Reexamining the Findings of the American Psychological Association's 2015 Task Force on Violent Media: A Meta-Analysis

The impact of acute violent videogame exposure on neurocognitive markers of empathic concern

Research examining the purported association between violent gaming and aggression remains controversial due to concerns related to methodology, unclear neurocognitive mechanisms, and the failure to adequately consider the role of individual differences in susceptibility. To help address these concerns, we used fMRI and an emotional empathy task to examine whether acute and cumulative violent gaming exposure were associated with abnormalities in emotional empathy as a function of trait-empathy. Emotional empathy was targeted given its involvement in regulating not only aggression, but also other important social functions such as compassion and prosocial behaviour. We hypothesized that violent gaming exposure increases the risk of aberrant social behaviour by altering the aversive value of distress cues. Contrary to expectations, neither behavioural ratings nor empathy-related brain activity varied as a function of violent gaming exposure. Notably, however, activation patterns in somatosensory and motor cortices reflected an interaction between violent gaming exposure and trait empathy. Thus, our results are inconsistent with a straightforward relationship between violent gaming exposure and reduced empathy. Furthermore, they highlight the importance of considering both individual differences in susceptibility and other aspects of cognition related to social functioning to best inform public concern regarding safe gaming practices.

Games, hormones, and "dark" personalities: Dark tetrad and the effects of violent gaming on aggression, cortisol, and testosterone

We investigated how playing a violent versus non-violent video game affects cortisol and testosterone levels, whether these hormonal changes increase implicit aggressive cognition, and whether so-called Dark Tetrad personality traits (i.e., Machiavellianism, psychopathy, narcissism, everyday sadism) moderate these effects. Fifty-four men played either a violent or a non-violent video game for 25 min. Participants provided salivary samples at the beginning of the experiment (T1), after 25 min of gameplay (T2), and 20 min after gameplay ended (T3). In the violent condition, participants showed a significant decrease in cortisol levels (T1 to T2) and a significant negative trend in cortisol levels from T1 to T3. Moreover, higher Machiavellianism scores were related to a significantly stronger decrease in cortisol (T1 to T2) in this condition. In the non-violent condition, however, participants with higher scores in Machiavellianism had a higher increase in cortisol (T1 to T2). In contrast to changes in hormonal levels, there were no significant effects on implicit aggressive cognition. The present findings illustrate the complex interplay between personality, hormones, and game content, thus further specifying current notions on the effects of violent video games. Playing a violent video game can have a stress-reducing calming effect depending on personality traits such as Machiavellianism and the psychological need satisfaction associated with it. Also, the fact that VVG exposure was not automatically accompanied by an aggression-increasing effect proves that simple cause-effect models are not sufficiently specified without taking the underlying mechanisms into account.

Exploring the impact of violence in video games

Playing a violent game for a few weeks did not alter neural and behavioral responses to the pain of others in inexperienced male gamers.

An umbrella review of the benefits and risks associated with youths' interactions with electronic screens

The influence of electronic screens on the health of children and adolescents and their education is not well understood. In this prospectively registered umbrella review (PROSPERO identifier CRD42017076051 ), we harmonized effects from 102 meta-analyses (2,451 primary studies; 1,937,501 participants) of screen time and outcomes. In total, 43 effects from 32 meta-analyses met our criteria for statistical certainty. Meta-analyses of associations between screen use and outcomes showed small-to-moderate effects (range: r = -0.14 to 0.33). In education, results were mixed; for example, screen use was negatively associated with literacy (r = -0.14, 95% confidence interval (CI) = -0.20 to -0.09, P ≤ 0.001, k = 38, N = 18,318), but this effect was positive when parents watched with their children (r = 0.15, 95% CI = 0.02 to 0.28, P = 0.028, k = 12, N = 6,083). In health, we found evidence for several small negative associations; for example, social media was associated with depression (r = 0.12, 95% CI = 0.05 to 0.19, P ≤ 0.001, k = 12, N = 93,740). Limitations of our review include the limited number of studies for each outcome, medium-to-high risk of bias in 95 out of 102 included meta-analyses and high heterogeneity (17 out of 22 in education and 20 out of 21 in health with I2 > 50%). We recommend that caregivers and policymakers carefully weigh the evidence for potential harms and benefits of specific types of screen use.

