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Gong L, Yang Z, Zhang F, Gao W. Cytokine conjugates to elastin-like polypeptides. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 190:114541. [PMID: 36126792 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Cytokines are a group of pleiotropic proteins which are crucial for various biological processes and useful as therapeutics. However, they usually suffer from the poor stability, extreme short circulation half-life, difficulty in high-yield and large-scale production and side effects, which greatly restricts their applications. Over the past decades, conjugation of cytokines with elastin-like polypeptides (ELPs), a type of promising biomaterials, have showed great potential in solving these challenges due to ELP's thermal responsiveness, excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability, non-immunogenicity, and ease of design and control at the genetic level. This review presents recent progress in the design and production of a variety of ELP conjugated cytokines for extended circulation, enhanced stability, increased soluble protein expression, simplified purification, improved drug delivery, and controlled release. Notably, the unique thermoresponsive properties of cytokine-ELP conjugates make it possible to self-assemble into micelles with drastically extended circulatory half-life for targeted delivery or to in situ form drug depots for topical administration and controlled release. The challenges and issues in the emerging field are further discussed and the future directions are pointed out at the end of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Like Gong
- Institute of Medical Technology, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China; Department of Geriatric Dentistry, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing 100081, China; Biomedical Engineering Department, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University International Cancer Institute, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University-Yunnan Baiyao International Medical Research Center, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Zhaoying Yang
- Institute of Medical Technology, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China; Department of Geriatric Dentistry, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing 100081, China; Biomedical Engineering Department, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University International Cancer Institute, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University-Yunnan Baiyao International Medical Research Center, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Fan Zhang
- Institute of Medical Technology, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China; Department of Geriatric Dentistry, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing 100081, China; Biomedical Engineering Department, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University International Cancer Institute, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University-Yunnan Baiyao International Medical Research Center, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Weiping Gao
- Institute of Medical Technology, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China; Department of Geriatric Dentistry, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing 100081, China; Biomedical Engineering Department, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University International Cancer Institute, Beijing 100191, China; Peking University-Yunnan Baiyao International Medical Research Center, Beijing 100191, China.
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2
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Konsoula A, Tsioutis C, Markaki I, Papadakis M, Agouridis AP, Spernovasilis N. Lomentospora prolificans: An Emerging Opportunistic Fungal Pathogen. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10071317. [PMID: 35889036 PMCID: PMC9316904 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10071317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Lomentospora prolificans is an emerging opportunistic pathogen that primarily affects immunocompromised individuals leading to disseminated disease with high mortality rates while also causing infections in healthy populations. Successful recovery from infection is difficult due to high rates of intrinsic resistance to antifungals. Rapid and readily available diagnostic methods, aggressive surgical debridement wherever appropriate, and effective and timely antifungal treatment are the pillars for successful management. Future research will need to clarify the environmental niche of the fungus, further investigate the pathophysiology of infection and define species-specific therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afroditi Konsoula
- Department of Pediatrics, General Hospital of Sitia, 72300 Sitia, Greece;
| | - Constantinos Tsioutis
- School of Medicine, European University Cyprus, Nicosia 2404, Cyprus;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +357-22559413
| | - Ioulia Markaki
- 3rd Department of Internal Medicine, “Sotiria” General Hospital, 11527 Athens, Greece;
| | - Michail Papadakis
- Department of Internal Medicine, “Agios Panteleimon” General Hospital of Nikaia, 18454 Piraeus, Greece;
| | - Aris P. Agouridis
- School of Medicine, European University Cyprus, Nicosia 2404, Cyprus;
- Department of Internal Medicine, German Oncology Center, Limassol 4108, Cyprus
| | - Nikolaos Spernovasilis
- Department of Infectious Diseases, German Oncology Center, Limassol 4108, Cyprus;
- School of Medicine, University of Crete, 71303 Heraklion, Greece
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3
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Generation and Characterization of Stable Redox-Reporter Mammalian Cell Lines of Biotechnological Relevance. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22041324. [PMID: 35214226 PMCID: PMC8963081 DOI: 10.3390/s22041324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Cellular functions such as DNA replication and protein translation are influenced by changes in the intracellular redox milieu. Exogenous (i.e., nutrients, deterioration of media components, xenobiotics) and endogenous factors (i.e., metabolism, growth) may alter the redox homeostasis of cells. Thus, monitoring redox changes in real time and in situ is deemed essential for optimizing the production of recombinant proteins. Recently, different redox-sensitive variants of green fluorescent proteins (e.g., rxYFP, roGFP2, and rxmRuby2) have been engineered and proved suitable to detect, in a non-invasive manner, perturbations in the pool of reduced and oxidized glutathione, the major low molecular mass thiol in mammals. In this study, we validate the use of cytosolic rxYFP on two cell lines widely used in biomanufacturing processes, namely, CHO-K1 cells expressing the human granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (hGM-CSF) and HEK-293. Flow cytometry was selected as the read-out technique for rxYFP signal given its high-throughput and statistical robustness. Growth kinetics and cellular metabolism (glucose consumption, lactate and ammonia production) of the redox reporter cells were comparable to those of the parental cell lines. The hGM-CSF production was not affected by the expression of the biosensor. The redox reporter cell lines showed a sensitive and reversible response to different redox stimuli (reducing and oxidant reagents). Under batch culture conditions, a significant and progressive oxidation of the biosensor occurred when CHO-K1-hGM-CSF cells entered the late-log phase. Medium replenishment restored, albeit partially, the intracellular redox homeostasis. Our study highlights the utility of genetically encoded redox biosensors to guide metabolic engineering or intervention strategies aimed at optimizing cell viability, growth, and productivity.
