Cost-utility of venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in cardiogenic shock and cardiac arrest

The Price We Pay for Progression in Shock Care: Economic Burden, Accessibility, and Adoption of Shock-Teams and Mechanical Circulatory Support Devices

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Cardiogenic shock (CS) is associated with high in-hospital and long-term mortality and morbidity that results in significant socio-economic impact. Due to the high costs associated with CS care, it is important to define the short- and long-term burden of this disease state on resources and review strategies to mitigate these.

RECENT FINDINGS

In recent times, the focus on CS continues to be on improving short-term outcomes, but there has been increasing emphasis on the long-term morbidity. In this review we discuss the long-term outcomes of CS and the role of hospital-level and system-level disparities in perpetuating this. We discuss mitigation strategies including developing evidence-based protocols and systems of care, improvement in risk stratification and evaluation of futility of care, all of which address the economic burden of CS. CS continues to remain the pre-eminent challenge in acute cardiovascular care, and a combination of multi-pronged strategies are needed to improve outcomes in this population.

Need for a Cardiogenic Shock Team Collaborative-Promoting a Team-Based Model of Care to Improve Outcomes and Identify Best Practices

Cardiogenic shock continues to carry a high mortality rate despite contemporary care, with no breakthrough therapies shown to improve survival over the past few decades. It is a time-sensitive condition that commonly results in cardiovascular complications and multisystem organ failure, necessitating multidisciplinary expertise. Managing patients with cardiogenic shock remains challenging even in well-resourced settings, and an important subgroup of patients may require cardiac replacement therapy. As a result, the idea of leveraging the collective cognitive and procedural proficiencies of multiple providers in a collaborative, team-based approach to care (the "shock team") has been advocated by professional societies and implemented at select high-volume clinical centers. A slowly maturing evidence base has suggested that cardiogenic shock teams may improve patient outcomes. Although several registries exist that are beginning to inform care, particularly around therapeutic strategies of pharmacologic and mechanical circulatory support, none of these are currently focused on the shock team approach, multispecialty partnership, education, or process improvement. We propose the creation of a Cardiogenic Shock Team Collaborative-akin to the successful Pulmonary Embolism Response Team Consortium-with a goal to promote sharing of care protocols, education of stakeholders, and discovery of how process and performance may influence patient outcomes, quality, resource consumption, and costs of care.

Sounding the Alarm: What Clinicians Need to Know about Physical, Emotional, and Cognitive Recovery After Venoarterial Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation

OBJECTIVE

We summarize the existing data on the occurrence of physical, emotional, and cognitive dysfunction associated with postintensive care syndrome (PICS) in adult survivors of venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA-ECMO).

DATA SOURCES

MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, Web of Science, and CINAHL databases were searched.

STUDY SELECTION

Peer-reviewed studies of adults receiving VA-ECMO for any reason with at least one measure of health-related quality of life outcomes or PICS at long-term follow-up of at least 6 months were included.

DATA EXTRACTION

The participant demographics and baseline characteristics, in-hospital outcomes, long-term health outcomes, quality of life outcome measures, and prevalence of PICS were extracted.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Twenty-seven studies met inclusion criteria encompassing 3,271 patients who were treated with VA-ECMO. The studies were limited to single- or two-center studies. Outcomes variables and follow-up time points evaluated were widely heterogeneous which limits comprehensive analysis of PICS after VA-ECMO. In general, the longer-term PICS-related outcomes of survivors of VA-ECMO were worse than the general population, and approaching that of patients with chronic disease. Available studies identified high rates of abnormal 6-minute walk distance, depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder that persisted for years. Half or fewer survivors return to work years after discharge. Only 2 of 27 studies examined cognitive outcomes and no studies evaluated cognitive dysfunction within the first year of recovery. No studies evaluated the impact of targeted interventions on these outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Survivors of VA-ECMO represent a population of critically ill patients at high risk for deficits in physical, emotional, and cognitive function related to PICS. This systematic review highlights the alarming reality that PICS and in particular, neurocognitive outcomes, in survivors of VA-ECMO are understudied, underrecognized, and thus likely undertreated. These results underscore the imperative that we look beyond survival to focus on understanding the burden of survivorship with the goal of optimizing recovery and outcomes after these life-saving interventions. Future prospective, multicenter, longitudinal studies in recovery after VA-ECMO are justified.

Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation as a Bridge to Surgical Repair of Postinfarct Ventricular Septal Defect

Postinfarct ventricular septal defect (PIVSD) is associated with high mortality and the management of these patients has been a challenge with little improvement in outcomes. We commenced a protocol of veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA ECMO) for those patients who present in cardiogenic shock with the aim to improve end-organ function before definitive surgical repair to reduce postoperative mortality. This study reviewed the results of this strategy. This was a single-center, retrospective review of all patients who were admitted to our institution with PIVSD in cardiogenic shock from September 2015 to November 2019. Clinical and investigative data were evaluated. Eight patients were referred with PIVSD during this period in cardiogenic shock. One patient had an anterior PIVSD and the other seven had inferior PIVSD. Six patients underwent surgical repair at a median (interquartile range, IQR) of 7 (5-8) days after initiation of VA ECMO. Two patients did not undergo surgical repair. Five patients survived after surgery and one patient died postoperatively due to multiorgan failure. Preoperative use of VA ECMO is a feasible strategy for PIVSD and may improve the results of repair.

Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO) for Pulmonary and/or Cardiopulmonary Support-a Brief Review and Our Experience

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is a modality utilized for partially or completely supporting the cardiac and/or pulmonary function. There are multiple vascular access techniques depending upon the necessity and the mode of ECMO used. ECMO has evolved over the years as an integral part of the cardiac care discipline. Historically, this lifesaving modality began as an extension of cardiopulmonary bypass and was associated with adverse outcomes. Currently, ECMO has evolved as an accepted and viable solution to patients with severe cardiac/respiratory/cardiorespiratory failure that is refractory to conservative management. The outcomes of patients on ECMO are dependent on multiple factors originating from demographic and pathophysiological status of patients as well as the control of homeostasis during ECMO within the acceptable range. Various studies have been published by many practitioners over past decades since the dawn of ECMO era. A brief review of such experience is summated, and a conclusion is derived about the clinical course of the patients on ECMO, while adding the author's experience about the same in a tertiary care large-volume center.

Successful management of hemodynamic instability secondary to saddle pulmonary embolism-induced cardiac arrest using VA-ECMO in advanced malignancy with brain metastases

BACKGROUND

Saddle pulmonary embolism (SPE) represents a rare type of venous thromboembolism that frequently causes circulation collapse and sudden death. While venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA-ECMO) has been well established as a salvage treatment for SPE-induced circulatory shock, it is infrequently administered in patients with advanced malignancy, especially those with brain metastases, given the potential bleeding complications and an uncertain prognosis. As far, there are rare case reports regarding the successful management of hemodynamic instability secondary to SPE-induced cardiac arrest using VA-ECMO in advanced malignancy patients with brain metastases.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 65-year-old woman presenting with cough and waist discomfort who had a history of lung cancer with brain metastases was admitted to the hospital to receive chemoradiotherapy. She suffered sudden cardiac arrest during hospitalization and returned to spontaneous circulation after receiving a 10-min high-quality cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Pulmonary embolism was suspected due to the collapsed hemodynamics and a distended right ventricle identified by echocardiography. Subsequent computed tomographic pulmonary angiography revealed a massive saddle thrombus straddling the bifurcation of the pulmonary trunk. VA-ECMO with adjusted-dose systemic heparinization was initiated to rescue the unstable hemodynamics despite receiving thrombolytic therapy with alteplase. Immediately afterward, the hemodynamic status of the patient stabilized rapidly. VA-ECMO was successfully discontinued within 72 h of initiation without any clotting or bleeding complications. She was weaned off invasive mechanical ventilation on the 6th day of intensive care unit (ICU) admission and discharged from the ICU 3 days later with good neurological function.

CONCLUSION

VA-ECMO may be a 'bridging' therapy to circulation recovery during reperfusion therapy for SPE-induced hemodynamic collapse in malignancy patients with brain metastases.

Incremental cost-effectiveness of extracorporeal membranous oxygenation as a bridge to cardiac transplant or left ventricular assist device placement in patients with refractory cardiogenic shock

Objective

Emerging literature has described using venoarterial extracorporeal membranous oxygenation (ECMO) as a bridge to transplant or left ventricular assist device (LVAD) placement. We sought to identify the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of ECMO used as a bridge to cardiac transplant or LVAD.