Video Game Use, Aggression, and Social Impairment in Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder

We used parent report data to investigate video game playing, aggression, and social impairment in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Parents of autistic adolescents were more likely to report that their child plays video games as a hobby compared to parents of adolescents with typical development and also reported that their children spent more time playing video games. For autistic participants, we found no differences in aggression levels or social impairment when comparing players versus non-players. However, playing video games "more than average," as compared to "average" was associated with greater aggression and greater social impairment on "awareness" and "mannerisms" subscales. Future studies should focus on how type of video game(s) played is associated with these clinically important variables.

Who is Most at Risk for Developing Physical Aggression After Playing Violent Video Games? An Individual Differences Perspective From Early Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood

Many theories of development suggest that playing violent video games would not impact all adolescents the same way, yet empirical research is sparse. To date there have been no within-subjects analyses that examine which adolescents are most at risk for developing aggression after playing violent video games and under what context, and no longitudinal studies encompassing multiple developmental stages (i.e., early adolescence to emerging adulthood) that examine the long-term effects of playing violent video games. To address this gap, the current study used a longitudinal design (spanning 8 years and encompassing multiple developmental periods) with a sample of U.S. adolescents who completed questionnaires on aggression, video gaming, and multiple risk and protective factors for aggression. Participants included 488 adolescents (M age = 13.82, SD = 1.03 at the initial wave, 51% female, with 65% being White, 12% Black, 19% multiethnic, and 4% other). Mixture regression was utilized to model physical aggression over time and to examine how playing violent video games might be related to aggression on an individual level. There were four classes: "Multi-risk", "High Gaming, High Aggression" (both of which had high levels of aggression over time), "Moderate Risk", and "Low Risk, High Privilege" (both of which had lower levels of aggression over time). Individuals were most aggressive with multiple risk factors or higher levels of violent game play and playing violent video games likely increased aggression more in individuals with other gaming problems and in males with low self-regulation. The results are discussed using a balanced perspective and recognize that violent video games do not affect all adolescents the same way. This research has direct implications for designing interventions around reducing aggressive behavior among adolescents.

Habitual Videogame Playing Does Not Compromise Subjective Sleep Quality and Is Associated with Improved Daytime Functioning

Research on the effects of videogames (VGs) on health has produced mixed results. Here, we assess the relationships of VG playing with sleep; chronotype; sleepiness; and levels of depression, anxiety, and stress; and how they are modulated by the level of exposure to VGs. Four hundred-and two adult participants (age = 26.2 ± 7.84; 227 F) completed an online survey including questions on VG use and a set of standardized questionnaires. The sample was divided into three groups: habitual gamers (HGs, 42.2%), nonhabitual gamers (NHGs, 36.5%), and non-gamers (NGs, 21.3%). No between-group differences emerged in sleepiness (Epworth Sleepiness Scale) or Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index measures except the sleep disturbances subscore, which was higher in NHGs. HGs showed delayed bed- and risetimes and higher eveningness (reduced Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire). HGs and NHGs showed higher depression subscores (Depression Anxiety Stress Scale) but remained in the subclinical range. Moreover, hours/week of VG playing predicted delayed sleep timing, lower daytime dysfunction, and lower sleepiness. Our data suggest that VG playing does not necessarily compromise sleep quality and may even benefit daytime functioning, underlining the need to reconsider the relationships between VG use and health by taking into account possible modulating factors such as habitual VG exposure.

Virtually in love: The role of anthropomorphism in virtual romantic relationships

Romantic relationships are a cornerstone of human nature. Today, these relationships can potentially be fulfilled by virtual agents. Although previous psychological research has examined how human needs can be met by anthropomorphized agents, it has neglected virtual romantic relationships. This paper introduces the concept of romantic anthropomorphism (i.e. giving a non-human agent human-like characteristics in a romantic context) to help understand virtual romance. In three laboratory studies, we used romantic video games (RVGs) to examine how romantic anthropomorphism predicts relationship authenticity, desire for real-world relationship and mood (Studies 1A, 1B and 2) as well as real-world interpersonal behaviour (Study 2). Study 1A revealed that romantic anthropomorphism of a virtual agent predicted desire for a real-world relationship with the virtual agent and greater positive affect via feeling that the relationship built with the virtual agent was authentic. Study 1B replicated these results using a larger sample and a different RVG. Study 2 replicated these results, but revealed that playing RVGs failed to predict real-world behaviour in a subsequent interaction with a human confederate. This research identifies a unique way that people find connection in the modern world and provides novel insight into the fields of anthropomorphism, virtual interactions and relationship science.

