The health impacts of semiconductor production: an epidemiologic review

The Impact of Environmental Health Determinants in Surgical Oncology

Environmental determinants of health refer to external factors in our surroundings that influence health outcomes. It is estimated that healthier environments could prevent almost one-quarter of the global burden of disease. Additionally, environmental factors, including lifestyle factors, air pollution, chemical exposures, and natural exposures, are responsible for a significant incidence of cancers and premature cancer deaths. Minority populations, low-income populations, children, and older adults are at increased risk for oncologic risks secondary to environmental factors.

Biomonitoring of Exposures to Solvents and Metals in Electronics Manufacturing Facilities in Batam, Indonesia

Concerns about chemical exposure in the electronics manufacturing industry have long been recognized, but data are lacking in Southeast Asia. We conducted a study in Batam, Indonesia, to evaluate chemical exposures in electronics facilities, using participatory research and biological monitoring approaches. A convenience sample of 36 workers (28 exposed, 8 controls) was recruited, and urine samples were collected before and after shifts. Five solvents (acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, toluene, benzene, and xylenes) were found in 46%-97% of samples, and seven metals (arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, tin, antimony, lead, and vanadium) were detected in 60%-100% of samples. Biological monitoring and participatory research appeared to be useful in assessing workers' exposure when workplace air monitoring is not feasible due to a lack of cooperation from the employer. Several logistical challenges need to be addressed in future biomonitoring studies of electronics workers in Asia in factories where employers are reluctant to track workers' exposure and health.

Smart Sensors and Microtechnologies in the Precision Medicine Approach against Lung Cancer

BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE

The therapeutic interventions against lung cancer are currently based on a fully personalized approach to the disease with considerable improvement of patients' outcome. Alongside continuous scientific progresses and research investments, massive technologic efforts, innovative challenges, and consolidated achievements together with research investments are at the bases of the engineering and manufacturing revolution that allows a significant gain in clinical setting.

AIM AND METHODS

The scope of this review is thus to focus, rather than on the biologic traits, on the analysis of the precision sensors and novel generation materials, as semiconductors, which are below the clinical development of personalized diagnosis and treatment. In this perspective, a careful revision and analysis of the state of the art of the literature and experimental knowledge is presented.

RESULTS

Novel materials are being used in the development of personalized diagnosis and treatment for lung cancer. Among them, semiconductors are used to analyze volatile cancer compounds and allow early disease diagnosis. Moreover, they can be used to generate MEMS which have found an application in advanced imaging techniques as well as in drug delivery devices.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, these issues represent critical issues only partially known and generally underestimated by the clinical community. These novel micro-technology-based biosensing devices, based on the use of molecules at atomic concentrations, are crucial for clinical innovation since they have allowed the recent significant advances in cancer biology deciphering as well as in disease detection and therapy. There is an urgent need to create a stronger dialogue between technologists, basic researchers, and clinicians to address all scientific and manufacturing efforts towards a real improvement in patients' outcome. Here, great attention is focused on their application against lung cancer, from their exploitations in translational research to their application in diagnosis and treatment development, to ensure early diagnosis and better clinical outcomes.

Semiconductor Work, Leukemia, and Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

With the development of the semiconductor industry over the past 60 years, various occupational diseases have been reported to coincide with rapid industrial growth. Among these occupational diseases, the association between semiconductor work and cancers, including leukemia, remains controversial. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis assesses the associations between semiconductor work, leukemia, and cancer risk.

METHODS

The core research databases, including PubMed, were screened for studies published until 31 July 2022. All eligible studies assessed cancer risk among workers in the semiconductor industry.

RESULTS

Nine studies were selected after a literature review. The employment period of semiconductor workers in each study was between 1965 and 2009. Semiconductor work was not significantly associated with the risk of leukemia (Relative Risk [RR], 1.02; 95% Confidence Interval [CI], 0.74-1.41) or cancer (RR, 1.00; 95% CI, 0.93-1.07).

CONCLUSION

In this meta-analysis, semiconductor work was not significantly associated with leukemia or cancer risk. Internal comparisons, such as non-fab workers, quality of the study, employment period, and healthy worker effect, should be considered for interpretation. Furthermore, a prospective cohort study based on overall semiconductor workers in the industry could be useful to assess occupational disease risk as a mandatory component of health assessment.