Methods

Patients with refractory cardiogenic shock who received venoarterial ECMO and were bridged to either cardiac transplant (n = 7) or a HeartMate 3 LVAD (n = 6) placement were included. Markov modeling was used, comparing ECMO bridging with non–ECMO-bridged patients. Cohorts entered the model alive and at every 1-year cycle, were exposed to risk of death, and ran forward for 20 years after transplant or LVAD.

Results

Patients bridged with ECMO to cardiac transplant were stratified as group 1 whereas those bridged with ECMO to LVAD were stratified as group 2. The average ECMO run was 3 days in group 1 versus 11 days in group 2. Among group 1 patients, the ICER was $246,629 but was paired with a longer life expectancy. The ICER of group 2 patients was –$107,088 and was not paired with a longer life expectancy. The average inpatient cost for group 1 was found to be $636,023 versus $769,471 for group 2 patients. The average inpatient costs for patients not bridged to ECMO who received cardiac transplant or LVAD was $538,928 and $325,242, respectively.

Conclusions

Using ECMO to bridge to transplant or LVAD placement is not cost effective. However, patients bridged to transplant are paired with longer life expectancy in contrast to patients bridged to LVAD.

Risk stratification and cost-effectiveness analysis of adult patients receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation

RATIONALE, AIMS, AND OBJECTIVES

A more effective allocation of critical care resources is important as the cost of intensive care increases. A model has been developed to predict the probability of in-hospital death among patients who received extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). Cost-effectiveness analyses (CEA) were performed regarding the relationship between hospitalization expenses and predicted survival outcomes.

METHODS

Adult patients who received ECMO in a medical center in Taiwan (2005-2016) were included. A logistic regression model was applied to a spectrum of clinical measures obtained before and during ECMO institutions to identify the risk variables for in-hospital mortality. CEA were reported as a predictive risk in quintiles and defined as the cost of each quality-adjusted life-year (QALY). The distribution of the cost-effectiveness ratio (CER) was measured by the ellipse and acceptability curve methods.

RESULTS

A total of 919 patients (659 males, mean age: 53.7 years) were enrolled. Ten variables emerged as significant predictors of in-hospital death. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.75 (95% confidence interval: 0.72-0.79). In-hospital and total follow-up times were 40,366 and 660,205 person-days, respectively. The total in-hospital expense was $31,818,701 USD and the total effectiveness was 1687.3 QALY. For the lowest to the highest risk quintile, the mean mortality risks were 0.30, 0.48, 0.61, 0.75, and 0.88, and mean adjusted CER were $24,230, $43,042, $54,929, $84,973, and $149,095 per QALY, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The efficient allocation of limited and costly resources is most important when one is forced to decide between groups of critically ill patients. The current analyses of ECMO outcomes should assist in identifying candidates with the greatest prospect for survival while avoiding futile treatments.

Trends, Advantages and Disadvantages in Combined Extracorporeal Lung and Kidney Support From a Technical Point of View

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) provides pulmonary and/or cardiac support for critically ill patients. Due to their diseases, they are at high risk of developing acute kidney injury. In that case, continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) is applied to provide renal support and fluid management. The ECMO and CRRT circuits can be combined by an integrated or parallel approach. So far, all methods used for combined extracorporeal lung and kidney support present serious drawbacks. This includes not only high risks of circuit related complications such as bleeding, thrombus formation, and hemolysis, but also increase in technical workload and health care costs. In this sense, the development of a novel optimized artificial lung device with integrated renal support could offer important treatment benefits. Therefore, we conducted a review to provide technical background on existing techniques for extracorporeal lung and kidney support and give insight on important aspects to be addressed in the development of this novel highly integrated artificial lung device.

