The Analysis of Leontopodium leontopodioides (Willd.) Beauv. Chemical Composition by GC/MS and UPLC-Q-Orbitrap MS

Leontopodium leontopodioides (Willd.) Beauv. (L. leontopodioides.) has been used to treat lung diseases in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). However, a systematic analysis of its chemical components has not been reported so far. In this study, UPLC-Q-Orbitrap MS and GC-MS were applied to investigate the chemical composition of the water extracts and essential oils of L. leontopodioides. UPLC-Q-Orbitrap MS adopts a heating electrospray ionization source, collecting primary and secondary mass spectrometry data in positive and negative ions, respectively, and uses Compound Discoverer 3.2 software to analyze the collected raw data. As a result, a total of 39 compounds were identified from their high-resolution mass spectra in both positive and negative ionization modes, including 13 flavonoids and their glycosides, 15 phenolic acids, 4 oligosaccharides and glycosides, 4 pentacyclic triterpenoids, and 3 other compounds. Among them, 18 chemical components have not been reported in L. leontopodioides. In the GC-MS section, two common organic solvents (n-hexane and diethyl ether) were used to extract essential oils, and the mass spectra were recorded at 70 eV (electron impact) and scanned in the range of 35∼450 m/z. Compounds were identified using NIST (version 2017), and the peak area normalization method was used to calculate their relative amounts. Finally, 17 components were identified in the volatile oil extracted with n-hexane, accounting for 80.38% of the total volatile oil, including monoterpenoids, phenylpropene, fatty acids, and aliphatic hydrocarbons. In the volatile oil extracted with diethyl ether, 16 components were identified, accounting for 73.50% of the total volatile oil, including phenylpropene, aliphatic hydrocarbons, monoterpenoids, fatty acids, and esters. This study was the first to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the chemical composition of the L. leontopodioides water extract and its essential oil, and a comprehensive chemical composition spectrum was constructed, to lay a foundation for its further pharmacodynamic material basis and quality evaluation.

Comparative analysis of essential oil efficacy against the Asian longhorned tick Haemaphysalis longicornis (Acari: Ixodidae)

This study evaluated the potential repellent and acaricidal effects of 4 essential oils (clove, eucalyptus, lavender, and mint) against the Asian longhorned tick Haemaphysalis longicornis, a vector of various tick-borne diseases in medical and veterinary contexts. Selected for their potential repellent and acaricidal properties, the 4 essential oils were tested on adult and nymph H. longicornis ticks at different concentrations. The experiment assessed mortality rates and repellency, particularly during tick attachment to host skin. There was a significant increase (p<0.05) in tick mortality and repellency scores across all groups. At a 1% concentration, adult tick mortality ranged from 36% to 86%, while nymph mortality ranged from 6% to 97%. Clove oil exhibited notable efficacy, demonstrating high mortality rates of nymphs and adults. Clove oil also displayed strong repellency properties, with a repellency index of 0.05, surpassing those of mint, eucalyptus, and lavender oils. Clove oil showed the highest effectiveness in deterring nonattached adult ticks (90%) and nymphs (95%) when applied to skin. Clove oil was the most effective against adult and nymph ticks, achieving mortality rates of 86% and 97%, respectively, and led to the highest nonattachment rates when applied to skin. In conclusion, essential oils such as clove, eucalyptus, lavender, and mint oils present promising results for tick population control.

Cardioprotective Effect of Eugenol Against Cd-Induced Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Dyslipidemia in Male Rats: An In Vivo and Molecular Docking Study

Cadmium, a highly toxic heavy metal, can cause severe damage to several vital organs including the kidney, liver, and brain. Many of the natural compounds found in aromatic plants have beneficial pharmacological properties. Eugenol is one such compound reported to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. The aim of this study is to investigate whether eugenol, a natural compound found in aromatic plants known for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, can mitigate the detrimental effects of cadmium exposure on cardiac inflammation, oxidative stress, and dyslipidemia. Male albino rats were subjected to randomization into four groups, each comprising six animals, to investigate the potential of eugenol in mitigating cadmium-induced toxicity. All groups received oral gavage treatment for 21 days. Following the treatment regimen, cardiac tissue specimens were collected for analysis. The assessment of cardiac antioxidant status entailed the determination of enzymatic activities including catalase, SOD, GST, and GPx. Additionally, levels of lipid peroxidation, reduced glutathione, protein carbonyl oxidation, and thiol levels were quantified in the cardiac tissue samples. To evaluate cardiac damage, marker enzymes such as LDH and CK-MB were measured. Furthermore, the inflammatory response in the cardiac tissue induced by cadmium exposure was assessed through the quantification of NO, TNF-α, and IL-6 levels. Additionally, molecular docking and dynamics studies were conducted utilizing autodock and GLIDE methodologies. Cadmium administration markedly enhanced the activities of LDH and CK-MB, prominent cardiac markers. Furthermore, cadmium treatment also demonstrated a significant decrease in the reduced glutathione levels and antioxidant enzyme activities. Significant elevation of the inflammatory markers was also observed in the cadmium-treated group. Eugenol treatment effectively ameliorates cadmium-induced biochemical changes. This study underscores the potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant attributes of eugenol. Co-administration of eugenol alongside cadmium exhibited remarkable protective efficacy against cadmium-induced cardio-toxicity. Eugenol demonstrated the capability to reinstate the cellular redox equilibrium of rats subjected to cadmium treatment to levels akin to those of the normal control group.

Assessment of acute and subacute toxicity, pharmacokinetics, and biodistribution of eugenol nanoparticles after oral exposure in Wistar rats

The present study aimed to assess the safety, toxicity, biodistribution, and pharmacokinetics of eugenol nanoparticles (EONs) following oral administration in Wistar rat models. In the acute toxicity study, the rats were given a fixed dose of 50, 300, and 2000 mg/kg body weight per group orally and screened for 2 weeks after administration. In the subacute study, three different doses (500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg BW) of EON were administered for 28 days. The results indicated no significant differences in food and water consumption, bodyweight change, hematological and biochemical parameters, relative organ weights, gross findings, or histopathology compared to the control. Additionally, no significant changes were observed in the expression profiles of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNFα in the plasma, confirming the absence of systemic inflammation. Biodistribution analysis revealed rapid absorption of eugenol and improved bioavailability due to gradual and sustained release, leading to a maximum eugenol concentration of 15.05 μg/mL (Cmax) at approximately 8 h (Tmax) in the blood plasma. Thus, the study provides valuable insights into the utilization of EON for enhancing the stability, solubility, and sustained release of eugenol and highlights its promising safety profile in vivo.

Therapeutic considerations of bioactive compounds in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease: Dissecting the molecular pathways

Leading neurodegenerative diseases Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are characterized by the impairment of memory and motor functions, respectively. Despite several breakthroughs, there exists a lack of disease-modifying treatment strategies for these diseases, as the available drugs provide symptomatic relief and bring along side effects. Bioactive compounds are reported to bear neuroprotective properties with minimal toxicity, however, a detailed elucidation of their modes of neuroprotection is lacking. The review elucidates the neuroprotective mechanism(s) of some of the major phyto-compounds in pre-clinical and clinical studies of AD and PD to understand their potential in combating these diseases. Curcumin, eugenol, resveratrol, baicalein, sesamol and so on have proved efficient in countering the pathological hallmarks of AD and PD. Curcumin, resveratrol, caffeine and so on have reached the clinical phases of these diseases, while aromadendrin, delphinidin, cyanidin and xanthohumol are yet to be extensively explored in pre-clinical phases. The review highlights the need for extensive investigation of these compounds in the clinical stages of these diseases so as to utilize their disease-modifying abilities in the real field of treatment. Moreover, poor pharmacokinetic properties of natural compounds are constraints to their therapeutic yields and this review suggests a plausible contribution of nanotechnology in overcoming these limitations.

