically turned to punitive approaches as a first-line response to substance use. However, punishment is an ineffective deterrent for substance use and may cause harm and increase inequities. iDECIDE (Drug Education Curriculum: Intervention, Diversion, and Empowerment) was developed as a scalable and youth-centered drug education and diversion program that can be used as a skills-based alternative to punishment. We aim to evaluate the effectiveness of the iDECIDE curriculum as an alternative to punishment (ATP) for school-based substance use infractions in the context of a large pragmatic clinical effectiveness study.

Methods

We will conduct a Type 1, hybrid effectiveness-implementation trial. Using a stepped wedge design with approximately 90 middle and high schools in Massachusetts, we will randomly allocate the timing of implementation of the iDECIDE curriculum compared to standard disciplinary response over approximately 36 months. We will test the overarching hypothesis that student-level outcomes (knowledge of drug effects and attitudes about substance use; frequency of substance use; school connectedness) improve over time as schools transition from a standard disciplinary response to having access to iDECIDE. The secondary aims of this trial are to (1) explore whether change in student-level outcomes vary according to baseline substance use, number of peers who use alcohol or other drugs, age, gender, and school urbanicity, and (2) determine the acceptability and feasibility of the iDECIDE curriculum through qualitative stakeholder interviews.

Discussion

Substance use continues to be a major and rapidly evolving problem in schools. The importance of moving away from punishment to more restorative approaches is widely accepted; however, scalable alternatives have not yet been identified. This will be the first study to our knowledge to systematically evaluate an ATP for students who violate the school substance use policy and is well poised to have important implications for policy making.

Adult's veracity judgments of Black and White children's statements: the role of perceiver and target race and prejudice-related concerns

Introduction

Seldom has work investigated systematic biases in adults' truth and lie judgments of children's reports. Research demonstrates that adults tend to exhibit a bias toward believing a child is telling the truth, but it is unknown whether this truth bias applies equally to all children. Given the pervasiveness of racial prejudice and anti-Black racism in the United States, the current study examined whether adults are more or less likely to believe a child is telling the truth based on the race of the child (Black or White), the race of the adult perceiver (Black or White), and the perceiver's concerns regarding appearing unprejudiced.

Methods

Using an online data-collection platform, 593 Black and White American adults reviewed fictitious vignettes in which a child denied committing a misbehavior at school (e.g., damaging a laptop). The race of the child in the vignette was manipulated using an AI-generated photo of either a Black child or a White child. After reading each story, participants provided a categorical veracity judgment by indicating whether they believed the child in the story was lying (and therefore committed the misdeed) or telling the truth (and was innocent), as well as rated how honest or deceptive the child was being on a continuous scale. Participants also completed questionnaires assessing their internal (personal) and external (normative) motivations to respond in non-prejudiced ways.

Results and discussion

Results indicated that systematic racial biases occur in adults' veracity judgments of children's statements. Both Black and White participants exhibited a truth bias in their veracity judgments of Black children, but not when evaluating the deceptiveness of White children. Consistent with the prejudice-related concerns hypothesis, the observed truth bias toward Black children was moderated by individual differences in participants' desire to respond without prejudice and whether those motivations stem from external or internal sources. The current findings present novel evidence regarding racial bias and prejudice-related concerns as potential barriers to making veracity judgments of children's statements and, ultimately, successful lie detection.

White privilege and teacher perceptions of teacher-child relationship quality

In this study, we investigated differences in teachers' perceptions of the teacher-child relationship from kindergarten through second grade as a function of child race and gender from the perspective of critical race theory and the cultural synchrony hypothesis. Given the extensive evidence of White privilege and anti-Black racism in the US education system, we expected that teachers, particularly White teachers, would perceive their relationships with White children more positively than with Black children. Controlling for family SES and child gender, results supported this hypothesis. Black boys had the highest risk of being perceived by teachers as having poor relationships with teachers in kindergarten (highest conflict and lowest closeness) and White girls had the lowest risk. In addition, teachers perceived relationships with Black boys as increasing in conflict across first and second grades at higher rates than with White and female children. These findings remained after examining teacher-child racial match as a moderator. Our results indicate that racism and sexism work together to explain the perceptions teachers have of children in the early elementary grades. Implications for training teachers and school psychologists on anti-racism and cultural competency are discussed.