Biological Assessment of Potential Exposure to Occupational Substances in Current Semiconductor Workers with at Least 5 Years of Employment

Background: this study aimed to conduct a biological assessment of the potential exposure to carcinogenic substances in current semiconductor workers. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on 306 semiconductor workers. The assessed biomarkers were as follows: (benzene) urine S-phenylmercapturic, trans,trans-muconic acid, blood benzene; (trichloroethylene) urine trichloroacetic acid; (2-ethoxyethanol) 2-ethoxyacetic acid; (arsine) urine arsenic3+, arsenic5+, monomethylarsonic, dimethylarsinic acid, arsenobetaine; (shift work) 6-hydroxymelatonin; (smoking) cotinine, and (radiation). The detection rate of these materials is defined as more than the biological exposure index (BEI) or the previous reference value. Results: Some workers exposed to trans,trans-muconic acid, trichloroacetic acid, and arsenic5+ showed high BEI levels. Generally, there was no difference according to job categories, and workers were suspected to be exposed to other sources. The melatonin concentration tended to decrease when working at night, and cotinine was identified as an excellent surrogate marker for smoking. In the case of radiation exposure, there was no significant difference in the number of stable chromosome translocation in 19 semiconductor workers. Their estimated radiation exposure level was below the limit of detection (LOD) or near the LOD level. Conclusion: In this study, most carcinogens were below the BEI level, but verification through re-measurement was needed for workers who were identified to have a high BEI level. For continuous monitoring, a prospective cohort is necessary to deal with the healthy worker effect and assess additional materials.

Health Status, Health-Related Factors and Work Environment in Korean Semiconductor Workers between 1984–2012: A Qualitative Study and a Cross-Sectional Study

Background: The environment of semiconductor facilities and exposure status has undergone changes. To identify changes in the work environment, health status, and risk factors, a qualitative and cross-sectional study was conducted. Methods: For the qualitative study, 38 current and retired workers who worked for at least 10-years were studied; for the cross-sectional study, 306 current workers who worked for at least 5-years based on JEM strata from Samsung Electronics were selected. Participants were asked about occupational history, cancer-relating risk factors during the working period, medical history, dietary habits for the past year, and hematological cancer-relating infection. Results: In the qualitative study, fabrication workers reported bladder cystitis, dermatitis in hands, gastritis/ulcer, and dry eye as frequent symptoms during work environment changes (manual to automatic process). In the cross-sectional study, there were no abnormal findings for infection biomarkers related to hematological cancer and spontaneous abortion, and their general health status was no different from the general population. Also, questionnaire feasibility was evaluated for the applicability in the prospective cohort. Conclusion: Current semiconductor workers’ health status was good compared to other populations. For lifelong health assessment, a cohort study is needed which considers health worker effects and current environments.

Inkjet Printing: A Viable Technology for Biosensor Fabrication

Printing technology promises a viable solution for the low-cost, rapid, flexible, and mass fabrication of biosensors. Among the vast number of printing techniques, screen printing and inkjet printing have been widely adopted for the fabrication of biosensors. Screen printing provides ease of operation and rapid processing; however, it is bound by the effects of viscous inks, high material waste, and the requirement for masks, to name a few. Inkjet printing, on the other hand, is well suited for mass fabrication that takes advantage of computer-aided design software for pattern modifications. Furthermore, being drop-on-demand, it prevents precious material waste and offers high-resolution patterning. To exploit the features of inkjet printing technology, scientists have been keen to use it for the development of biosensors since 1988. A vast number of fully and partially inkjet-printed biosensors have been developed ever since. This study presents a short introduction on the printing technology used for biosensor fabrication in general, and a brief review of the recent reports related to virus, enzymatic, and non-enzymatic biosensor fabrication, via inkjet printing technology in particular.

Factors associated with symptoms of poor mental health among women factory workers in China's supply chain

OBJECTIVE

Foreign direct investment (FDI) to China has motivated increased labor migration to export processing zones (EPZs). Work environments with high occupational stress, such as production line jobs typical in EPZs, have been associated with adverse mental health symptoms.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey that examined occupational stress and symptoms of poor mental health was implemented among Chinese women factory workers in three electronic factories in the Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area. Symptoms of mental health measured in the survey were hopelessness, depression, not feeling useful or needed, and trouble concentrating. Crude and adjusted prevalence odds ratios and their 95% confidence intervals were calculated with logistic regression.

RESULTS

Responses were collected from 696 women factory workers. Participants were aged 18-56 years (mean 28 ± 5.8), 66% of whom were married and 25% of whom were migrants. Nearly 50% of participants reported at least one symptom of poor mental health. After adjusting for covariates associated with each outcome in the bivariate analysis, high job strain was associated with hopelessness (OR 2.68, 95% CI 1.58, 4.56), not feeling useful (OR 2.05, 95% CI 1.22, 3.43), and feeling depressed (OR 1.78, 95% CI 1.16, 2.72).