Combined LC-MS-based metabolomics and GC-IMS analysis reveal changes in chemical components and aroma components of Jujube leaf tea during processing

Making tea from jujube leaves changed the chemical composition and aroma composition of jujube leaves. Here, Through LC-MS, GC-IMS, and GC-MS technology, we have revealed the effect of jujube leaf processing changes on metabolites. LC-MS identified 468 non-volatile metabolites, while GC-IMS and GC-MS detected 52 and 24 volatile metabolites, respectively. 109 non-volatile metabolites exhibiting more pronounced differences were screened. Most lipids and lipid-like molecules, organic acids, amino acids, and flavonoids increased significantly after processing. GC-IMS and GC-MS analysis revealed that the contents of aldehydes and ketones were significantly increased, while esters and partial alcohols were decreased after processing into jujube leaf tea. The main flavor substances of fresh jujube leaf and jujube leaf tea were eugenol and (E) - 2-Hexenal, respectively. Furthermore, amino acids and lipids were closely linked to the formation of volatile metabolites. Our study provided new insights into the changes in metabolites of jujube leaves processed into jujube leaf tea, and had great potential for industrial application. It laid a foundation for further research on fruit tree leaf tea.

Green Alternatives as Antimicrobial Agents in Mitigating Periodontal Diseases: A Narrative Review

Periodontal diseases and dental caries are the most common infectious oral diseases impacting oral health globally. Oral cavity health is crucial for enhancing life quality since it serves as the entranceway to general health. The oral microbiome and oral infectious diseases are strongly correlated. Gram-negative anaerobic bacteria have been associated with periodontal diseases. Due to the shortcomings of several antimicrobial medications frequently applied in dentistry, the lack of resources in developing countries, the prevalence of oral inflammatory conditions, and the rise in bacterial antibiotic resistance, there is a need for reliable, efficient, and affordable alternative solutions for the prevention and treatment of periodontal diseases. Several accessible chemical agents can alter the oral microbiota, although these substances also have unfavorable symptoms such as vomiting, diarrhea, and tooth discoloration. Natural phytochemicals generated from plants that have historically been used as medicines are categorized as prospective alternatives due to the ongoing quest for substitute products. This review concentrated on phytochemicals or herbal extracts that impact periodontal diseases by decreasing the formation of dental biofilms and plaques, preventing the proliferation of oral pathogens, and inhibiting bacterial adhesion to surfaces. Investigations examining the effectiveness and safety of plant-based medicines have also been presented, including those conducted over the past decade.

4-Allyl-2-methoxyphenol modulates the expression of genes involved in efflux pump, biofilm formation and sterol biosynthesis in azole resistant Aspergillus fumigatus

Introduction

Antifungal therapy for aspergillosis is becoming problematic because of the toxicity of currently available drugs, biofilm formation on host surface, and increasing prevalence of azole resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus. Plants are rich source of bioactive molecules and antimicrobial activity of aromatic bioactive compounds draws attention because of its promising biological properties. The present study elucidated the antibiofilm activity of 4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol (eugenol) against azole-resistant environmental A. fumigatus isolates.

Methods

Soil samples were collected from agricultural fields across India; azole-resistant A. fumigatus (ARAF) were isolated followed by their molecular identification. Antibiofilm activity of eugenol was calculated via tetrazolium based-MTT assay. The expression of the multidrug efflux pumps genes MDR1, MDR4, transporters of the MFS gene, erg11A gene encoding 14α demethylase, and transcription regulatory genes, MedA, SomA and SrbA, involved in biofilm formation of A. fumigatus were calculated by quantitative real time PCR.

Results

Out of 89 A. fumigatus isolates, 10 were identified as azole resistant. Eugenol exhibited antibiofilm activity against ARAF isolates, ranging from 312 to 500 µg/mL. Confocal laser scanning microscopy analysis revealed absence of extracellular matrix of ARAF biofilm after eugenol treatment. The gene expression indicated significantly low expression of efflux pumps genes MDR1, MDR4, erg11A and MedA in eugenol treated ARAF isolates when compared with untreated isolates.

Conclusions

Our results demonstrate that eugenol effects the expression of efflux pump and biofilm associated genes as well as inhibits biofilm formation in azole resistant isolates of A. fumigatus.

Nanoemulsions of Clove Oil Stabilized with Chitosan Oleate-Antioxidant and Wound-Healing Activity

Clove oil (CO) is a powerful antioxidant essential oil (EO) with anti-inflammatory, anesthetic, and anti-infective properties. It can be therefore considered a good candidate for wound-healing applications, especially for chronic or diabetic wounds or burns, where the balance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and detoxification is altered. However, EOs require suitable formulations to be efficiently administered in moist wound environments. Chitosan hydrophobically modified by an ionic interaction with oleic acid (chitosan oleate, CSO) was used in the present work to stabilize CO nanoemulsions (NEs). The dimensions of the NE were maintained at around 300 nm as the volume distribution for up to six months, and the CO content did not decrease to under 80% over 4 months, confirming the good stabilizing properties of CSO. The antioxidant properties of the CO NE were evaluated in vitro by a 2,2-diphenil-2-picrylhydrazyl hydrate (DPPH) assay, and in fibroblast cell lines by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) using α-phenyl-N-tert-butyl nitrone (PBN) as a spin trap; a protective effect was obtained comparable to that obtained with α-tocopherol treatment. In a murine burn model, the ability of CO formulations to favor macroscopic wound closure was evidenced, and a histological analysis revealed a positive effect of the CO NE on the reparation of the lesion after 18 days. Samples of wounds at 7 days were subjected to a histological analysis and parallel dosage of lipid peroxidation by means of a thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) assay, confirming the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of the CO NE.

Fighting cytokine storm and immunomodulatory deficiency: By using natural products therapy up to now

A novel coronavirus strain (COVID-19) caused severe illness and mortality worldwide from 31 December 2019 to 21 March 2023. As of this writing, 761,071,826 million cases have been diagnosed worldwide, with 6,879,677 million deaths accorded by WHO organization and has spread to 228 countries. The number of deaths is closely connected to the growth of innate immune cells in the lungs, mainly macrophages, which generate inflammatory cytokines (especially IL-6 and IL-1β) that induce "cytokine storm syndrome" (CSS), multi-organ failure, and death. We focus on promising natural products and their biologically active chemical constituents as potential phytopharmaceuticals that target virus-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines. Successful therapy for this condition is currently rare, and the introduction of an effective vaccine might take months. Blocking viral entrance and replication and regulating humoral and cellular immunity in the uninfected population are the most often employed treatment approaches for viral infections. Unfortunately, no presently FDA-approved medicine can prevent or reduce SARS-CoV-2 access and reproduction. Until now, the most important element in disease severity has been the host's immune response activation or suppression. Several medicines have been adapted for COVID-19 patients, including arbidol, favipiravir, ribavirin, lopinavir, ritonavir, hydroxychloroquine, chloroquine, dexamethasone, and anti-inflammatory pharmaceutical drugs, such as tocilizumab, glucocorticoids, anakinra (IL-1β cytokine inhibition), and siltuximab (IL-6 cytokine inhibition). However, these synthetic medications and therapies have several side effects, including heart failure, permanent retinal damage in the case of hydroxyl-chloroquine, and liver destruction in the case of remdesivir. This review summarizes four strategies for fighting cytokine storms and immunomodulatory deficiency induced by COVID-19 using natural product therapy as a potential therapeutic measure to control cytokine storms.

Microemulsion-thermosensitive gel composites as in situ-forming drug reservoir for periodontitis tissue repair through alveolar bone and collagen regeneration strategy

A satisfactory clinical effect in treating periodontitis is often difficult to achieve by conventional non-surgical systemic drug delivery due to the narrow anatomical structure of the periodontal pocket and insufficient drug concentration at lesion sites. In addition, the feasibility of combating periodontal tissue lesions by restoring the alveolar bone and allowing collagen regeneration has not been fully explored. The objective of this study was to prepare a microemulsion integrating the anti-inflammatory and osteogenic active ingredients of baicalin and clove oil (BC-MEs). Then, the composite hydrogel obtained by mixing poloxamer 407 and 188 was used as the thermosensitive gel matrix to load BC-MEs and form a drug reservoir (Gel-BC-MEs) injectable in situ. Gel-BC-MEs exhibited a significant, sustained release of baicalin for 12 h, gelation temperature was 33.4 ± 0.36 °C, and pH was 5.45 ± 0.12. The experiment on a rat periodontitis model demonstrated that Gel-BC-MEs significantly improved periodontal tissue repair by collagen regeneration and osteogenesis by inhibiting osteoclast infiltration. This study proposes a novel strategy for periodontal tissue repair by enhancing the therapeutic potential of a microemulsion using an in situ nano-gel delivery system.