Early care and education

This chapter briefly reviews the history of early care and education (ECE) in the United States, the ECE conceptual frameworks, how ECE is organized, who uses ECE, and associations between ECE experiences and child outcomes. Nonparent care is now experienced by most children in the United States, with home-based care most common for infants and toddlers and center-based care for preschoolers. ECE settings that involve frequent and responsive teacher-child interactions and access to age-appropriate activities appear to promote children's cognitive and social development, although those associations tend to be quite modest. Publicly funded programs like Head Start and pre-kindergarten programs tend to serve children from low-income families, and are successful in promoting school readiness skills, especially early academic skills. However, the impacts of today's programs largely disappear in the first years of elementary school, and even flipped from being positive to negative in the methodologically most rigorous studies. Explanations for this fadeout are explored.

Effects of school environment on depression among Black and White adolescents

While the school environment is critical for adolescents' psychological development, how the school environment influences depression among different racial groups has not been fully explored. This study aims to identify the effects of the school environment (school connectedness, school climates, trouble with peers and teachers) on depressive symptoms among Black and White adolescents. It also compares how the effects of school environments differ between Black and White adolescents. This study analyzed wave 6 of the Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study, a longitudinal birth cohort study in 20 major cities across the United States. Almost three-fourth (73.39%) of the adolescents were Black, and 26.61% were White. About half (50.46%) of the adolescents were females, and the mean age of adolescents was 15.39. Multiple regression analysis showed that higher school connectedness and less frequent troubles with teachers were associated with lower depression among Black adolescents. In contrast, only school connectedness was associated with depression among White adolescents. Higher school connectedness was associated with lower depressive symptoms for both Black and White adolescents. However, the magnitude of the effects of school connectedness was found to be statistically weaker among Black adolescents. These findings suggest a need for creating a racially equitable school environment that makes every student feel more connected to their schools, especially Black students.

At the Intersection: The Influence of Race on Women’s Leadership Self-Efficacy Development

Leadership self-efficacy (LSE), one’s beliefs in their own ability, knowledge, and skills in leading others effectively, can play a large role in how individuals develop and perform as leaders. Understanding the dynamics of LSE growth may be particularly important when considering the development of female leaders. The institutional barriers and gender inequities experienced by women can change the trajectory of their course to leadership; however, the ways in which the course changes likely differ as a function of intersecting identities. Rather than presume all women share common leadership development opportunities and experiences, we contend that women’s LSE is informed by experiences unique to their racial and ethnic backgrounds. According to intersectionality theory, individuals are part of multiple social categories that can shape their experiences. In the current paper, we focus on how the intersection of gender and race influence the development of LSE across the life span for White, Black, Asian American women, and Latinas. Integrating social cognitive theory with intersectionality theory, we explore how gendered and racialized experiences prior to and during adulthood shape women’s leadership self-efficacy. We also discuss ways that organizations can help reduce and counteract negative consequences of barriers to LSE for different women.

Collateral consequences of the school-to-prison pipeline: Adolescent substance use and developmental risk

OBJECTIVE

The adolescent health consequences of the school-to-prison pipeline remain underexplored. We test whether initiating components of the school-to-prison pipeline-suspensions, expulsions, and school policing-are associated with higher school-average levels of student substance use, depressed feelings, and developmental risk in the following year.

METHOD

We linked 2003-2014 data from the California Healthy Kids Survey and the Civil Rights Data Collection from over 4,800 schools and 4,950,000 students. With lagged multi-level models, we estimated relationships between the school prevalence of total discipline, out-of-school discipline, and police-involved discipline, and standardized school-average levels of 6 substance use measures and 8 measures of developmental risk, respectively.

RESULTS

The prevalence of school discipline predicted subsequent school-mean substance use and developmental risk. A one-unit higher prevalence of total discipline predicted higher school levels (in standard deviations) of binge drinking alcohol (0.14, 95% CI: 0.11, 0.17), drinking alcohol (0.15, 95% CI: 0.12, 0.18), smoking tobacco (0.09, 95% CI: 0.06, 0.12), using cannabis (0.16, 95% CI: 0.14, 0.19), using other drugs (0.17, 95% CI: 0.14, 0.21), and violence/harassment (0.16, 95% CI: 0.12, 0.2). Total discipline predicted lower levels of reported community support (-0.07, 95% CI: -0.1, -0.05), feeling safe in school (-0.12, 95% CI: -0.16, -0.09), and school support (-0.16, 95% CI: -0.19, -0.12). Associations were greater in magnitude for more severe out-of-school discipline. Findings were inconsistent for police-involved discipline.