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation in adults: evidence and implications

Rates of survival with functional recovery for both in-hospital and out-of-hospital cardiac arrest are notably low. Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) is emerging as a modality to improve prognosis by augmenting perfusion to vital end-organs by utilizing extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) during conventional CPR and stabilizing the patient for interventions aimed at reversing the aetiology of the arrest. Implementing this emergent procedure requires a substantial investment in resources, and even the most successful ECPR programs may nonetheless burden healthcare systems, clinicians, patients, and their families with unsalvageable patients supported by extracorporeal devices. Non-randomized and observational studies have repeatedly shown an association between ECPR and improved survival, versus conventional CPR, for in-hospital cardiac arrest in select patient populations. Recently, randomized controlled trials suggest benefit for ECPR over standard resuscitation, as well as the feasibility of performing such trials, in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest within highly coordinated healthcare delivery systems. Application of these data to clinical practice should be done cautiously, with outcomes likely to vary by the setting and system within which ECPR is initiated. ECPR introduces important ethical challenges, including whether it should be considered an extension of CPR, at what point it becomes sustained organ replacement therapy, and how to approach patients unable to recover or be bridged to heart replacement therapy. The economic impact of ECPR varies by health system, and has the potential to outstrip resources if used indiscriminately. Ideally, studies should include economic evaluations to inform health care systems about the cost-benefits of this therapy.

Hospital Costs of Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation in Adults: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Costs associated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) are an important factor in establishing cost effectiveness. In this systematic review, we aimed to determine the total hospital costs of ECMO for adults.

METHODS

The literature was retrieved from the PubMed/MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Web of Science databases from inception to 4 March 2020 using the search terms 'extracorporeal membrane oxygenation' combined with 'costs'; similar terms or phrases were then added to the search, i.e. 'Extracorporeal Life Support' or 'ECMO' or 'ECLS' combined with 'costs'. We included any type of study (e.g. randomized trial or observational cohort) evaluating hospital costs of ECMO in adults (age ≥18 years).

RESULTS

A total of 1768 unique articles were retrieved during our search. We assessed 74 full-text articles for eligibility, of which 14 articles were selected for inclusion in this review; six papers were from the US, five were from Europe, and one each from Japan, Australia, and Taiwan. The sample sizes ranged from 16 to 18,684 patients. One paper exclusively used prospective cost data collection, while all other papers used retrospective data collection. Five papers reported charges instead of costs. There was large variation in hospital costs, ranging from US$22,305 to US$334,608 (2019 values), largely depending on the indication for ECMO support and location. The highest reported costs were for lung transplant recipients who were receiving ECMO support in the US, and the lowest reported costs were for extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation patients presenting with non-shockable rhythm in Japan. The additional costs of ECMO patients compared with non-ECMO patients varied between US$2518 and US$200,658. Personnel costs varied between 11 and 52% of the total amount.

CONCLUSIONS

ECMO therapy is an advanced and expensive technology, although reported costs differ considerably depending on ECMO indication and whether charges or costs are measured. Combined with the ongoing gathering of outcome data, cost effectiveness per ECMO indication could be determined in the future.

Five-year survival after post-cardiotomy veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation

AIMS 

Veno-arterial (VA) extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) support for post-cardiotomy cardiogenic shock (PCS) after adult cardiac surgery is associated with satisfactory hospital survival. However, data on long-term survival of these critically ill patients are scarce.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Between January 2010 and March 2018, 665 consecutive patients received VA-ECMO for PCS at 17 cardiac surgery centres and herein we evaluated their 5-year survival. The mean follow-up of this cohort was 1.7 ± 2.7 years (for hospital survivors, 4.6 ± 2.5 years). In this cohort, 240 (36.1%) patients survived to hospital discharge. Five-year survival of all patients was 27.7%. The PC-ECMO score was predictive of 5-year survival in these patients (0 point, 50.9%; 1 point, 44.9%; 2 points, 40.0%; 3 points, 34.7%; 4 points, 21.0%; 5 points, 17.6%; ≥6 points, 10.7%; P < 0.0001). Age was among factors independently associated with late survival, patients >70 years old having a remarkably poor 5-year survival (<60 years: 39.2%; 60-69 years: 29.9%; 70-79 years: 12.3%; ≥80 years: 13.0%, P < 0.0001). Implantation of a ventricular assist device or heart transplant was performed in 3.2% of patients and their 5-year survival was 42.9% (for heart transplant, 63.6%).

CONCLUSION 

Veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for PCS is associated with satisfactory 5-year survival in young patients without critical pre-ECMO conditions. The use of VA-ECMO for PCS in patients >70 years should be considered only after a judicious scrutiny of patient's life expectancy. Future studies should evaluate whether satisfactory mid-term survival of these patients translates into a good functional outcome.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinicaltrials.gov-NCT03508505.