CONCLUSION

This study expands on the international body of research on the well-being of women working in the global supply chain and provides evidence on the associations between occupational stressors, migration, and social support on symptoms of poor mental health among women workers. Future research to better understand and improve psychological health and to prevent suicide among workers in China's factories is critical to improve the health of China's labor force.

Urban sediment pollutants alternate human cell essential behaviour through promoting oxidative damage

The main objective of this study was to establish a human cell-based platform to assess the effects of sediment toxicity on oxidative damage and cell essential behaviour. Since sediment pollution has increased as a consequence of including but not limited to industrialisation, the contaminants accumulated in sediments have already led to human health concerns. The Hsinchu Science Park is one of the most prominent semiconductor manufacturing centres in the world, and the Ke-Ya River flows through Hsinchu Science Park and the Hsinchu urban district. Because semiconductor wastes potentially contribute to higher-than-normal rates of cancers, birth defects, and serious diseases, the quality assessment of the Ke-Ya River has prompted widespread concerns. While previous studies have shown an association between the degradation of fish populations and sediment pollutants, very little is known about the issues on human health. Herein, the effects of sediment from three sediment sampling sites of the Ke-Ya River on 11 different human cell lines were directly evaluated. The upstream represents the undeveloped zone, the middle-stream represents the household/industrial wastewater zone, and the downstream represents the accumulation zone. Our results indicated that the sediment pollution of the downstream Ke-Ya River was more cytotoxic than that of the middle stream and upstream. Downstream sediment extract (DSE) significantly increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels across all cell types. Accordingly, oxidative stress can trigger redox-sensitive pathways and alter essential biological processes such as cell viability, cell adhesion, and cell motility. Importantly, the MTT assay indicated that DSE significantly decreased the viability of brain, oral, lung, breast, liver, pancreatic, cervical, prostate, and colorectal cells. Furthermore, the adhesive ability and wound healing ability of most cells were greatly reduced in the presence of DSE compared to other conditions. Thus, this study shows the results of the first analyses completed on the sediment cytotoxicity in human cells, and stimulated ROS levels are crucial for cellular life. In future research, the detailed cause and effect mechanisms of the abundant ROS generated in DSE will be further investigated. We sincerely hope that our study provides a scientific basis for further investigations with a global perspective on public health challenges.

A comparison of meta-analysis results with and without adjustment for the healthy worker effect: cancer mortality among workers in the semiconductor industry

OBJECTIVES

This study compared the results of meta-analysis with and without adjustment for the healthy worker effect on the association between working in the semiconductor industry and cancer mortality.

METHODS

Six studies that reported standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) for cancers were selected for meta-analysis. Using a random-effects model, the SMR results from each study were combined for all cancers and leukemias to estimate the summary SMRs (95% confidence interval, CI). To adjust for the healthy worker effect, the relative standardized mortality ratio (rSMR=SMRx/SMRnot x) were calculated using observed and expected counts for the specific cause of interest (i.e., all cancers and leukemias) and the observed and expected counts for all other causes of mortality. Then, the rSMR results were combined to estimate the summary rSMRs (95% CIs).

RESULTS

The SMRs for all causes of mortality among semiconductor industry workers ranged from 0.25 to 0.80, which reflects a significant healthy worker effect. A remarkable difference was found between the summary SMRs and the summary rSMRs. The summary SMR for all cancers was 0.70 (95% CI, 0.63 to 0.79) whereas the summary rSMR was 1.38 (95% CI, 1.20 to 1.59). The summary SMR for leukemia was 0.88 (95% CI, 0.72 to 1.07), and the summary rSMR was 1.88 (95% CI, 1.20 to 2.95).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that adjustment for the healthy worker effect (i.e., rSMR) may be useful in meta-analyses of cohort studies reporting SMRs.

Possibility of Benzene Exposure in Workers of a Semiconductor Industry Based on the Patent Resources, 1990-2010

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to assess the possibility of benzene exposure in workers of a Korean semiconductor manufacturing company by reviewing the issued patents.

METHODS

A systematic patent search was conducted with the Google "Advanced Patent Search" engine using the keywords "semiconductor" and "benzene" combined with all of the words accessed on January 24, 2016.