CONCLUSION

Exclusionary school discipline and school policing-core elements of the school-to-prison pipeline-are previously unidentified population predictors of adolescent substance use and developmental risk.

Teachers' anti-black biases in disciplinary decisions: The role of mindfulness

Research suggests that disparities in exclusionary discipline can be explained, in part, by teachers' anti-Black biases in disciplinary decision-making. An emerging body of literature also speaks to the benefits of cultivating mindfulness for bias reduction. The present study adds to the literature by assessing whether mindfulness is associated with differences in teachers' responses to student disciplinary infractions as a function of student signaled race, which was manipulated as a between-subjects factor. We predicted that teachers with lower levels of mindfulness, as measured via self-report, would demonstrate greater anti-Black bias in response to students' disciplinary files than teachers with higher levels of mindfulness. Teachers (N = 179) completed the study via an online research participant platform. Consistent with hypothesis, we found that participants' self-reported mindfulness in teaching moderated their responses to a disciplinary file as a function of student signaled race, b = -1.05, F(1, 175) = 4.50, p = 0.035, η_p² = 0.03, 95% CI [-2.03, -0.07]. Specifically, participants with lower levels of mindfulness rated the disciplinary infraction as more severe if it was enacted by a Black boy compared to a White boy. At higher levels of mindfulness, however, the opposite pattern emerged; participants demonstrated more leniency if the infraction was perpetrated by a Black boy, relative to a White boy. Our research adds to the literature and suggests that improving teachers' ability to remain present in the classroom may improve their ability to make more equitable decisions in managing students' misbehavior.

Pathways to emotion regulation in young Black children: An attachment perspective

Attachment theory proposes that a central function of caregivers is to provide protection and co-regulation of children's distress in the context of threat, and that children's secure attachment (confidence in a secure base/safe haven when needed) precipitates positive developmental cascades in part by supporting children's emotion regulation. Yet the field of attachment has rarely considered the unique experiences of African American families, including the context of systemic racism in which caregivers must provide physical and emotional protection for their children, and in which children must learn to regulate emotion across different sociocultural contexts (emotional flexibility and "code-switching"; Dunbar et al., 2022a; Lozada et al., 2022; Stern et al., 2022b). This chapter brings attachment theory into conversation with the field of positive Black youth development to explore pathways to emotion regulation in African American children during early childhood. In doing so, we (a) highlight the strengths of African American caregivers in providing unique and specific forms of protection via racial and emotional socialization; (b) review research on predictors and consequences of secure caregiver-child relationships in Black families, with a focus on the outcome of child emotion regulation; (c) present a theoretical framework for understanding cascades of positive Black youth development via healthy relationships and emotion regulation; and (d) outline promising new directions for more inclusive and just attachment research.

A safe and just operating space for human identity: a systems perspective

A safe and just operating space for socioecological systems is a powerful bridging concept in sustainability science. It integrates biophysical earth-system tipping points (ie, thresholds at which small changes can lead to amplifying effects) with social science considerations of distributional equity and justice. Often neglected, however, are the multiple feedback loops between self-identity and planetary boundaries. Environmental degradation can reduce self-identification with nature, leading to decreased pro-environmental behaviours and decreased cooperation with out-groups, further increasing the likelihood of transgressing planetary boundaries. This vicious cycle competes with a virtuous one, where improving environmental quality enhances the integration of nature into self-identity and improves health, thereby facilitating prosocial and pro-environmental behaviour. These behavioural changes can also cascade up to influence social and economic institutions. Given a possible minimum degree of individual self-care to maintain health and prosperity, there would seem to exist an analogous safe and just operating space for self-identity, for which system stewardship for planetary health is crucial.