Does the Internet Bring People Closer Together or Further Apart? The Impact of Internet Usage on Interpersonal Communications

The complementarity interference (CI) model suggests that the Internet may either inhibit or facilitate interpersonal communications. This paper empirically examines the impact of Internet usage on interpersonal interactions, using a micro dataset from China to answer whether the Internet brings people closer together or further apart. The empirical results demonstrate, first, that Internet usage significantly increases both the time and frequency of people’s communications with their family and friends, rather than causing them to feel more disconnected and isolated. Holding other factors constant, for each one-standard-deviation increase in Internet usage, weekly communications with family members increases by an average of 102.150 min, while there is an average increase of 54.838 min in interactions with friends. These findings as to its positive effects are robust when using other regression models and interpersonal contact measures, as well as the instrumental variable method. Second, Internet usage also contributes to decreased loneliness; it exerts this effect primarily by improving people’s interactions with their family members. However, communications with friends do not significantly mediate such impacts. Third, the positive role of Internet usage on communications is more prominent for people with more frequent online socialization and self-presentation, better online skills, younger age, higher educational level, and who are living in urban areas. In addition, the beneficial effects of Internet usage are larger for communications with family members in the case of migrants. Therefore, in the context of the rapid development of information technology, the network infrastructure should be improved to make better use of the Internet to facilitate interpersonal communications and promote people’s wellness.

The effect of three violent videogame engagement states on aggressive behavior: A partial least squares structural equation modeling approach

Debate on violent games and their effect on aggressive behavior remains inconclusive. This study aims to study the predicting role of cognitive, affective, and behavioral engagement states in violent videogames on aggressive behavior, which remains nebulous to date. We visited gaming zones and administered the study survey to collect data from violent videogame users. We collected 208 valid responses that were further analyzed. The present study used SmartPLS (3.3.3) software to perform partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) analysis in two stages. In the first stage, the measurement model assessment reported that cognitive, affective, behavioral, and aggressive behavior proved to be reliable reflective-formative composite constructs. Whereas, the second phase illustrated that cognitive engagement in violent videogames fails to impact aggressive behavior. The other two engagement states (affective and behavioral) in violent games showed a positive impact on aggressive behavior. Our study contributes to aggressive behavior literature by understanding how violent videogame engagement states impact aggressive behavior, which is crucial to recognize aggression so that steps can be taken toward addressing it. This study also contributes methodologically by utilizing the hierarchical component model (HCM) approach to estimate, specify, and validate the hierarchical structure of higher-order constructs (i.e., consumer violent videogame engagement dimensions (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) and aggressive behavior) as reflective-formative composite models.

Deviant Peer Affiliation: A Newly Verified Mechanism by Which Violent Video Game Exposure Affect Aggressive and Prosocial Behavior

Past research has provided abundant evidence that violent video game exposure (VVGE) increases aggressive behavior and decreases prosocial behavior. So far, these effects have been explained mainly as resulting from changes in the existing knowledge structures of cognition, affect, or personality, such as desensitization to violence, empathy deficits, or impulsivity deficits. Following the extended General Aggression Model (GAM), the present research examined the role of deviant peer affiliation in VVGE's effects on aggressive and prosocial behavior. A total of 2,152 (46.4 percent male) Chinese children and adolescents completed a self-reported scale for VVGE, deviant peer affiliation, trait aggression, and prosocial behavior. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. The results showed that deviant peer affiliation mediated the effects of VVGE, thus supporting the new paths of GAM and broadening the current understanding of the consequences of VVGE.