Study on the interaction mechanism between luteoloside and xanthine oxidase by multi-spectroscopic and molecular docking methods

Gout is an inflammatory joint disease caused by urate crystal deposition, which is associated with hyperuricemia. Gout will take place when the uric acid accumulates. Xanthine oxidase (XO) is a crucial enzyme in the formation of uric acid. Inhibiting XO is one of the means to ameliorate gout. Luteoloside is a kind of natural flavonoid, which has an excellent prospect for relieving gout. But there are few reports on the interaction mechanism between luteoloside and XO currently. In this study, the interaction mechanism between luteoloside and XO was explored using spectroscopy and molecular docking. The fluorescence spectroscopy results indicated that luteoloside could make the intrinsic fluorescence of XO quenched, and the binding constant between luteoloside and XO was (1.85 ± 0.22) × 10³  L mol^-1 at 298 K. The synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy results showed that the absorption peaks of Tyr and Trp shifted blue, and the hydrophobicity of the microenvironment increased. Moreover, CD spectra showed that α-helix of XO decreased, β-sheet and β-turn increased after adding luteoloside. The results of molecular docking analysis showed that XO could combine with luteoloside through hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic force. The results indicated that luteoloside could remarkably interact with XO. Insights into the interaction mechanism provide a necessary basis for the search for low-toxic natural products as targets of XO. HIGHLIGHTS: Luteoloside and xanthine oxidase was a strong binding mode and had only one binding site. Luteoloside could cause α-helix reduced, β-sheet and β-turn increased, and change the secondary structure of XO. The binding between luteoloside and xanthine oxidase was a spontaneous process. The main binding force was hydrophobic force between luteoloside and xanthine oxidase.

Molecular Mechanisms of Action of Eugenol in Cancer: Recent Trends and Advancement

BACKGROUND

Cancer is, at present, among the leading causes of morbidity globally. Despite advances in treatment regimens for cancer, patients suffer from poor prognoses. In this context, the availability of vast natural resources seems to alleviate the shortcomings of cancer chemotherapy. The last decade has seen a breakthrough in the investigations related to the anticancer potential of dietary phytoconstituents. Interestingly, a handsome number of bioactive principles, ranging from phenolic acids, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, stilbenes, and terpenoids to organosulphur compounds have been screened for their anticancer properties. Among the phenylpropanoids currently under clinical studies for anticancer activity, eugenol is a promising candidate. Eugenol is effective against cancers like breast, cervical, lung, prostate, melanomas, leukemias, osteosarcomas, gliomas, etc., as evident from preclinical investigations.

OBJECTIVE

The review aims to focus on cellular and molecular mechanisms of eugenol for cancer prevention and therapy.

METHODS

Based on predetermined criteria, various scholarly repositories, including PubMed, Scopus, and Science Direct were analyzed for anticancer activities of eugenol.

RESULTS

Different biochemical investigations reveal eugenol inducing cytotoxicity, inhibiting phases of the cell cycles, programmed cell death, and auto-phagocytosis in studied cancer lines; thus, portraying eugenol as a promising anticancer molecule. A survey of current literature has unveiled the molecular mechanisms intervened by eugenol in exercising its anticancer role.

CONCLUSION

Based on the critical analysis of the literature, eugenol exhibits vivid signaling pathways to combat cancers of different origins. The reports also depict the advancement of novel nano-drug delivery approaches upgrading the therapeutic profile of eugenol. Therefore, eugenol nanoformulations may have enormous potential for both the treatment and prevention of cancer.

Pulegone and Eugenol Oral Supplementation in Laboratory Animals: Results from Acute and Chronic Studies

Essential oils are natural compounds used by humans for scientific purposes due to their wide range of properties. Eugenol is mostly present in clove oil, while pulegone is the main constituent of pennyroyal oil. To guarantee the safe use of eugenol and pulegone for both humans and animals, this study addressed, for the first time, the effects of these compounds, at low doses (chronic toxicity) and high doses (acute toxicity), in laboratory animals. Thirty-five FVB/n female mice were randomly assigned to seven groups (n = 5): group I (control, non-additive diet); group II (2.6 mg of eugenol + 2.6 mg of pulegone); group III (5.2 mg of eugenol + 5.2 mg of pulegone); group IV (7.8 mg of eugenol + 7.8 mg of pulegone); group V (7.8 mg of eugenol); group VI (7.8 mg of pulegone); and group VII (1000 mg of eugenol + 1000 mg of pulegone). The compounds were administered in the food. Groups I to VI were integrated into the chronic toxicity study, lasting 28 days, and group VII was used in the acute toxicity study, lasting 7 days. Animals were monitored to assess their general welfare. Water and food intake, as well as body weight, were recorded. On the 29th day, all animals were euthanized by an overdose of ketamine and xylazine, and a complete necropsy was performed. Blood samples were collected directly from the heart for microhematocrit and serum analysis, as well as for comet assay. Organs were collected, weighed, and fixed in formaldehyde for further histological analysis and enzymatic assay. Eugenol and pulegone induced behavioral changes in the animals, namely in the posture, hair appearance and grooming, and in mental status. These compounds also caused a decrease in the animals’ body weight, as well as in the food and water consumption. A mortality rate of 20% was registered in the acute toxicity group. Both compounds modulated the serum levels of triglycerides and alanine aminotransferase. Eugenol and pulegone induced genetic damage in all animals. Eugenol increased the activity of the CAT enzyme. Both compounds increased the GR enzyme at the highest dose. Moreover, pulegone administered as a single compound increased the activity of the GST enzyme. Histopathological analysis revealed inflammatory infiltrates in the lungs of groups II, III, and IV. The results suggest that eugenol and pulegone may exert beneficial or harmful effects, depending on the dose, and if applied alone or in combination.

Exploration of Clove Bud (Syzygium aromaticum) Essential Oil as a Novel Attractant against Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) and Its Safety Evaluation

The oriental fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) is a destructive polyphagous species that targets many economically important fruits and vegetables. The primary control of B. dorsalis relies mainly on the use of synthetic chemicals, and excessive use of these chemicals has adverse effects on both the environment and human health. Environmentally friendly management of pests involving plant essential oils is useful for controlling the populations of pests responsible for decreasing the yields and quality of crops. In the present study, we demonstrate that clove bud essential oil (CBEO) is strongly attractive to sexually mature males. Mature males responded to the CBEO differently throughout the day; the strongest response was elicited during the day and decreased at dusk. Virgin and mated mature males did not respond differently to CBEO. No obvious response behaviour to the CBEO was observed in two species of beneficial natural predator ladybirds. In addition, a cytotoxicity assessment demonstrated that CBEO is nontoxic to normal human and mouse cells. Based on our laboratory experiments, CBEO may serve as a promising, sustainable, and environmentally friendly attractant for B. dorsalis males; however, field experiments are needed to confirm this hypothesis.

Mannosylated Polymeric Ligands for Targeted Delivery of Antibacterials and Their Adjuvants to Macrophages for the Enhancement of the Drug Efficiency

Bacterial infections and especially resistant strains of pathogens localized in macrophages and granulomas are intractable diseases that pose a threat to millions of people. In this paper, the theoretical and experimental foundations for solving this problem are proposed due to two key aspects. The first is the use of a three-component polymer system for delivering fluoroquinolones to macrophages due to high-affinity interaction with mannose receptors (CD206). Cytometry assay determined that 95.5% macrophage-like cells were FITC-positive after adding high-affine to CD206 trimannoside conjugate HPCD-PEI1.8-triMan, and 61.7% were FITC-positive after adding medium-affine ligand with linear mannose label HPCD-PEI1.8-Man. The second aspect is the use of adjuvants, which are synergists for antibiotics. Using FTIR and NMR spectroscopy, it was shown that molecular containers, namely mannosylated polyethyleneimines (PEIs) and cyclodextrins (CDs), load moxifloxacin (MF) with dissociation constants of the order of 10⁻⁴–10⁻⁶ M; moreover, due to prolonged release and adsorption on the cell membrane, they enhance the effect of MF. Using CLSM, it was shown that eugenol (EG) increases the penetration of doxorubicin (Dox) into cells by an order of magnitude due to the creation of defects in the bacterial wall and the inhibition of efflux proteins. Fluorescence spectroscopy showed that 0.5% EG penetrates into bacteria and inhibits efflux proteins, which makes it possible to increase the maximum concentration of the antibiotic by 60% and maintain it for several hours until the pathogens are completely neutralized. Regulation of efflux is a possible way to overcome multiple drug resistance of both pathogens and cancer cells.