Countering Educational Disparities Among Black Boys and Black Adolescent Boys from Pre-K to High School: A Life Course-Intersectional Perspective

Accounts of educational opportunity gaps for Black boys are overwhelmingly focused on later years of development. Achievement and discipline disparities are evident across their lifespan. Life course and intersectionality theories were used to develop a framework for understanding obstacles Black boys face during their preschool through high school years. Outlining the cumulative impact of threats and protective factors for their academic success provides insight for supporting Black boys at various developmental stages. Implications include tools for families, educators, and practitioners. This perspective will enhance the collective understanding of the resiliency of Black boys and support their educational success throughout the life course.

Socioeconomic status biases among children and adolescents: The role of school diversity and teacher beliefs in Nepal

Investigating socioeconomic status (SES) biases, Nepalese children and adolescents (N = 605, 52% girls, M_age  = 13.21, SD_age  = 1.74) attending schools that varied by SES composition were asked to anticipate whether a peer would include a high or low SES character as a math partner. Novel findings were that students attending mixed SES schools were more likely to expect inclusion of a low SES character than were students attending high SES schools. With age, high SES participants attending mixed SES schools increasingly expected the inclusion of the low SES character. Moreover, teachers' democratic beliefs in high SES schools predicted inclusive expectations. Teacher beliefs and school diversity play a significant role for fostering students' inclusivity in educational contexts.

Testing the effectiveness of the Developing Inclusive Youth program: A multisite randomized control trial

The Developing Inclusive Youth program is a classroom-based, individually administered video tool that depicts peer-based social and racial exclusion, combined with teacher-led discussions. A multisite randomized control trial was implemented with 983 participants (502 females; 58.5% White, 41.5% Ethnic/racial minority; Mage  = 9.64 years) in 48 third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade classrooms across six schools. Children in the program were more likely to view interracial and same-race peer exclusion as wrong, associate positive traits with peers of different racial, ethnic, and gender backgrounds, and report play with peers from diverse backgrounds than were children in the control group. Many approaches are necessary to achieve antiracism in schools. This intervention is one component of this goal for developmental science.

Integrating mindfulness and connection practices into preservice teacher education results in durable automatic race bias reductions

Automatic race bias, which is the tendency to associate positive attributes more quickly with White as compared to Black faces, reflects enculturation processes linked to inequitable teaching behaviors. In sample of undergraduate preservice teachers (N = 88), we examined whether a novel mindfulness and connection practice intervention without anti-bias content incorporated into undergraduate teacher education would result in reduced automatic race bias favoring White faces. Random assignment to the intervention predicted significantly reduced race preference for White child faces immediately after the intervention. These significant reductions persisted at the 6-month follow-up, which are the most durable reductions in automatic race bias reported to date in adults. Data from semi-structured interviews indicated that the intervention enhanced self-awareness and self-regulation while reducing automatic responding among preservice teachers. These qualities are instrumental to adaptive teaching and putative mechanisms for reducing automatic race bias. The potential value of integrating mindfulness and connection practices into undergraduate preservice teacher education is discussed.

A scalable empathic-mindset intervention reduces group disparities in school suspensions

Suspensions remove students from the learning environment at high rates throughout the United States. Policy and theory highlight social groups that face disproportionately high suspension rates-racial-minoritized students, students with a prior suspension, and students with disabilities. We used an active placebo-controlled, longitudinal field experiment (N_teachers = 66, N_students = 5822) to test a scalable "empathic-mindset" intervention, a 45- to 70-min online exercise to refocus middle school teachers on understanding and valuing the perspectives of students and on sustaining positive relationships even when students misbehave. In preregistered analyses, this exercise reduced suspension rates especially for Black and Hispanic students, cutting the racial disparity over the school year from 10.6 to 5.9 percentage points, a 45% reduction. Significant reductions were also observed for other groups of concern. Moreover, reductions persisted through the next year when students interacted with different teachers, suggesting that empathic treatment with even one teacher in a critical period can improve students' trajectories through school.