RESULTS

As a result of the search, we reviewed 75 patent documents filed by a Korean semiconductor manufacturing company from 1994 to 2010. From 22 patents, we found that benzene could have been used as one of the carbon sources in chemical vapor deposition for capacitor; as diamond-like carbon for solar cell, graphene formation, or etching for transition metal thin film; and as a solvent for dielectric film, silicon oxide layer, nanomaterials, photoresist, rise for immersion lithography, electrophotography, and quantum dot ink.

CONCLUSION

Considering the date of patent filing, it is possible that workers in the chemical vapor deposition, immersion lithography, and graphene formation processes could be exposed to benzene from 1996 to 2010.

Work-related and personal factors in shoulder disorders among electronics workers: findings from an electronics enterprise in Taiwan

BACKGROUND

The electronics industry is one of the largest global industries, and significant numbers of workers are engaged in this industry. Evidence suggests two associations, including one between ergonomic risks and shoulder disorders and another between psychological stress and psychological problems among workers in this industry. Investigations on ergonomic risks, psychological stress, and sex effects for shoulder disorders in this industry are limited. This study aimed to explore personal and work-related factors associated with shoulder disorders and to investigate the combined effect of similar ergonomic risk factors.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, 931 workers aged 20 to 58 from an electronics factory in Taiwan were recruited. A Nordic musculoskeletal questionnaire was used to assess shoulder symptoms. Sociodemographic factors and work-related factors, including psychological stress, were assessed. One hundred random sample workers with shoulder symptoms underwent a standardized clinical test for the evaluation of subacromial impingement syndrome. The ergonomic risks were assessed by the risk filter of 'upper limb disorders in the workplace', including repetition, posture, force, vibration, and duration of exposure.

RESULTS

The prevalence of shoulder symptoms was 30.5, and 19% of those with shoulder symptoms had subacromial impingement syndrome. In multivariable analyses, older age (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 1.37, 95% CI 1.01-1.86), repetition (aOR = 1.73, 95% CI 1.15-2.60) and posture (aOR = 1.85, 95% CI 1.10-3.11) were associated with shoulder symptoms. Regarding the gender effect, older age (aOR = 1.46, 95% CI 1.01-2.11), repetition (aOR = 1.64, 95% CI 1.00-2.68), posture (aOR = 1.89, 95% CI 1.01-3.52), and force (aOR = 1.68, 95% CI 0.99-2.85) were associated with shoulder symptoms in men, whereas posture (aOR = 2.12, 95% CI 0.99-4.57) was associated with symptoms in women.

CONCLUSIONS

This study implies that repetition and posture are important risk factors for shoulder disorders in the electronics industry. The risk exhibited sex differences, and force was more important for shoulder disorders in men. Such information is useful to help occupational health practitioners and policy makers conduct preventive programmes on shoulder disorders in this working population. Future longitudinal studies on work-related shoulder disorders are warranted.

Application of the adverse outcome pathway framework to predict the toxicity of chemicals in the semiconductor manufacturing industry

Background

To solve current issues using big data, solve current issues related to the semiconductor and electronics industry, I tried to establish the data for each toxicity mechanism for adverse outcome pathway (AOP) for the exposure.

Objective

I planned to increase the efficiency of human hazard assessment by searching, analyzing, and linking test data on the relationship between key events occurred at each level, which are the biological targets of chemicals in semiconductor manufacturing.

Results

It was found that 48 kinds of chemicals had 11 AOPs, while 103 chemicals had multiple AOPs, and 26 had case evidence. As a result of AOP analysis, it was found that a total of 320 chemicals had 42 AOPs, and 190 major chemicals corresponded to 11 AOPs. It was found necessary to develop a complex AOP and secure an (inhalation or dermal) exposure scenario for combined exposure at work. As a comparative search (41 out of 190 chemicals) of biomarkers specific to occupational diseases, 12 biomarkers were found to be related to breast cancer. The AOPs for 50 specific chemicals were presented, together with occupational disease-specific AOPs and key events relationship from 50 chemicals, and taxonomic classification for each AOP analysis could be found. With a comparative search, 41 out of 190 chemicals were associated with specific biomarkers for occupational diseases, and 12 mRNA or protein biomarkers were found to be related to breast cancer by cross-validation with the attached Table 24 of the Enforcement Regulations of the OSHAct and the CTD.

Conclusion

The mechanism of occupational diseases caused by chemicals was presented, together with pathological preventions. I believe that a strategy is needed to expand the target organization for each chemical by linking with activities, such as work environment measurement, and cooperating with screening items and methods suitable for toxic chemicals, like AOP tools.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13273-021-00139-4.