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4
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Alteri C, Piermatteo L, Silberstein FC, Svicher V, Perno CF. Human Monocyte-Derived Macrophages (MDM): Model 1 (GM-CSF). Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2407:91-96. [PMID: 34985660 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1871-4_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Monocytes/macrophages play critical roles in HIV transmission, viral spread (early in infection), and as a reservoir of virus throughout infection. In the current research area in HIV, there has been a recent resurgence of interest in the biology of monocyte subsets and macrophages and their role in HIV pathogenesis, and as long-lived HIV reservoir. Thus, sensitive and specific techniques are needed to measure the impact of these cells in the establishment of the "hard-core" reservoir, and in their capacity to cause a low-level virus production during cART. Here, a protocol is presented for cell culture and HIV-1 infection of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) differentiated human monocyte-derived macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Alteri
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-Oncology, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
- Multimodal Medicine Research Area, Bambino Gesú Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | | | | | - Valentina Svicher
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Carlo Federico Perno
- Saint Camillus International University of Health and Medical Sciences, Rome, Italy.
- Multimodal Medicine Research Area, Bambino Gesú Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy.
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5
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Sinaga DS, Ho SL, Lu CA, Yu SM, Huang LF. Knockdown expression of a MYB-related transcription factor gene, OsMYBS2, enhances production of recombinant proteins in rice suspension cells. PLANT METHODS 2021; 17:99. [PMID: 34560901 PMCID: PMC8464127 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-021-00799-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/12/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transgenic plant suspension cells show economic potential for the production of valuable bioproducts. The sugar starvation-inducible rice αAmy3 promoter, together with its signal peptide, is widely applied to produce recombinant proteins in rice suspension cells. The OsMYBS2 transcription factor was shown recently to reduce activation of the αAmy3 promoter by competing for the binding site of the TA box of the αAmy3 promoter with the potent OsMYBS1 activator. In this study, rice suspension cells were genetically engineered to silence OsMYBS2 to enhance the production of recombinant proteins. RESULTS The mouse granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (mGM-CSF) gene was controlled by the αAmy3 promoter and expressed in OsMYBS2-silenced transgenic rice suspension cells. Transcript levels of the endogenous αAmy3 and the transgene mGM-CSF were increased in the OsMYBS2-silenced suspension cells. The highest yield of recombinant mGM-CSF protein attained in the OsMYBS2-silenced transgenic suspension cells was 69.8 µg/mL, which is 2.5-fold that of non-silenced control cells. The yield of recombinant mGM-CSF was further increased to 118.8 µg/mL in cultured cells derived from homozygous F5 seeds, which was 5.1 times higher than that of the control suspension cell line. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate that knockdown of the transcription factor gene OsMYBS2 increased the activity of the αAmy3 promoter and improved the yield of recombinant proteins secreted in rice cell suspension cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Desyanti Saulina Sinaga
- Graduate School of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Yuan Ze University, Taoyuan City, 320, Taiwan, ROC
- Department of Life Sciences, National Central University, Taoyuan City, 320, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Shin-Lon Ho
- Department of Agronomy, National Chiayi University, Chiayi City, 600, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chung-An Lu
- Department of Life Sciences, National Central University, Taoyuan City, 320, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Su-May Yu
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei City, 115, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Li-Fen Huang
- Graduate School of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Yuan Ze University, Taoyuan City, 320, Taiwan, ROC.