Stress and Violence in Video Games: Their Influence on Aggression

This study investigated whether stress or violent content in video games plays a greater role in aggressiveness towards a cooperative partner while playing a video game. It was hypothesized that participants, when exposed to stress, would demonstrate greater aggressiveness toward an incompetent partner than a competent partner. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that participants, when exposed to a violent video game, would demonstrate greater aggression toward an incompetent partner than those exposed to a non-violent video game. Stress was provoked in half of the participants using the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT), while others took a simple math quiz. Participants were then assigned to a video game condition, violent or non-violent with a competent or incompetent confederate and completed a reaction time task to measure aggression. Results indicated that provoked stress and violent content are not linked to aggression in this context.

The association between level of personality organization and problematic gaming: Anxiety, depression, and motivations for playing as mediators

Problematic gaming is a topic of great clinical and social relevance, so it is particularly important to identify its protective and risk factors. Literature already showed that maladaptive personality favors problematic gaming. In the light of Kernberg's model of personality organization, the present cross-sectional study aimed to evaluate the mediational process through which low level of personality organization associates with problematic gaming, exploring the role of depressive and anxious symptoms and of motivations for playing. A sample of 1036 video gamers filled in an online survey regarding: level of personality organization; depressive and anxious symptoms; socializing, achievement, and immersion motivations for playing; problematic gaming. The path analysis showed that lower level of personality organization associated with greater problematic gaming and that depressive (but not anxious) symptoms, and socializing and achievement (but not immersion) motivations positively mediated this relationship. Furthermore, results showed that psychopathological symptoms and achievement motivations sequentially mediated the relationship between low level of personality organization and problematic gaming, highlighting that depressive symptoms secondary to a low level of personality organization could lead to a risky use of video games, i.e., they could push to use video games to self-enhance oneself, a dysfunctional strategy that exposes to problematic gaming. The study gives some indications on the variables that associate with problematic gaming and has some practical relevance, providing suggestions in the design of effective problematic gaming prevention and treatment interventions.

Dissociable effects of acute versus cumulative violent video game exposure on the action simulation circuit in university students

There is an ongoing debate as to whether violent video game exposure (VGE) has a negative impact on social functioning. This debate continues in part because of methodological concerns and the paucity of identifiable neurocognitive mechanisms. Also, little attention has been given to how specific personality characteristics may influence susceptibility to the purported effects. Using a combined experimental and cross-sectional approach, we examined the impact of VGE on action simulation as a function of trait coldheartedness in a sample of university students. Healthy adults played a violent or nonviolent version of Grand Theft Auto V before completing an fMRI measure of action simulation circuit (ASC) activity. Simulation-related activity was not significantly different between groups; however, greater overall activation was observed in left inferior frontal gyrus for those in the violent condition. Contrary to predictions, no evidence was observed that trait coldheartedness significantly interacts with violent gaming to influence ASC activation. However, prior cumulative VGE was negatively correlated with simulation-related activity in a subsection of the ASC. This study highlights a potential dissociation between the effects of acute versus cumulative violent gaming and may challenge assumptions that the directionality of effects for cross-sectional associations always mirror those of acute exposure.

What are the effects of different elements of media on radicalization outcomes? A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Most national counter-radicalization strategies identify the media, and particularly the Internet as key sources of risk for radicalization. However, the magnitude of the relationships between different types of media usage and radicalization remains unknown. Additionally, whether Internet-related risk factors do indeed have greater impacts than other forms of media remain another unknown. Overall, despite extensive research of media effects in criminology, the relationship between media and radicalization has not been systematically investigated.

OBJECTIVES

This systematic review and meta-analysis sought to (1) identify and synthesize the effects of different media-related risk factors at the individual level, (2) identify the relative magnitudes of the effect sizes for the different risk factors, and (3) compare the effects between outcomes of cognitive and behavioral radicalization. The review also sought to examine sources of heterogeneity between different radicalizing ideologies.

SEARCH METHODS

Electronic searches were carried out in several relevant databases and inclusion decisions were guided by a published review protocol. In addition to these searches, leading researchers were contacted to try and identify unpublished or unidentified research. Hand searches of previously published reviews and research were also used to supplement the database searches. Searches were carried out until August 2020.