Green Nanofabrication Opportunities in the Semiconductor Industry: A Life Cycle Perspective

The turn of the 21st century heralded in the semiconductor age alongside the Anthropocene epoch, characterised by the ever-increasing human impact on the environment. The ecological consequences of semiconductor chip manufacturing are the most predominant within the electronics industry. This is due to current reliance upon large amounts of solvents, acids and gases that have numerous toxicological impacts. Management and assessment of hazardous chemicals is complicated by trade secrets and continual rapid change in the electronic manufacturing process. Of the many subprocesses involved in chip manufacturing, lithographic processes are of particular concern. Current developments in bottom-up lithography, such as directed self-assembly (DSA) of block copolymers (BCPs), are being considered as a next-generation technology for semiconductor chip production. These nanofabrication techniques present a novel opportunity for improving the sustainability of lithography by reducing the number of processing steps, energy and chemical waste products involved. At present, to the extent of our knowledge, there is no published life cycle assessment (LCA) evaluating the environmental impact of new bottom-up lithography versus conventional lithographic techniques. Quantification of this impact is central to verifying whether these new nanofabrication routes can replace conventional deposition techniques in industry as a more environmentally friendly option.

Semiconductor Work and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes Associated with Male Workers: A Retrospective Cohort Study

OBJECTIVES

A hazardous work environment in semiconductor factories is a threat to the workers' health. Semiconductor manufacturing characteristically requires young workers, and reproductive toxicity is an important issue. Studies investigating reproductive toxicity among individuals working in the semiconductor manufacturing industry have primarily focused on outcomes in women. Information on the reproductive health of male semiconductor factory workers is limited. This study aimed to evaluate the association between workplace exposures among male workers in a Korean semiconductor company and adverse pregnancy outcomes.

METHODS

Based on the data from the 2015 Semiconductor Health Survey (SHS), which evaluated the workplace exposures, pregnancy outcomes, and general health of 21 969 employees of the semiconductor industry in South Korea, we included 3868 male workers with 7504 pregnancy outcomes identified by self-reports for this retrospective cohort study. Data regarding the pregnancy outcomes, order of pregnancy, and the years of the outcomes were collected via the SHS questionnaire. Adverse pregnancy outcomes were defined as preterm labor, spontaneous abortion, and stillbirth. Workplace exposures were classified as fabrication, assembly, others, lab, and office work (reference group). A generalized estimating equations model including repeated events of individuals and producing relative risk (RR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) was used to estimate the association between workplace exposure and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Analyses were adjusted for work location, spouse's employment in semiconductor production work, educational level, marital status, risky alcohol drinking, smoking status, body mass index, order of pregnancy, and age and year of pregnancy outcome, which were based on a priori decisions.

RESULTS

The adjusted risk for adverse outcomes was higher [RR (95% CI): 1.47 (1.04, 2.07)] among assembly process workers compared with the office workers. Adjusted risks for adverse outcomes among workers in assembly and fabrication, whose spouses also worked in semiconductor production, were 1.60 (95% CI: 1.04, 2.46) and 1.74 (95% CI: 1.18, 2.57) times higher, respectively, compared with the office workers with spouses not working in semiconductor production.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on these findings, semiconductor work might be considered a risk factor for reproductive toxicity among male workers, especially for those whose spouses have the same job.

Chemical Use and Associated Health Concerns in the Semiconductor Manufacturing Industry

Background

Research on the status of many chemicals used in the semiconductor industry is needed. The purpose of this study was to describe the overall status of chemical use in the semiconductor industry in Korea and to examine it from a health perspective.

Methods

Data on the status of chemical use and safety data sheets at 11 of 12 major semiconductor workplaces in Korea were collected. The number of chemical products and chemical constituents, quantities of chemicals, and trade secret ingredients used, as well as the health hazards were examined.

Results

On average, 210 chemical products and 135 chemical constituents were used at the surveyed workplaces. Among all chemical products, 33% (range: 16-56%) contained at least one trade secret ingredient. Most of the trade secret ingredients were used in the photolithography process. Several carcinogens, including sulfuric acid, chromic acid, ethylene oxide, crystalline silica, potassium dichromate, and formaldehyde were also used. Only 29% (39 of 135) of the chemical constituents had occupational exposure limits, and more than 60% had no National Fire Protection Association health, safety, and reactivity ratings. Based on the aforementioned results, this study revealed the following. First, many chemical products and constituents are being used in the semiconductor industry and many products contained trade secret ingredients. Second, many products contained significant amounts of carcinogenic, mutagenic, and reproductive toxicant materials.