Interactive effect of post-harvest processing method, roasting degree, and brewing method on coffee metabolite profiles

Our study aims to characterize metabolite profiles, varying by major determinants in brewed coffee as follows: three post-harvest processing, three roasting degrees, and two brewing methods for C. arabicacv. Geisha. The major discriminant factor was the roasting degree, explaining 58.84% of the total variance of metabolite profiles. Despite a lesser degree of influence, specific metabolite profiles were retained in temperature-based brewing (Light, 11.11%; Medium, 12.01%; Dark, 22.15%) and post-harvest processing (Light, 35.29%; Medium, 29.64%; Dark, 22.03%), respectively. The effect of pressure application on the coffee metabolome was significant only for the light roasted beans (9.88%). Of note, the post-harvest processing method was featured by norharman (anaerobic), pimelic acid (natural), and xanthine (washed). In addition, our study proposed novel compounds, DiHOMEs, associated with potential health benefits, which will step-up the coffee values and suggest future direction of the development of coffee processing.

Plant Alkylbenzenes and Terpenoids in the Form of Cyclodextrin Inclusion Complexes as Antibacterial Agents and Levofloxacin Synergists

Allylpolyalkoxybenzenes (APABs) and terpenoids from plant essential oils exhibit a range of remarkable biological effects, including analgesic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and others. Synergistic activity with antibiotics of different classes has been reported, with inhibition of P-glycoprotein and impairment of bacterial cell membrane claimed as probable mechanisms. Clearly, a more detailed understanding of APABs’ biological activity could help in the development of improved therapeutic options for a range of diseases. However, APABs’ poor solubility in water solutions has been a limiting factor for such research. Here, we found that complex formation with β-cyclodextrins (CD) is an efficient way to transform the APABs into a water-soluble form. Using a combination of spectroscopic (FTIR, NMR, UV) methods, we have estimated the binding constants, loading capacity, and the functional groups of both APABs and monoterpenes involved in complex formation with CD: ethylene, aromatic, methoxy and hydroxy groups. In the presence of a molar excess of CD (up to 5 fold) it was possible to achieve the complete dissolution of APABs and terpenoids in an aqueous medium (at 90–98% encapsulation) higher by 10–1000 times. Further, we have demonstrated that CD-APABs, if used in combination with levofloxacin (Lev), can be antagonistic, indifferent, additive, or synergistic, mostly depending on the concentration ratio: at high Lev concentration with the addition of APAB is typically neutral or even antagonistic; while at a Lev concentration below MIC, the addition of CD-APAB is either additive or synergistic (according to FICI criteria). An over three-fold increase in Lev antibacterial activity was observed in combination with eugenol (EG), as per the growth inhibition diameter measurement in agar. Interestingly, a synergistic effect could be observed with both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. So, obviously, the APAB-CD and terpenoid-CD mechanism of action is not limited to their interaction with the bacterial membrane, which has been shown earlier for CDs. Further research may open new prospects for the development of adjuvants to improve the therapeutic regimens with existing, as well as with new anti-infective drugs.

Fabrication of protein nanomaterials as delivery systems

Bioactive compounds in foods, nutraceuticals and pharmaceutical have been gaining interest due to health benefits, which can help to reduce the risk of certain chronic diseases. Recently, nanoencapsulation have attract attention because it is an efficient and promising approach for protection of bioactive compounds, and delivery them to the target physiological sites for controlled release and improvement absorption. Food proteins are promising materials to be fabricated into a variety of nanostructured delivery systems because of their high nutritional value, good functional properties, and health-benefiting effects. Various techniques and approaches are utilized to prepare nanostructured food protein. This chapter introduces the major techniques for the fabrication of nanoparticles and nanoemulsions from food proteins. The basic principles, advantages, and limitations of the techniques are discussed. The encapsulation and release of bioactive compounds in different nanostructured food proteins are illustrated in specific case studies. Due to the fast growing interest of bioactive encapsulation in various sectors, this chapter is of importance for guiding the development of nanostructured food protein loaded with bioactive ingredients for food, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications.

Dissecting dietary and semisynthetic volatile phenylpropenes: A compile of their distribution, food properties, health effects, metabolism and toxicities

Phenylpropenes represent a major subclass of plant volatiles, including eugenol, and (E)-anethole. They contribute to the flavor and aroma of many chief herbs and spices, to exert distinct notes in food, i.e., spicy anise- and clove-like to fruit. Asides from their culinary use, they appear to exert general health effects, whereas some effects are specific, e.g., eugenol being a natural local anesthetic. This review represents the most comprehensive overview of phenylpropenes with respect to their chemical structures, different health effects, and their food applications as flavor and food preservatives. Side effects and toxicities of these compounds represent the second main part of this review, as some were reported for certain metabolites generated inside the body. Several metabolic reactions mediating for phenylpropenes metabolism in rodents via cytochrome P450 (CYP450) and sulfotransferase (SULT) enzymes are presented being involved in their toxicities. Such effects can be lessened by influencing their pharmacokinetics through a matrix-derived combination effect via administration of herbal extracts containing SULT inhibitors, i.e., nevadensin in sweet basil. Moreover, structural modification of phenylpropanes appears to improve their effects and broaden their applications. Hence, such review capitalizing on phenylpropenes can help optimize their applications in nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, and food applications.

Gastroprotective effect of low dose Eugenol in experimental rats against ethanol induced toxicity: Involvement of antiinflammatory and antioxidant mechanism

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Syzygium aromaticum L. volatile oil (clove oil) has been traditionally used for various stomach disorders including inflammatory conditions. Eugenol is the major constituent present in the volatile oil, and it has been established as a gastroprotective agent through many published studies, but the exact and complete mechanism of ulcer protection is not delineated yet. Moreover, it plays precisely the opposite effect in higher dose in antiulcer properties with worsening the ulcer at a higher dose.

AIM

This study aims to carry out the prophylactic cytoprotective effect of eugenol with single low doses and explore the probable interrelated underlying transcriptional and translational level mechanism of cytoprotection such as antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, mucous generation in rats using ethanol-induced ulcer model.

METHODS

Rats were administered with different doses of eugenol before ethanol intragastrically. The effects of the eugenol on mucous production, Nitric oxide generation, PGE2 synthesis, lipid peroxidation were recorded together with cytokines measurement in the blood. TNF-α and IL-6, two key cytokines, were also studied in specific. In addition, studies on the immunohistochemical and gene expression of HSP70 and iNOS indicators have been conducted.

RESULTS

According to our findings, Eugenol substantially reduced the ulcer index and completely protected the mucosa from lesions. By restoring the lowered GSH and NP-SH levels, the protective effect of the eugenol was found to be augmented at both doses. This finding has corresponded to an increase in MDA, which was lowered by ethanol administration. Pre-treatment with eugenol on the ethanol-induced ulcer reduced the plasma NO levels and increased PGE2 along with a decreased TNF-α and IL-6 concentration. Additionally, significant transcriptional and translational upregulation of HSP70 and downregulation of iNOS were detected in the eugenol-treated rat stomach tissue.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrated that eugenol had a considerable gastroprotective impact at low doses, which could be attributed to its ability to regulate inflammatory reactions and antioxidant capacity.