SELECTION CRITERIA

The review included quantitative studies that examined at least one media-related risk factor (such as exposure to, or usage of a particular medium or mediated content) and its relationship to either cognitive or behavioral radicalization at the individual level.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Random-effects meta-analysis was used for each risk factor individually and risk factors were arranged in rank-order. Heterogeneity was explored using a combination of moderator analysis, meta-regression, and sub-group analysis.

RESULTS

The review included 4 experimental and 49 observational studies. Most of the studies were judged to be of low quality and suffer from multiple, potential sources of bias. From the included studies, effect sizes pertaining to 23 media-related risk factors were identified and analyzed for the outcome of cognitive radicalization, and two risk factors for the outcome of behavioral radicalization. Experimental evidence demonstrated that mere exposure to media theorized to increase cognitive radicalization was associated with a small increase in risk (g = 0.08, 95% confidence interval [CI] [-0.03, 19]). A slightly larger estimate was observed for those high in trait aggression (g = 0.13, 95% CI [0.01, 0.25]). Evidence from observational studies shows that for cognitive radicalization, risk factors such as television usage have no effect (r = 0.01, 95% CI [-0.06, 0.09]). However, passive (r = 0.24, 95% CI [0.18, 0.31]) and active (r = 0.22, 95% CI [0.15, 0.29]) forms of exposure to radical content online demonstrate small but potentially meaningful relationships. Similar sized estimates for passive (r = 0.23, 95% CI [0.12, 0.33]) and active (r = 0.28, 95% CI [0.21, 0.36]) forms of exposure to radical content online were found for the outcome of behavioral radicalization.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Relative to other known risk factors for cognitive radicalization, even the most salient of the media-related risk factors have comparatively small estimates. However, compared to other known risk factors for behavioral radicalization, passive and active forms of exposure to radical content online have relatively large and robust estimates. Overall, exposure to radical content online appears to have a larger relationship with radicalization than other media-related risk factors, and the impact of this relationship is most pronounced for behavioral outcomes of radicalization. While these results may support policy-makers' focus on the Internet in the context of combatting radicalization, the quality of the evidence is low and more robust study designs are needed to enable the drawing of firmer conclusions.

Psychosocial risks and benefits of exposure to heavy metal music with aggressive themes: Current theory and evidence

Concerns have been raised that prolonged exposed to heavy metal music with aggressive themes can increase the risk of aggression, anger, antisocial behaviour, substance use, suicidal ideation, anxiety and depression in community and psychiatric populations. Although research often relies on correlational evidence for which causal inferences are not possible, it is often claimed that music with aggressive themes can cause psychological and behavioural problems. This narrative review of theory and evidence suggests the issues are more complicated, and that fans typically derive a range of emotional and social benefits from listening to heavy metal music, including improved mood, identity formation, and peer affiliation. In contrast, non-fans of heavy metal music — who are often used as participants in experimental research on this topic — invariably report negative psychological experiences. Our review considers a comprehensive set of empirical findings that inform clinical strategies designed to identify fans for whom heavy metal music may confer psychological and behavioural risks, and those for whom this music may confer psychosocial benefits.

Effects of violent media content: Evidence from the rise of the UFC

We document the effect of violent media on crime. Specifically, we evaluate the effects of The Ultimate Fighter, a hit TV show that features fighters competing in violent mixed martial arts and which brought Ultimate Fighting Championship into the mainstream. We estimate the effect of exposure to the show's earliest episodes using panel data from police agencies across the United States and a strategy that uses network ratings prior to the show's premier as an instrumental variable. We show that this exposure significantly reduced crime: these effects are particularly evident for assault, began in the month the show premiered, and persisted for many years. These estimates do not reflect systematic differences across geographic areas in their trends in crime rates prior to 2005. To complement our main results, we also investigate the effects of "UFC Main Events," which air in bars and on Pay-Per-View. This analysis additionally suggests reductions in violence caused by viewership.

"I did it without hesitation. Am I the bad guy?" Online conversations in response to controversial in-game violence

Video game content has evolved over the last six decades, from a basic focus on challenge and competition to include more serious and introspective narratives capable of encouraging critical contemplation within gamers. The "No Russian" mission from Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 casts players as terrorists responsible for the murder of innocent bystanders, sparking debate around how players engage and react to wanton violence in modern video games. Through thematic analysis of 649 Reddit posts discussing the mission, 10 themes emerged representing complexity in player experiences. Those themes were grouped into categories representing (descending order), (1) rote gameplay experiences, (2) dark humor, (3) comparing the mission to other games and real-world events, and (4) self-reflective eudaimonic reactions to the mission. Although less common, the presence of eudaimonic media effects (in at least 15% of posts) holds promise for the use of video games as reflective spaces for violence prevention.