Color disparities in cognitive aging among Puerto Ricans on the archipelago

This research seeks to contribute new understanding of color disparities and gender in cognitive aging among older adults residing in Puerto Rico. We use the island-representative Puerto Rican Elderly Health Conditions (PREHCO) longitudinal study that measures cognitive health at baseline and cognitive decline between waves. In pooled models, we discern little or no color disparities in cognition at baseline. Sex-stratified models of baseline cognition indicate that Trigueño men slightly outperform white men. In contrast, color disparities in cognitive decline are apparent. In just four years between the two waves of PREHCO, on a 20-point cognitive test scale, Black men experienced 0.78 more points of cognitive decline, while Trigueño men experienced 0.44 more points of cognitive decline than white men in Puerto Rico. Mestiza women experience 0.80 less points of cognitive decline relative to white women. Nearly all of the color/race association with cognitive decline appears to be independent from health behaviors and conditions, individual human capital attainment, and family background. While lower-status color groups more frequently report discrimination, discrimination does not mediate the impact of color/skin tone and cognitive performance, suggesting the importance of further research on the role of broader dimensions of life course structural racism.

School Health Predictors of the School-to-Prison Pipeline: Substance Use and Developmental Risk and Resilience Factors

PURPOSE

The purpose of the study is to establish prospective relationships among school mean levels of substance use, developmental risk and resilience factors, and school discipline.

METHODS

We linked 2003-2014 data from the California Healthy Kids Survey and the Civil Rights Data Collection, from more than 4,800 schools and 4,950,000 students. With lagged multilevel linear models, we estimated relationships among standardized school average levels of six substance use measures; eight developmental risk and resilience factors; and the prevalence of total discipline, out-of-school discipline, and police-involved discipline.

RESULTS

School mean substance use and risk/resilience factors predicted subsequent prevalence of discipline. For example, a one-standard deviation higher school mean level of smoking, binge drinking, and cannabis use was associated, respectively, with 16% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 14%, 18%), 18% (95% CI: 16%, 20%), and 21% (95% CI: 19%, 23%) higher subsequent prevalence of total discipline. A one-standard deviation higher mean level of community support and feeling safe in school was associated, respectively, with 21% (95% CI: 18%, 23%) and 9% (95% CI: 7%, 11%) lower total discipline. Higher violence/harassment was associated with 5% (95% CI: 4%, 7%) higher total discipline. Peer and home support, student resilience, and neighborhood safety were not associated with total discipline. Nearly all associations remained, attenuated, when we restricted to out-of-school and police-involved discipline.

CONCLUSIONS

Schools with students who, on average, have higher substance use, less school and community support, and feel less safe in schools have a higher prevalence of school discipline and police contact. The public health implications of mass criminalization extend beyond criminal legal system settings and into schools.

Fair Teachers, Fair Police? Assessing the Pathways between Perceptions of Teacher and Police Authority in Childhood and Adolescence

Existing research has shown that the quality of the relationship between teacher and child is associated with more positive perceptions of school authorities. There has been relatively less attention to the processes that connect attitudes towards different sources of authority, such as between teachers and police. The current study uses a counterfactual approach to estimate the direct and indirect effects of teacher-child relationships on children's later perceptions of police legitimacy. Using data from a longitudinal study of youth in Zurich, Switzerland, this study applies non-bipartite propensity score matching to identify matched pairs (n = 232 pairs, 55% male) of children with better versus worse relationships with their teacher at age 11 following a teacher change. Matched pairs were then compared on potential mediators (moral norms about deviant behavior and low self-control) at age 13 and perceptions of police legitimacy at age 15. The results demonstrate the importance of the quality of the relationships between students and teachers in shaping young people's interpersonal characteristics as well as perceptions of the world around them. Namely, if young people feel that they are being treated fairly by their teachers, they are more likely to distinguish behaviors that are right or wrong (moral norms) and control their actions (self-control). Moreover, as a result they are also more likely to perceive authorities such as police as legitimate agents that facilitate societal order.

Children’s Perspectives on Fairness and Inclusivity in the Classroom

School represents an important context for children’s social, moral, and identity development. Research indicates that supportive teacher-student relationships are significantly related to positive student academic achievement. Unfortunately, teacher bias as well as peer exclusion based on group identity (gender, race, ethnicity, and nationality) pervade many school contexts. The presence of these biases in the classroom is negatively related to students’ academic development, especially for children who are minoritized and marginalized. Very little research has connected teacher bias and children’s reasoning about bias and inequalities in the classroom context. The classroom is a complex environment in which to examine children’s social and moral reasoning about bias, given teachers’ position of authority which often includes power, status, and prestige. We propose that understanding both teacher bias and peer intergroup exclusion are essential for promoting more fair classrooms. This paper reviews foundational theory as well as the social reasoning developmental model as a framework for studying how children think about fairness and bias in the classroom context. We then discuss current research on children’s social-cognitive and moral capacities, particularly in the contexts of societal inequality and social inclusion or exclusion. Finally, this article proposes new directions for research to promote fairness and inclusivity in schools and suggests how these new lines of research might inform school-based interventions.