Conclusion

We conclude that protecting workers in the semiconductor industry against harm from chemical substances will be difficult, due to widespread use of trade secret ingredients and a lack of hazard information. The findings of the status of chemical use and the health and safety risks in semiconductor industry will contribute to epidemiological studies, safe workplace, and worker health protection.

Health Risk Assessment of Photoresists Used in an Optoelectronic Semiconductor Factory

Photoresist materials are indispensable in photolithography, a process used in semiconductor fabrication. The work process and potential hazards in semiconductor production have raised concerns as to adverse health effects. We therefore performed a health risk assessment of occupational exposure to positive photoresists in a single optoelectronic semiconductor factory in Taiwan. Positive photoresists are widely used in the optoelectronic semiconductor industry for photolithography. Occupational exposure was estimated using the Stoffenmanager® model. Bayesian modeling incorporated available personal air sampling data. We examined the composition and by-products of the photoresists according to descriptions published in the literature and patents; the main compositions assessed were propylene glycol methyl ether acetate (PGMEA), novolac resin, photoactive compound, phenol, cresol, benzene, toluene, and xylene. Reference concentrations for each compound were reassessed and updated if necessary. Calculated hazard quotients were greater than 1 for benzene, phenol, xylene, and PGMEA, indicating that they have the potential for exposures that exceed reference levels. The information from our health risk assessment suggests that benzene and phenol have a higher level of risk than is currently acknowledged. Undertaking our form of risk assessment in the workplace design phase could identify compounds of major concern, allow for the early implementation of control measures and monitoring strategies, and thereby reduce the level of exposure to health risks that workers face throughout their career.

Semiconductor Work and the Risk of Spontaneous Abortion: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

(1) Background: In the semiconductor industry, female workers were identified as having an increased risk of spontaneous abortion (SA). To date, the association between semiconductor work and SA is controversial. We aimed to assess the association between semiconductor work and specific processes and SA, in the semiconductor industry. (2) Methods: A literature search was conducted using databases such as PubMed, Embase, Cochrane library, and other core databases, from the date of inception of these databases to 31 July 2019. Studies that identified SA risk in female workers in the semiconductor industry were included. (3) Results: We identified 529 studies, of which six studies were included in the meta-analysis. During 1980–1993, the risk of SA in fabrication (Fab) workers was significantly higher than non-Fab workers (RR, 1.29; 95% CI, 1.05–1.57). Photolithography workers had a higher SA risk than non-process and office workers (RR, 1.41; 95% CI, 1.13–1.77). (4) Conclusion: Meta-analysis indicates a statistically significant association between Fab-work and SA. Specific process and chemical exposure meta-analyses need to be interpreted carefully considering bias. Because of the rapid change in the semiconductor industry, it is necessary to conduct an elaborate cohort study taking into consideration the current working environment.

Mortality among autoworkers manufacturing electronics in Huntsville, Alabama

BACKGROUND

Workers raised concerns over suspected excesses of mortality at automotive electronics manufacturing facilities in Huntsville, Alabama.

METHODS

A study of 4396 UAW members ever-employed at Huntsville facilities between 1972 and 1993 was conducted with mortality follow-up through 2016. Standardized Mortality Ratios (SMRs) were estimated using U.S. and Alabama reference rates.

RESULTS

Relative to U.S. rates, there was a modest excess of all-cause mortality among White female workers (SMR 1.08, 95%CI: 0.99-1.18) and among all workers hired <1977 at the original plant building (SMR 1.10, 95%CI: 0.99-1.22). There was excess nervous system disorder (SMR 1.24, 95%CI: 0.91-1.65) and brain and nervous system cancer (SMR 1.31, 95%CI: 0.67-2.28) mortality. Estimates for several causes of interest were imprecise.

CONCLUSIONS

All-cause mortality estimates were greater than anticipated based on results from other UAW cohorts. The excess of nervous system disease mortality is consistent with other studies of electronics workers exposed to lead-solder and chlorinated solvents.

Employment characteristics and cause-specific mortality at automotive electronics manufacturing plants in Huntsville, Alabama

BACKGROUND

This study was carried out in response to worker concerns over their exposure to lead solder and chlorinated solvents at automotive electronics manufacturing plants in Huntsville, Alabama.