Violent media use and aggression: Two longitudinal network studies

Exposure to violent media has been widely linked to increased aggression. In the present research, we examined whether violent media exposure would be associated with increased aggression, which would then spread within social networks like a contagious disease. Two groups of first year psychology students completed a questionnaire three times over the course of a year, measuring their media exposure, aggression, personality, and social relations within the group. Cross-sectional analysis provided mixed results in regards to the link between violent media and aggression. Siena analysis found no evidence of homophily (i.e., participants were not more likely to be friends with others similar to themselves) nor of social influence (i.e., participant's behavior did not predict a change in their friends' behavior). However, given the relatively small sample sizes and the weak ties between participants, more work is needed to assess the spread of violent media effects.

Video games, frustration, violence, and virtual reality: Two studies

The degree to which the content of video games influences aggression continues to be debated in the scholarly literature. The current article includes two studies, one of which replicates one study from Przybylski et al. (2014, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 106, 441) and the other which extends related concepts into virtual reality. In the first study, two versions of Tetris were examined, differing in levels of difficulty. In the second study, participants played virtual reality games which differed in regard to difficulty and violent content. Difficulty increased hostility in the second study but not the first. Violent content influenced neither hostility nor aggressive behaviour. Results partially supported the frustration theory of aggression, but not theories of violent content effects. Implications for the field are discussed.

The Paradox of Interactive Media: The Potential for Video Games and Virtual Reality as Tools for Violence Prevention

Interactive media such as video games and virtual reality (VR) provide users with lived experiences that may be dangerous or even impossible in daily life. By providing interactive experiences in highly authentic, detail-rich contexts, these technologies have demonstrated measurable success in impacting how people think, feel, and behave in the physical world. At the same time, violent interactive media content has been historically connected with a range of antisocial effects in both popular press and academic research. Extant literature has established a small-but-statistically significant effect of interactive media violence on aggressive thoughts and behaviors, which could serve as a risk factor for interpersonal violence. However, left unexplored is the seemingly paradoxical claim that under some conditions, interactive media experiences might protect against interpersonal violence. Drawing on advances in media theory and research and the evolution of interactive media content and production practices, the current manuscript suggests ways in which interactive media violence may be leveraged to lower the likelihood of real-world violence experiences. For example, research on both violent and non-violent games has found that players can (a) express guilt after committing violent acts, (b) report reflective and introspective emotional reactions during gameplay, and (c) debate the morality of their actions with others. Regarding VR, studies have demonstrated that (a) witnessing physical violence in immersive spaces led participants to take the perspective of victims and better understand their emotional state and (b) controlled exposure to traumatic or violent events can be used for treatment. Broadly, studies into video games and VR demonstrate that the impact of actions in virtual worlds transfer into the physical worlds to influence (later) attitudes and behaviors. Thus, how these experiences may be potentially harnessed for social change is a compelling and open consideration, as are side-effects of such interventions on vulnerable groups. The current manuscript summarizes emerging research perspectives (as well as their limitations) to offer insight into the potential for interactive media violence to protect against real-world violence victimization and perpetration.

Film Adaptation as Experimental Game Design

Film adaptation is a popular approach to game design, but it prioritizes blockbuster films and conventional “game-like” qualities of those films, such as shooting, racing, or spatial exploration. This leads to adaptations that tend to use the aesthetics and narratives of films, but which miss out on potential design explorations of more complex cinematic qualities. In this article, I propose an experimental game design method that prioritizes an unconventional selection of films alongside strict game design constraints to explore tensions and affinities between cinema and videogames. By applying this design method and documenting the process and results, I am able both to present an experimental set of videogame film adaptations, along with potentially generative design and development themes. In the end, the project serves as an illustration of the nature of adaptation itself: a series of pointed compromises between the source and the new work.