The relation between teacher and child race, teacher perceptions of disruptive behavior, and exclusionary discipline in preschool

In preschool, Black children are overrepresented in percentages of children suspended or expelled. Teachers' perceptions of and responses to children displaying disruptive behavior may be different depending on the race of the teacher and child. Although teacher-child race match is associated with a number of outcomes in K-12 students, research examining these links in preschool is limited. This study examined whether teachers' reported trajectories of children's disruptive behavior and use of discipline practices varied depending on teacher and child race in a sample of 349 preschoolers and their 144 teachers. Results indicated that teacher and child race were associated with teachers' ratings of children's disruptive behavior and reported use of exclusionary discipline practices.

The Time Is Now: Racism and the Responsibility of Emergency Medicine to Be Antiracist

The COVID-19 pandemic has shed light on the ongoing pandemic of racial injustice. In the context of these twin pandemics, emergency medicine organizations are declaring that "Racism is a Public Health Crisis." Accordingly, we are challenging emergency clinicians to respond to this emergency and commit to being antiracist. This courageous journey begins with naming racism and continues with actions addressing the intersection of racism and social determinants of health that result in health inequities. Therefore, we present a social-ecological framework that structures the intentional actions that emergency medicine must implement at the individual, organizational, community, and policy levels to actively respond to this emergency and be antiracist.

Lifting the Bar: A Relationship-Orienting Intervention Reduces Recidivism Among Children Reentering School From Juvenile Detention

When children return to school from juvenile detention, they face a severe stigma. We developed a procedure to orient educators and students toward each other as positive relationship partners during this period. In Study 1, through a structured exercise, students reentering school powerfully articulated to an educator of their choosing their prosocial hopes for school as well as challenges they faced. In a preliminary field trial (N = 47), presenting this self-introduction to this educator in a one-page letter via a third-party requesting the educator's help reduced recidivism to juvenile detention through the next semester from 69% to 29%. In Study 2 (preregistered), the letter led experienced teachers (N = 349) to express greater commitment to, anticipate more success for, and feel more love and respect for a student beginning their reentry into school, potentially initiating a better trajectory. The results suggest how relationship-orienting procedures may sideline bias and make school more supportive for students facing stigma.

Conversations about race in Black and White US families: Before and after George Floyd's death

In the United States, Black households and White households have very different conversations about race. After the death of George Floyd, Black parents were even more likely to have such conversations with their children and to prepare their children to experience racial bias than they were before Floyd’s death. White parents were less likely to talk about being White and more likely to socialize their children toward colorblindness. In addition, White parents remained relatively unconcerned that their children may experience or perpetrate racial bias.

Research has shown that Black parents are more likely than White parents to have conversations about race with their children, but few studies have directly compared the frequency and content of these conversations and how they change in response to national events. Here we examine such conversations in the United States before and after the killing of George Floyd. Black parents had conversations more often than White parents, and they had more frequent conversations post-Floyd. White parents remained mostly unchanged and, if anything, were less likely to talk about being White and more likely to send colorblind messages. Black parents were also more worried than White parents—both that their children would experience racial bias and that their children would perpetrate racial bias, a finding that held both pre- and post-Floyd. Thus, even in the midst of a national moment on race, White parents remained relatively silent and unconcerned about the topic.

Racial Awareness and Bias Begin Early: Developmental Entry Points, Challenges, and a Call to Action

Overt expressions of racial intolerance have surged precipitously. The dramatic uptick in hate crimes and hate speech is not lost on young children. But how, and how early, do children become aware of racial bias? And when do their own views of themselves and others become infused with racial bias? This article opens with a brief overview of the existing experimental evidence documenting developmental entry points of racial bias in infants and young children and how it unfolds. The article then goes on to identify gaps in the extant research and outlines three steps to narrow them. By bringing together what we know and what remains unknown, the goal is to provide a springboard, motivating a more comprehensive psychological-science framework that illuminates early steps in the acquisition of racial bias. If we are to interrupt race bias at its inception and diminish its effects, then we must build strong cross-disciplinary bridges that span the psychological and related social sciences to shed light on the pressing issues facing our nation's young children and their families.