METHODS

A study of 4396 United Autoworkers members ever-employed at the plants between 1972 and 1993 was conducted with mortality follow-up through 2016. Poisson regression was used to estimate mortality rate ratios (RR) according to employment characteristics, including calendar period of employment.

RESULTS

Pre-1977 hires exhibited elevated adjusted rates of all-cause (RR, 1.29; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.09-1.52), cardiovascular (RR, 1.38; 95% CI, 1.03-1.86), and digestive system (RR, 2.31; 95% CI, 1.04-5.10) disease mortality relative to the most recent hire group (1984-1993). Never- versus ever-employment in a skilled trade job was associated with elevated adjusted rates of all-cause, all-cancer, and cardiovascular disease mortality. Nervous system disorder mortality was greatest among 1977-1983 hires.

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated mortality among pre-1977 hires is consistent with worker concerns over greater exposure to hazards at the original plant building.

Changes of 30 years in the recognized occupational diseases of Korea: Lessons from the system change perspective

Thirty years ago, in 1988 of Korea, street demonstrations for the recognition of a 15-year-old boy's death as occupational mercury poisoning had shattered the taboo against occupational disease, and since then, the volume and contents of recognized diseases had changed a lot. Here we tried to ascertain and explain the changes from the system viewpoint. The system of risk management at work was analyzed in narrative terms of what, how, who, and why of the occupational disease managements, then and now, and we conclude the system of last 30 years was to manage the benevolent benefit to the victims for politico-economic purposes. Despite a big shift in outer appearance, the changes in the inner operation were small, and we propose to adopt newer approaches of more health and safety oriented together with human rights.

The Effects of Lighting Problems on Eye Symptoms among Cleanroom Microscope Workers

The visual health of microscope workers is an important occupational health concern, and a previous study suggested an association between lighting problems (e.g., flashing light, insufficient lighting) and eye symptoms among cleanroom workers in the electronics industry. This study aimed to explore the association between eye symptoms and lighting problems, as well as light-related counteracting behaviors among microscope workers in the cleanroom environment. Ninety-one cleanroom workers aged 20 years or older were recruited from an electronics factory. The socio-demographic factors, work-related factors, eye symptoms, and lighting problems were assessed using a self-administered questionnaire. There were 92.3% female participants in this study. Among all participants, 41.8% and 63.7% had symptoms of dry eye and eye fatigue, respectively. The counteracting behaviors of needing to move closer (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 3.47, 95% CI = 1.11 to 10.88) was significantly associated with dry eye symptoms. Workers who were more experienced at the job (aOR = 1.03, 95% CI = 1.01 to 1.06) and had shorter break times (aOR = 0.94, 95% CI = 0.91 to 0.98) were more likely to have eye fatigue. As a result of these findings, this study suggests that good lighting and adequate break times are crucial to improve the visual health of cleanroom microscope workers.

Route towards sustainable smart sensors: ferroelectric polyvinylidene fluoride-based materials and their integration in flexible electronics

Printed ferroelectric devices are ideal candidates for self-powered and multifunctional sensor skins, contributing to a sustainable smart future.

The relationship between spontaneous abortion and female workers in the semiconductor industry

Background

This study investigated the relationship between job type and the risk for spontaneous abortion to assess the reproductive toxicity of female workers in the semiconductor industry.

Methods

A questionnaire survey was administered to current female workers of two semiconductor manufacturing plants in Korea. We included female workers who became pregnant at least 6 months after the start of their employment with the company. The pregnancy outcomes of 2,242 female workers who experienced 4,037 pregnancies were investigated. Personnel records were used to assign the subjects to one of three groups: fabrication process workers, packaging process workers, and clerical workers. To adjust for within-person correlations between pregnancies, a generalized estimating equation was used. The logistic regression analysis was limited to the first pregnancy after joining the company to satisfy the assumption of independence among pregnancies. Moreover, we stratified the analysis by time period (pregnancy in the years prior to 2008 vs. after 2009) to reflect differences in occupational exposure based on semiconductor production periods.

Results

The risk for spontaneous abortion in female semiconductor workers was not significantly higher for fabrication and packaging process workers than for clerical workers. However, when we stratified by time period, the odds ratio for spontaneous abortion was significantly higher for packaging process workers who became pregnant prior to 2008 when compared with clerical workers (odds ratio: 2.21; 95% confidence interval: 1.01–4.81).