Antioxidant activity of eugenol and its acetyl and nitroderivatives: the role of quinone intermediates-a DFT approach of DPPH test

This work investigated the antioxidant potential of acetylated and nitrated eugenol derivatives through structural analysis and the mechanism of hydrogen atomic transfer (HAT) by density functional theory (DFT). The structures were optimized by the hybrid functional M06-2X with basis set 6-31 + G(d,p), and the HAT mechanism was evaluated with HO, HOO, CH₃O, DPPH radicals. In agreement with experimental data from previous studies, two steps of hydrogen transfer were tested. The thermodynamic data showed the need for two hydrogen atomic transfer steps from antioxidants, followed by the formation of p-quinomethanes (27, 28, and 29) to make the reaction spontaneous with DPPH. Furthermore, theoretical kinetic data showed that the preferred antioxidant site depends on the instability of the attacking radical and confirmed the antioxidant profile for eugenol (1, 4-allylbenzene-1,2-diol), and nitro-derivative 7 (5-allyl-3-nitrobenzene-1,2-diol) in the DPPH assay. Finally, this study showed that nitro compound 6 (4-allyl-2-methoxy-6-nitrophenol) also has anti-radical activity with smaller radicals but is not observed in the experiment due to structural characteristics and chemoselectivity of DPPH.

Phytochemical study: molecular docking of eugenol derivatives as antioxidant and antimicrobial agents

Abstract:

Eugenol (4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol) is a natural phenolic compound present in certain aromatic plants; however, it is generally extracted from essential oil of Eugenia caryophyllata (Syzygiumaromaticum) (L.) Merr. and L.M. Perry. This bioactive natural compound has generated considerable biological interest with well-known antimicrobial and antioxidant actions. The authors have aimed to the evaluations of eugenol derivatives and their as antimicrobial and antioxidant agent with the aid of molecular dynamic simulation. The starting material was extracted from cloves using hydrodistillation. Two eugenol derivatives, acetyleugenol (4-allyl-2-methoxyphenylacetate) and epoxyeugenol (4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol) were prepared and tested against two strains Escherichia coli (E. Coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. Aureus). The results have revealed that the three compounds (Eugenol, acetyleugenol and epoxyeugenol) possess important potentials of inhibition against E. coli and S. Aureus. The antioxidant activity of eugenol derivatives was evaluated by the reaction with DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl), showed that the epoxyeugenol was the most active compound. The molecular docking scores of three compounds and the amino acids in the active site pockets of the selected proteins of the two bacteria have approved and explain the biological experimental outcomes.

Effects of different concentrations of eugenol in maturation medium on bovine oocytes, oxidative status and preimplantation embryos

ContextEugenol is a bioactive compound with defined attributes, including a role in reducing oxidative stress. Therefore, it is an interesting candidate for in vitro embryo production that has an environment that favours the formation of reactive oxygen species.AimThe objective of the study was to evaluate different concentrations of eugenol in bovine oocytes during in vitro maturation to observe the oxidative status and embryonic development.MethodsOocytes were allocated into five groups: control (without antioxidant), 100μM cysteamine, 83μM eugenol (E83), 100μM eugenol and 120μM eugenol. Three experiments were performed with 23 replicates. Oocytes were evaluated for metaphase II, first polar body, cytoplasmic maturation, cumulus cell expansion and viability. Oxidative status was measured by mitochondrial membrane potential, reactive oxygen species and glutathione. Oocytes were artificially activated and cultured in vitro.Key resultsThe presence of eugenol at 83μM improved the metaphase II rate compared with all treatments (P&lt;0.05). E83 and 100μM cysteamine improved first polar body extrusion, cumulus cell expansion, viability and mitochondrial aggregation rates (P&lt;0.05). All antioxidant treatments resulted in increased cytoplasmic maturation and decreased mitochondrial membrane potential (P&lt;0.05). Reactive oxygen species levels decreased, and glutathione levels increased with E83 and 100μM cysteamine treatments (P&lt;0.05). Finally, the E83 group increased the cleavage rates, embryo development, number of expanded blastocysts and number of blastomeres (P&lt;0.05).ConclusionsA low concentration of eugenol (83μM) is sufficient to generate a significant effect, attenuating the oxidative status and optimising in vitro maturation and embryo development.ImplicationsThis study provides information of a new natural antioxidant with defined concentration, 83μM eugenol, representing a lower cost alternative capable of improving the efficiency of in vitro embryo production in cattle.

Eugenol carbonate activity against Plasmodium falciparum, Leishmania braziliensis, and Trypanosoma cruzi

Neglected tropical diseases are a major health problem throughout the world, and there are few effective and safe drugs. In this study, we report the design and synthesis of a novel series of carbonates of eugenol using different aliphatic alcohols and N,N-carbonyldiimidazole. Spectroscopic techniques, including ¹ H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), ¹³ C NMR, Fourier transform infrared, and high-resolution mass spectrometry, were used to confirm the structures of the synthesized compounds. In vitro and in silico studies of prodrugs of eugenol were performed to determine their antiplasmodial, trypanocidal, and leishmanicidal activities, and also their cytotoxicity. Compounds were highly active against Leishmania braziliensis and Plasmodium falciparum, whereas the activity shown for Trypanosoma cruzi was moderate. Molecular docking was used to determine a possible mode of action of eugenol against the dihydroorotate dehydrogenase of the three parasites (TcDHODH, LbDHODH, and PfDHODH). Notably, the docking results showed that eugenol not only has binding energy similar to that of the natural substrate (-7.2 and -7.1, respectively) but also has interactions with relevant biological residues of PfDHODH. This result indicates that eugenol could act as a substrate for PfDHODH in the pyrimidine biosynthesis pathway of P. falciparum. In conclusion, the combination of certain aliphatic alcohols and eugenol through a carbonate bond could significantly increase the antiparasitic activity of this class of compounds, which merits further studies.

Exploring Pharmacological Mechanisms of Essential Oils on the Central Nervous System

Essential oils (EOs) have been traditionally used as ancient remedies to treat many health disorders due to their enormous biological activities. As mainstream allopathic medication currently used for CNS disorders is associated with adverse effects, the search to obtain safer alternatives as compared to the currently marketed therapies is of tremendous significance. Research conducted suggests that concurrent utilization of allopathic medicines and EOs is synergistically beneficial. Due to their inability to show untoward effects, various scientists have tried to elucidate the pharmacological mechanisms by which these oils exert beneficial effects on the CNS. In this regard, our review aims to improve the understanding of EOs' biological activity on the CNS and to highlight the significance of the utilization of EOs in neuronal disorders, thereby improving patient acceptability of EOs as therapeutic agents. Through data compilation from library searches and electronic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, etc., recent preclinical and clinical data, routes of administration, and the required or maximal dosage for the observation of beneficial effects are addressed. We have also highlighted the challenges that require attention for further improving patient compliance, research gaps, and the development of EO-based nanomedicine for targeted therapy and pharmacotherapy.

Anticancer Properties of Eugenol: A Review

Conventional cancer treatments have shown several unfavourable adverse effects, as well as an increase in anticancer drug resistance, which worsens the impending cancer therapy. Thus, the emphasis is currently en route for natural products. There is currently great interest in the natural bioactive components from medicinal plants possessing anticancer characteristics. For example, clove (Syzygium aromaticum L.) (Family Myrtaceae) is a highly prized spice that has been historically utilized as a food preservative and for diverse medical uses. It is reckoned amongst the valued sources of phenolics. It is indigenous to Indonesia but currently is cultivated in various places of the world. Among diverse active components, eugenol, the principal active component of S. aromaticum, has optimistic properties comprising antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer actions. Eugenol (4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol) is a musky oil that is mainly obtained from clove. It has long been utilized all over the world as a result of its broad properties like antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities. Eugenol continues to pique investigators’ interest because of its multidirectional activities, which suggests it could be used in medications to treat different ailments. Anticancer effects of eugenol are accomplished by various mechanisms like inducing cell death, cell cycle arrest, inhibition of migration, metastasis, and angiogenesis on several cancer cell lines. Besides, eugenol might be utilized as an adjunct remedy for patients who are treated with conventional chemotherapy. This combination leads to a boosted effectiveness with decreased toxicity. The present review focuses on the anticancer properties of eugenol to treat several cancer types and their possible mechanisms.