Beyond students: how teacher psychology shapes educational inequality

Although researchers investigating psychological contributors to educational inequality have traditionally focused on students, a growing literature highlights the importance of teachers' psychology in shaping disparities in students' educational achievement and attainment. In this review, we discuss recent advances linking teachers' attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs to inequality in students' outcomes. First, we identify specific aspects of teacher psychology that contribute to educational disparities, including teachers' biases, perceptions and expectations of students, beliefs about the nature of ability, and beliefs about group differences. Second, we synthesize mechanisms underlying the effects of teacher psychology on educational inequality, including teachers' disparate assessment of students' work and abilities, interpersonal interaction with students, and psychological impact on students. Implications for future research and interventions are discussed.

The influence of in-group and out-group favouritism on the disciplinary practice of ethnic majority and minority preservice teachers

Teacher judgments and the disciplinary sanctioning of pupils can be understood as a function of the ethnic match, which means whether or not teachers and pupils have the same ethnic background. According to social identity theory, teachers should be motivated to protect positive self-esteem and therefore favour pupils of their ethnic in-group over pupils of their ethnic out-group. Following system justification theory however, it must be assumed that teachers also base their judgments and their disciplinary behaviour on the acceptance of social hierarchies. According to this theory, ethnic minority teachers should therefore favour ethnic majority pupils over ethnic minority pupils. We test these hypotheses by conducting an experimental study among 196 preservice teachers. The results suggest that ethnic majority participants do not discriminate against ethnic minority pupils. However, although ethnic minority participants seem to explicitly favour their in-group, they also implicitly tend to have more negative stereotypes about them. Moreover, the more negative explicit and implicit stereotypes ethnic minority participants have against pupils of their in-group, the more severely they punish pupils of their out-group. This could suggest that ethnic minority participants felt the desire to compensate for a negative view of their in-group by treating their out-group more harshly.

A scalable empathic supervision intervention to mitigate recidivism from probation and parole

Incarceration is a pervasive issue in the United States that is enormously costly to families, communities, and society at large. The path from prison back to prison may depend on the relationship a person has with their probation or parole officer (PPO). If the relationship lacks appropriate care and trust, violations and recidivism (return to jail or prison) may be more likely to occur. Here, we test whether an "empathic supervision" intervention with PPOs-that aims to reduce collective blame against and promote empathy for the perspectives of adults on probation or parole (APPs)-can reduce rates of violations and recidivism. The intervention highlights the unreasonable expectation that all APPs will reoffend (collective blame) and the benefits of empathy-valuing APPs' perspectives. Using both within-subject (monthly official records for 10 mo) and between-subject (treatment versus control) comparisons in a longitudinal study with PPOs in a large US city (NPPOs = 216; NAPPs =∼20,478), we find that the empathic supervision intervention reduced collective blame against APPs 10 mo postintervention and reduced between-subject violations and recidivism, a 13% reduction that would translate to less taxpayer costs if scaled. Together, these findings illustrate that very low-cost psychological interventions that target empathy in relationships can be cost effective and combat important societal outcomes in a lasting manner.

Associations between teacher expectations and racial disproportionality in discipline referrals

We explored the racial discipline gap and sought to understand the extent to which elementary school teachers' (N = 33; Grades K-6) expectations for their students' (N = 496) future outcomes predicted racial discipline disproportionality. We used multilevel models, and Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression with standardized errors corrected, to examine associations between teacher expectations of academic and behavioral student outcomes and patterns of office discipline referrals (ODRs) for the year. Results showed disproportionate ODR outcomes for Black students in comparison to White students. Additionally, we found that students held to lower expectations by their teachers received more ODRs than peers rated highly by their teachers, regardless of race. We also found that for every unit teacher expectations increased, the ODR disparity between Black, Latinx, and White students decreased. Lastly, multilevel models exploring teacher expectations of student outcomes explained approximately 21% of the difference in ODRs between Black and White peers.