Conclusions

When examining the pregnancies of female semiconductor workers that occurred prior to 2008, packaging process workers showed a significantly higher risk for spontaneous abortions than did clerical workers. The two semiconductor production periods in our study (prior to 2008 vs. after 2009) had different automated processes, chemical exposure levels, and working environments. Thus, the conditions prior to 2008 may have increased the risk for spontaneous abortions in packaging process workers in the semiconductor industry.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s40557-017-0204-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Association between Emotional Symptoms and Job Demands in an Asian Electronics Factory

Various work-related issues including mental health have been described for the electronic industry. Although East Asian countries play important roles in the electronics industry, the association between job demands and emotional symptoms has been rarely examined. The present study recruited 603 workers from either office or clean room environments in an electronics factory in Taiwan. Their personal factors, work-related factors, and emotional symptoms were assessed by a self-administered questionnaire. The symptoms of depression and hostility were reported in 24.88% and 24.38% of the subjects, respectively, while 14.93% reported both. A multivariate analysis showed that, overall, women workers were more likely to have emotional symptoms than male workers (odds ration (OR) = 1.50, 95% CI = 1.02-2.18). Among clean room workers, working under high pressure (OR = 1.84, 95% CI = 1.05-3.21), conflicting demands (OR = 2.15, 95% CI = 1.30-3.57), and social isolation at work (OR = 2.99, 95% CI = 1.23-7.30) were associated with emotional symptoms. The findings suggest that in the Asian electronics industry, for women, working under high pressure, conflicting demands, and social isolation at work are risk factors for emotional symptoms, especially for clean room workers. Further large-scale, longitudinal studies are necessary to confirm and prevent the mental health problems in this fast-evolving, highly competitive industry.

Use of GIS in visualization of work-related health problems

Background

Occupational health and safety (OHS) information is often complex, diverse and unstructured and suffers from a lack of integration which usually precludes any systemic insight of the situation.

Aims

To analyse to what extent the use of geographical information systems (GISs) can help to integrate, analyse and present OHS data in a comprehensive and communicable way relevant for surveillance purposes.

Methods

We first developed a ‘macro-approach’ (from national to local level), mapping data related to economic activity (denominator of active workers displayed by activity sectors), as well as work-related ill-health (numerators of workers suffering from work-related ill-health). The latter data are composed of compensated occupational diseases on the one hand and work-related diseases investigated by specialized clinics on the other hand. Then, a ‘micro-approach’ was worked out, integrating at a plant level, using computer-aided drawing, occupational risks data and OHS surveillance data (e.g. use of medication and sickness absence data).

Results

At the macro-level, microelectronics companies and workers were mapped at different scales. For the first time, we were able to compare, up to the enterprise level, complementary data showing different pictures of work-related ill-health, allowing a better understanding of OH issues in this sector. At the micro-level, new information arose from the integration of risk assessment data and medical data.

Conclusions

This work illustrates to what extent GIS is a promising tool in the OHS field, and discusses related challenges (technical, ethical, biases and interpretation) and research perspectives.

Reproductive Hazards Still Persist in the Microelectronics Industry: Increased Risk of Spontaneous Abortion and Menstrual Aberration among Female Workers in the Microelectronics Industry in South Korea

OBJECTIVES

Despite the global expansion of supply chains and changes to the production process, few studies since the mid-1990 s and 2000s have examined reproductive risks of the microelectronics industry; we examined the reproductive risks among female microelectronics workers in South Korea.

METHODS

Based on claim data from the National Health Insurance (2008-2012), we estimated age-specific rates of spontaneous abortion (SAB) and menstrual aberration (MA) among women aged 20 to 39 years. We compared data between microelectronics workers and three different control groups: economically inactive women, the working population as a whole, and workers employed in the bank industry. For an effect measure, age-stratified relative risks (RRs) were estimated.

RESULTS

Female workers in the microelectronics industry showed significantly higher risk for SAB and MA compared to control groups. The RRs for SAB with reference to economically inactive women, working population, and bank workers in their twenties were 1.57, 1.40, and 1.37, respectively, and the RRs for MA among females in their twenties were 1.54, 1.38, and 1.48, respectively. For women in their thirties, RRs for SAB were 1.58, 1.67, and 1.13, and those for MA were 1.25, 1.35, and 1.23 compared to the three control populations, respectively. All RRs were statistically significant at a level of 0.05, except for the SAB case comparison with bank workers in their thirties.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite technical innovations and health and safety measures, female workers in microelectronics industry in South Korea have high rates of SAB and MA, suggesting continued exposure to reproductive hazards. Further etiologic studies based on primary data collection and careful surveillance are required to confirm these results.