Investigating Antiarthritic Potential of Nanostructured Clove Oil (Syzygium aromaticum) in FCA-Induced Arthritic Rats: Pharmaceutical Action and Delivery Strategies

The combined application of clove oil in a lipid nanocarrier opens a promising avenue for bone and joints therapy. In this study, we successfully developed a tunable controlled-release lipid platform for the efficient delivery of clove oil (CO) for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The ultra-small nanostructured lipid carriers co-loaded with CO (CONCs) were developed through an aqueous titration method followed by microfluidization. The CONCs appeared to be spherical (particle size of 120 nm), stable (zeta potential of −27 mV), and entrapped efficiently (84.5%). In toluene:acetone:glacial acetic acid (90:9:1 percent v/v/v) solvent systems, high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) analysis revealed the primary components in CO as eugenol (R_F = 0.58). The CONCs greatly increased the therapeutic impact of CO in both in vitro and in vivo biological tests, which was further supported by excellent antiarthritic action. The CONC had an antiarthritic activity that was slightly higher than neat CO and slightly lower than standard, according to our data. The improved formulation inhibited serum lysosomal enzymes and proinflammatory cytokines while also improving hind leg function. This study provides a proof of concept to treat RA with a new strategy utilizing essential oils via nanodelivery.

Study to Explore Plant-Derived Trimethylamine Lyase Enzyme Inhibitors to Address Gut Dysbiosis

Lifestyle complications are major health concerns around the globe and are recognized as a major factor for the development of various chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, inflammatory bowel diseases, cancer, and cardiac diseases. An unhealthy diet and poor lifestyle impose a serious threat to human health. Numerous studies have suggested the role of human microbiota in human health and diseases. Microbiota resides in the human body symbiotically and the composition of microorganisms is crucial for maintaining the healthy state of an individual. A dysbiotic gut microbiome is responsible for the release of toxic metabolites such as trimethylamine, lipopolysaccharides, bile acids, and uremic toxins and is associated with impaired organ functions. Dietary and herbal intervention of dysbiosis proposes a promising strategy to counteract gut alterations and repairing of the microbial ecosystem and health. The objective of the present comparative study was to observe the effect of therapeutic herbs in gut dysbiosis. In silico studies were performed to identify human microbiota associated with various diseases, ADME, and toxicity properties of phytoconstituents of "Tinospora cordifolia" and "Ocimum sanctum." Furthermore, co-interaction studies were performed to observe the affinity of selected phytochemicals against choline trimethylamine lyase, a critical enzyme involved in dysbiosis-induced human diseases. The antimicrobial potential of phytocompounds was done by the disc diffusion method. In conclusion, our work discusses the herbal intervention of gut dysbiosis and proposes a natural, safe, and effective herbal formulation to correct microbial dysbiosis and associated diseases.

Traditional Herbal Remedies Used for Managing Anxiety and Insomnia in Italy: An Ethnopharmacological Overview

Anxiety and insomnia are among the most common mental health disorders and are a major cause of disability around the world. Traditional herbal medicines are receiving significant attention in global health debates. Several Italian regions maintain rural traditions and are among the most extensively studied areas of Europe regarding medicinal plant uses. The present overview aims to highlight the use of wild and cultivated plants, specifically as sedatives and for insomnia treatment in Italy, and to collect, analyze, and summarize the available literature about their pharmacological activity as well as clinical and pre-clinical studies concerning the most cited plants. In total, 106 wild taxa are used in Italy for sedative purposes. The plant species belong to 76 genera and 32 families, of which the most cited are Asteraceae (24.2%) and Lamiaceae (21.1%). Leaves (29%) and flowers (27%) are the plant parts mostly used as infusion (70%) and decoction (25%). Out of 106 taxa documented, only the most cited are analyzed in this overview (A. arvensis L., C. nepeta L., C. monogyna Jacq., H. lupulus L., L. nobilis L., L. angustifolia Mill., M. sylvestris L., M. chamomilla L., M. officinalis L., O. basilicum L., P. rhoeas L., P. somniferum L., R. officinalis L., T. platyphyllus Scop., and V. officinalis L.). Among the fifteen species selected, only seven have been studied for their pharmacological activity as hypnotic-sedatives. Future pre-clinical and clinical studies are needed to better clarify the mechanism of action of bioactive compounds and confirm the potential of these alternative therapies.

Eugenol, a Promising Building Block for Biobased Polymers with Cutting-Edge Properties

Biobased materials, derived from biomass building blocks, are essential in the pursuit of sustainable materials. Eugenol, a natural phenol obtained from clove oil, but also from lignin depolymerization, possesses a chemical structure that allows its easy modification to obtain a broad and versatile platform of biobased monomers. In this Perspective, an overview of the variety of reactions that have been executed on the allylic double bond, phenol hydroxyl group, aromatic ring, and methoxy group is given, focusing our attention on those to obtain monomers suitable for different polymerization reactions. Furthermore, possible applications and perspectives on the eugenol-derived materials are provided.

Natural Methoxyphenol Compounds: Antimicrobial Activity against Foodborne Pathogens and Food Spoilage Bacteria, and Role in Antioxidant Processes

The antibacterial and antioxidant activities of three methoxyphenol phytometabolites, eugenol, capsaicin, and vanillin, were determined. The in vitro antimicrobial potential was tested on three common foodborne pathogens (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus) and three food spoilage bacteria (Shewanella putrefaciens, Brochothrix thermosphacta, and Lactobacillus plantarum). The antioxidant assays were carried out for studying the free radical scavenging capacity and the anti-lipoperoxidant activity. The results showed that eugenol and capsaicin were the most active against both pathogens and spoilage bacteria. S. aureus was one of the most affected strains (median concentration of growth inhibition: IC50 eugenol = 0.75 mM; IC50 capsaicin = 0.68 mM; IC50 vanillin = 1.38 mM). All phytochemicals slightly inhibited the growth of L. plantarum. Eugenol was the most active molecule in the antioxidant assays. Only in the oxygen radical absorbing capacity (ORAC) test did vanillin show an antioxidant activity comparable to eugenol (eugenol ORAC value = 2.12 ± 0.08; vanillin ORAC value = 1.81 ± 0.19). This study, comparing the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of three guaiacol derivatives, enhances their use in future applications as food additives for contrasting both common pathogens and spoilage bacteria and for improving the shelf life of preserved food.

Pharmacological Properties and Health Benefits of Eugenol: A Comprehensive Review

The biologically active phytochemicals are sourced from edible and medicinally important plants and are important molecules being used for the formulation of thousands of drugs. These phytochemicals have great benefits against many ailments particularly the inflammatory diseases or oxidative stress-mediated chronic diseases. Eugenol (EUG) is a versatile naturally occurring molecule as phenolic monoterpenoid and frequently found in essential oils in a wide range of plant species. EUG bears huge industrial applications particularly in pharmaceutics, dentistry, flavoring of foods, agriculture, and cosmeceutics. It is being focused recently due to its great potential in preventing several chronic conditions. The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared EUG as a nonmutant and generally recognized as safe (GRAS) molecule. The available literature about pharmacological activities of EUG shows remarkable anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, and antimicrobial properties and has a significant effect on human health. The current manuscript summarizes the pharmacological characteristics of EUG and its potential health benefits.

Antioxidant thymoquinone and eugenol alleviate TiO2 nanoparticle-induced toxicity in human blood cells in vitro

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles (NPs) are used extensively in a variety of commercial, industrial, and medical products, due to which human exposure is inevitable. This study aimed to explore the potential of eugenol and thymoquinone (TQ), two well-known antioxidants, in counteracting the NP-induced toxicity in human blood cells in vitro. Fresh lymphocytes and erythrocytes were isolated from volunteer human blood donors and incubated with 50 μg/mL of TiO₂ NPs in the presence and absence of 50 μM of TQ and 20 μg/mL of eugenol for 3 h. Results showed that NP-treatment-induced hemolysis, oxidative stress, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage, and reduced ATPase activity in the erythrocytes. In the lymphocytes treated with NPs alone (50 μg/mL), cytotoxicity in MTT assay and DNA damage in comet assay were observed; in addition, mitochondrial membrane potential collapsed and ADP/ATP ratio increased indicating mitochondrial function impairment. However, in the presence of antioxidants, all these NP-induced changes were mitigated significantly. The results were more significant when both antioxidants eugenol and TQ were given together. Thus, it seems that antioxidants eugenol and TQ can be used as a protective agent against TiO₂ NP-induced toxicity.

Formulation and Evaluation of a Clove Oil-Encapsulated Nanofiber Formulation for Effective Wound-Healing

Wound-healing is complicated process that is affected by many factors, especially bacterial infiltration at the site and not only the need for the regeneration of damaged tissues but also the requirement for antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic activity at the injured site. The objective of the present study was to develop and evaluate the natural essential oil-containing nanofiber (NF) mat with enhanced antibacterial activity, regenerative, non-cytotoxic, and wound-healing potential. Clove essential oil (CEO) encapsulated in chitosan and poly-ethylene oxide (PEO) polymers to form NFs and their morphology was analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) that confirmed the finest NFs prepared with a diameter of 154 ± 35 nm. The successful incorporation of CEO was characterized by Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD). The 87.6 ± 13.1% encapsulation efficiency and 8.9 ± 0.98% loading of CEO was observed. A total of 79% release of CEO was observed in acidic pH 5.5 with 117% high degree of swelling. The prepared NF mat showed good antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli and non-cytotoxic behavior against human fibroblast cell lines and showed good wound-healing potential.

Biological Properties and Prospects for the Application of Eugenol-A Review

Eugenol is a phenolic aromatic compound obtained mainly from clove oil. Due to its known antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, it has long been used in various areas, such as cosmetology, medicine, and pharmacology. However, high concentrations can be toxic. A dose of 2.5 mg/kg body weight is regarded as safe. This paper reviews the current state of knowledge regarding the activities and application of eugenol and its derivatives and recent research of these compounds. This review is based on information concerning eugenol characteristics and recent research from articles in PubMed. Eugenol remains of great interest to researchers, since its multidirectional action allows it to be a potential component of drugs and other products with therapeutic potential against a range of diseases.

Epigenetic immunomodulatory effect of eugenol and astaxanthin on doxorubicin cytotoxicity in hormonal positive breast Cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Hormonal receptor positive (HR+) breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed molecular subtype of breast cancer; which showed good response to doxorubicin (DOX)-based chemotherapy. Eugenol (EUG) and astaxanthin (AST) are natural compounds with proved epigenetic and immunomodulatory effects in several cancer cell lines. This study has been initiated to investigate the molecular mechanism (s) whereby EUG and AST could enhance DOX cytotoxicity in MCF7 cells.

METHODS

Cytotoxic activity of DOX alone and combined with either 1 mM EUG or 40 μM AST was performed using sulphorhodamine-B assay in MCF7 cells. Global histones acetylation and some immunological markers were investigated using ELISA, western blotting and quantitative RT-PCR techniques. Functional assay of multidrug resistance was performed using rhodamine 123 and Hoechst 3342 dyes. Flow cytometry with annexin V and propidium iodide were used to assess the change in cell cycle and apoptosis along with the expression of some differentiation, apoptosis and autophagy proteins.

RESULTS

DOX alone resulted in concentration-dependent cytotoxicity with IC50 of 0.5 μM. Both EUG and AST significantly increased DOX cytotoxicity which is manifested as a significant decrease in DOX IC50 from 0.5 μM to 0.088 μM with EUG and to 0.06 μM with AST. Combinations of DOX with 1 mM EUG or 40 μM AST significantly increased the level of histones acetylation and histone acetyl transferase expression, while reduced the expression of aromatase and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) when compared with 0.25 μM DOX alone. Also both combinations showed higher uptake of rhodamine but lower of Hoechst stains, along with increased the percentage of caspase 3, and decreased the expression of CK7 and LC3BI/II ratio. EUG combination induced IFγ but reduced TNFα causing shifting of cells from G2/M to S and G0/ G1 phases. Combination of DOX with EUG induced apoptosis through the higher BAX/ BCl2 ratio, while with AST was through the increase in caspase 8 expressions.

CONCLUSION

EUG and AST potentiated the anticancer activity of DOX through epigenetic histones acetylation along with the immunonomodulation of different apoptotic approaches in MCF7 cells.

Calming the Storm: Natural Immunosuppressants as Adjuvants to Target the Cytokine Storm in COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a global health crisis, with no specific antiviral to treat the infection and the absence of a suitable vaccine to prevent it. While some individuals contracting the SARS-CoV-2 infection exhibit a well coordinated immune response and recover, others display a dysfunctional immune response leading to serious complications including ARDS, sepsis, MOF; associated with morbidity and mortality. Studies revealed that in patients with a dysfunctional immune response, there is a massive cytokine and chemokine release, referred to as the ‘cytokine storm’. As a result, such patients exhibit higher levels of pro-inflammatory/modulatory cytokines and chemokines like TNFα, INFγ, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-7, IL-9, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-17, G-CSF, GM-CSF, MCSF, HGF and chemokines CXCL8, MCP1, IP10, MIP1α and MIP1β. Targeting this cytokine storm is a novel, promising treatment strategy to alleviate this excess influx of cytokines observed at the site of infection and their subsequent disastrous consequences. Natural immunosuppressant compounds, derived from plant sources like curcumin, luteolin, piperine, resveratrol are known to inhibit the production and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. This inhibitory effect is mediated by altering signal pathways like NF-κB, JAK/STAT, MAPK/ERK that are involved in the production and release of cytokines and chemokines. The use of these natural immunosuppressants as adjuvants to ameliorate the cytokine storm; in combination with antiviral agents and other treatment drugs currently in use presents a novel, synergistic approach for the treatment and effective cure of COVID-19. This review briefly describes the immunopathogenesis of the cytokine storm observed in SARS-CoV-2 infection and details some natural immunosuppressants that can be used as adjuvants in treating COVID-19 disease.

Optimized preparation of eugenol microcapsules and its effect on hepatic steatosis in HepG2 cells

This study was aimed at evaluating the potential of peach gum (PG) and gelatin in the microencapsulation of eugenol and the intervention of eugenol microcapsules on hepatic steatosis in vitro. Response surface method (RSM) was used to optimize the encapsulation conditions of eugenol microcapsules. The microcapsules were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and release behavior in vitro was determined. The effect of eugenol microcapsules on free fatty acids (FFA) treated hepatocellular cells (HepG₂) cells was evaluated by oil red O staining and intracellular total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG) determination. The results showed that the optimal encapsulation conditions were as follows: the PG-gelatin ratio was 1.6:1.4, the core-wall ratio was 1.6:1.4, the pH was 4 and the emulsification speed was 9000 r/min. The optimized microcapsules were smooth spherical with a size of about 3.09 ± 0.58 μm and the encapsulation was confirmed by FT-IR. In vitro release behavior showed that eugenol microcapsules could be released stably in a neutral environment for 72 h. Oil red O staining showed that 50 and 100 μM eugenol microcapsules could significantly inhibit the lipid accumulation and reduce the TC and TG in steatotic HepG₂ cells induced by FFA. Therefore, PG and gelatin can be used as excellent carriers for the microencapsulation of volatile compounds in the field of biomedical industry, and eugenol microcapsules is a promising preparation for the treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

An In Vitro Evaluation of the Biocidal Effect of Oregano and Cloves’ Volatile Compounds against Microorganisms Colonizing an Oil Painting—A Pioneer Study

In this study, the biocidal activity of two plant derivatives (oregano and cloves’ essential oils—EOs) was evaluated, as a potential innovative and eco-friendly cleaning method for canvas paintings. The object of the study was the oil painting on canvas entitled “Studio di nudo” (Giovanni Maria Mossa, 1921), showing stains caused by microorganisms. The research focused on: (1) isolation and identification of microorganisms associated with discolorations on the obverse and reverse sides of the canvas; (2) evaluation of biocidal activity of selected EOs against fungal and bacterial collections. The phylogenetic identification was conducted with both cultivation and molecular methods. The canvas was mainly colonized by Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Cephaloteca fungal genera and by bacteria of the Bacillus genus. To evaluate the biocidal effect of the EOs’ volatile components only, an antibiogram assay (agar disc diffusion method) and a customized assay (named the contactless test) were conducted. Tested EOs showed antimicrobial activity on fungi and bacteria. However, compared to cloves, oregano EO exhibited a better inhibition activity both in contact and contactless tests. The work is pioneering for the use of EOs’ volatile compounds against oil painting biodeteriogens, and gives insights into possible extended, innovative and eco-friendly cleaning methods for painting control procedures.

Phytochemicals: Potential Therapeutic Interventions Against Coronavirus-Associated Lung Injury

Since the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in December 2019, millions of people have been infected and died worldwide. However, no drug has been approved for the treatment of this disease and its complications, which urges the need for finding novel therapeutic agents to combat. Among the complications due to COVID-19, lung injury has attained special attention. Besides, phytochemicals have shown prominent anti-inflammatory effects and thus possess significant effects in reducing lung injury caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Also, the prevailing evidence reveales the antiviral effects of those phytochemicals, including anti-SARS-CoV activity, which could pave the road in providing suitable lead compounds in the treatment of COVID-19. In the present study, candidate phytochemicals and related mechanisms of action have been shown in the treatment/protection of lung injuries induced by various methods. In terms of pharmacological mechanism, phytochemicals have shown potential inhibitory effects on inflammatory and oxidative pathways/mediators, involved in the pathogenesis of lung injury during COVID-19 infection. Also, a brief overview of phytochemicals with anti-SARS-CoV-2 compounds has been presented.

An In Vitro Study on the Antimicrobial Properties of Essential Oil Modified Resin Composite against Oral Pathogens

Modifying the composition of dental restorative materials with antimicrobial agents might induce their antibacterial potential against cariogenic bacteria, e.g., S. mutans and L. acidophilus, as well as antifungal effect on C. albicans that are major oral pathogens. Essential oils (EOs) are widely known for antimicrobial activity and are successfully used in dental industry. The study aimed at evaluating antibacterial and antifungal activity of EOs and composite resin material (CR) modified with EO against oral pathogens. Ten EOs (i.e., anise, cinnamon, citronella, clove, geranium, lavender, limette, mint, rosemary thyme) were tested using agar diffusion method. Cinnamon and thyme EOs showed significantly highest antibacterial activity against S. mutans and L. acidophilus among all tested EOs. Anise and limette EOs showed no antibacterial activity against S. mutans. All tested EOs exhibited antifungal activity against C. albicans, whereas cinnamon EO showed significantly highest and limette EO significantly lowest activity. Next, 1, 2 or 5 µL of cinnamon EO was introduced into 2 g of CR and microbiologically tested. The modified CR showed higher antimicrobial activity in comparison to unmodified one. CR containing 2 µL of EO showed the best antimicrobial properties against S. mutans and C. albicans, while CR modified with 1 µL of EO showed the best antimicrobial properties against L. acidophilus.

Syzygium aromaticum L. (Myrtaceae): Traditional Uses, Bioactive Chemical Constituents, Pharmacological and Toxicological Activities

Herbal medicinal products have been documented as a significant source for discovering new pharmaceutical molecules that have been used to treat serious diseases. Many plant species have been reported to have pharmacological activities attributable to their phytoconstituents such are glycosides, saponins, flavonoids, steroids, tannins, alkaloids, terpenes, etc. Syzygium aromaticum (clove) is a traditional spice that has been used for food preservation and possesses various pharmacological activities. S. aromaticum is rich in many phytochemicals as follows: sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes, hydrocarbon, and phenolic compounds. Eugenyl acetate, eugenol, and β-caryophyllene are the most significant phytochemicals in clove oil. Pharmacologically, S. aromaticum has been examined toward various pathogenic parasites and microorganisms, including pathogenic bacteria, Plasmodium, Babesia, Theileria parasites, Herpes simplex, and hepatitis C viruses. Several reports documented the analgesic, antioxidant, anticancer, antiseptic, anti-depressant, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antifungal, and antibacterial activity of eugenol against several pathogenic bacteria including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis and S. aureus. Moreover, eugenol was found to protect against CCl_4-induced hepatotoxicity and showed a potential lethal efficacy against the multiplication of various parasites including Giardia lamblia, Fasciola gigantica, Haemonchus contortus, and Schistosoma mansoni. This review examines the phytochemical composition and biological activities of clove extracts along with clove essential oil and the main active compound, eugenol, and implicates new findings from gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) analysis.

Herb-Induced Liver Injury: Phylogenetic Relationship, Structure-Toxicity Relationship, and Herb-Ingredient Network Analysis

Currently, hundreds of herbal products with potential hepatotoxicity were available in the literature. A comprehensive summary and analysis focused on these potential hepatotoxic herbal products may assist in understanding herb-induced liver injury (HILI). In this work, we collected 335 hepatotoxic medicinal plants, 296 hepatotoxic ingredients, and 584 hepatoprotective ingredients through a systematic literature retrieval. Then we analyzed these data from the perspectives of phylogenetic relationship and structure-toxicity relationship. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that hepatotoxic medicinal plants tended to have a closer taxonomic relationship. By investigating the structures of the hepatotoxic ingredients, we found that alkaloids and terpenoids were the two major groups of hepatotoxicity. We also identified eight major skeletons of hepatotoxicity and reviewed their hepatotoxic mechanisms. Additionally, 15 structural alerts (SAs) for hepatotoxicity were identified based on SARpy software. These SAs will help to estimate the hepatotoxic risk of ingredients from herbs. Finally, a herb-ingredient network was constructed by integrating multiple datasets, which will assist to identify the hepatotoxic ingredients of herb/herb-formula quickly. In summary, a systemic analysis focused on HILI was conducted which will not only assist to identify the toxic molecular basis of hepatotoxic herbs but also contribute to decipher the mechanisms of HILI.

Effects of edible coating containing nano-emulsion of Aloe vera and eugenol on the physicochemical properties of shrimp during cold storage

BACKGROUND

Shrimp is nowadays recognized as a rich source of proteins and omega-3 fatty acids. Edible nano-emulsion coatings containing eugenol, as an antioxidant agent, and Aloe vera, as a functional compound, were prepared for the storage of pink shrimp over 7 days at 277 K. Samples of the nano-emulsion were prepared under ultrasonication using 0, 10 and 20 g L^-1 of Aloe vera as well as 0, 15 and 30 mL L^-1 of eugenol along with Tween 80.

RESULTS

Results indicated that the low pH of Aloe vera reduced that of the nano-emulsions while the particle size and turbidity increased with increasing Aloe vera concentration. Moreover, both colour and antioxidant activity of the nano-emulsions were significantly affected by eugenol and Aloe vera concentrations (p < 0.05). Increasing eugenol concentration led to increased nano-emulsion pickup but to reduced lightness. Higher concentrations of Aloe vera significantly (p < 0.05) decreased drip loss, cooking loss, pH rise and oxidation rates but enhanced hardness in the shrimp samples.

CONCLUSIONS

The best results were recorded for the nano-emulsion coating containing 30 mL L^-1 of eugenol and 20 g L^-1 of Aloe vera. The nano-emulsion was successfully able to upgrade shrimp quality over 7 days of cold storage. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Antifungal Activity of Eugenol Derivatives against Botrytis Cinerea

Botrytis cinerea is a worldwide spread fungus that causes the grey mold disease, which is considered the most important factor in postharvest losses in fresh fruit crops. Consequently, the control of gray mold is a matter of current and relevant interest for agricultural industries. In this work, a series of phenylpropanoids derived from eugenol were synthesized and characterized. Their effects on the mycelial growth of a virulent and multi-resistant isolate of B. cinerea (PN2) have been evaluated and IC₅₀ values for the most active compounds range between 31⁻95 ppm. The antifungal activity exhibited by these compounds is strongly related to their chemical structure, i.e., increasing activity has been obtained by isomerization of the double bond or introduction of a nitro group on the aromatic ring. Based on the relationship between the fungicide activities and chemical structure, a mechanism of action is proposed. Finally, the activity of these compounds is higher than that reported for the commercial fungicide BC-1000 that is currently employed to combat this disease. Thus, our results suggest that these compounds are potential candidates to be used in the design of new and effective control with inspired natural compounds of this pathogen.