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6
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Clayton NP, Khan-Malek RC, Dangler CA, Zhang D, Ascah A, Gains M, Gardner B, Mockbee C, Keutzer JM, McManus J, Authier S. Sargramostim (rhu GM-CSF) Improves Survival of Non-Human Primates with Severe Bone Marrow Suppression after Acute, High-Dose, Whole-Body Irradiation. Radiat Res 2021; 195:191-199. [PMID: 33302291 DOI: 10.1667/rade-20-00131.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to acute, high-dose, whole-body ionizing radiation results in bone marrow failure (hematopoietic acute radiation syndrome with resultant infection, bleeding, anemia, and increased risk of death). Sargramostim (yeast-derived rhu GM-CSF), a yeast-derived, molecularly cloned, hematopoietic growth factor and pleiotropic cytokine supports proliferation, differentiation, maturation and survival of cells of several myeloid lineages. We evaluated the efficacy of sargramostim in non-human primates (rhesus macaques) exposed to whole-body ionizing radiation at a 50-60% lethal dose. The primary end point was day 60 survival. Non-human primates received daily subcutaneous sargramostim (7 mcg/kg/day) or control. To reflect the anticipated setting of a nuclear or radiologic event, treatment began 48 h postirradiation, and non-human primates received only moderate supportive care (no whole blood transfusions or individualized antibiotics). Sargramostim significantly increased day 60 survival to 78% (95% confidence interval, 61-90%) vs. 42% (26-59%; P = 0.0018) in controls. Neutrophil, platelet and lymphocyte recovery rates were accelerated and infection rates decreased. Improved survival when sargramostim was started 48 h postirradiation, without use of intensive supportive care, suggests sargramostim may be effective in treating humans exposed to acute, high-dose whole-body, ionizing radiation in a scenario such as a mass casualty event.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Donghui Zhang
- Global Biostatistics and Programming, Sanofi, Bridgewater, New Jersey
| | | | | | | | | | - Joan M Keutzer
- Global Rare Diseases, Sanofi Genzyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - John McManus
- Partner Therapeutics, Inc, Lexington, Massachusetts
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7
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The Host Immune Response to Scedosporium/ Lomentospora. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7020075. [PMID: 33499053 PMCID: PMC7912657 DOI: 10.3390/jof7020075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Infections caused by the opportunistic pathogens Scedosporium/Lomentospora are on the rise. This causes problems in the clinic due to the difficulty in diagnosing and treating them. This review collates information published on immune response against these fungi, since an understanding of the mechanisms involved is of great interest in developing more effective strategies against them. Scedosporium/Lomentospora cell wall components, including peptidorhamnomannans (PRMs), α-glucans and glucosylceramides, are important immune response activators following their recognition by TLR2, TLR4 and Dectin-1 and through receptors that are yet unknown. After recognition, cytokine synthesis and antifungal activity of different phagocytes and epithelial cells is species-specific, highlighting the poor response by microglial cells against L. prolificans. Moreover, a great number of Scedosporium/Lomentospora antigens have been identified, most notably catalase, PRM and Hsp70 for their potential medical applicability. Against host immune response, these fungi contain evasion mechanisms, inducing host non-protective response, masking fungal molecular patterns, destructing host defense proteins and decreasing oxidative killing. In conclusion, although many advances have been made, many aspects remain to be elucidated and more research is necessary to shed light on the immune response to Scedosporium/Lomentospora.
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8
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Characterization of a Long-Acting Site-Specific PEGylated Murine GM-CSF Analog and Analysis of Its Hematopoietic Properties in Normal and Cyclophosphamide-Treated Neutropenic Rats. Protein J 2020; 39:160-173. [PMID: 32172395 DOI: 10.1007/s10930-020-09894-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Previously we reported that site-specific modification of the human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) A3C analog with polyethylene glycol (PEG) dramatically improved the pharmacokinetic properties of the protein in rats. However, we could not evaluate the hematological properties of the PEG-A3C protein in rats because human GM-CSF is inactive in rodents. To study the biological effects of PEGylated GM-CSF analogs in rodents we created a homologous site-specific PEGylated murine (mu) GM-CSF (T3C) protein. muGM-CSF and the T3C protein were expressed in Escherichia coli and purified by column chromatography. The purified T3C protein was covalently modified with a linear 20 kDa- or a branched 40 kDa-maleimide-PEG, and the monoPEGylated proteins purified by column chromatography. muGM-CSF, T3C and the two PEG-T3C proteins had comparable in vitro biological activities, as measured by stimulation of proliferation of the murine FDC-P1 cell line. The PEG-T3C proteins had 10- to 25-fold longer circulating half-lives than muGM-CSF and stimulated greater and longer lasting increases in neutrophils and white blood cells than muGM-CSF following a single intravenous or subcutaneous administration to rats. Treatment of rats made neutropenic with cyclophosphamide with the PEG-T3C proteins shortened the time for recovery of neutrophils to normal levels from 9 or 10 days to 5 or 6 days, whereas muGM-CSF showed no benefit versus vehicle solution. Acceleration of neutrophil recovery in cyclophosphamide-treated rats required a minimum of three PEG-T3C treatments over five days. The PEG-T3C proteins should prove useful for evaluating the potential therapeutic benefits of GM-CSF and long-acting GM-CSF proteins in rodent disease models.
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Abstract
GM-CSF drives the differentiation of granulocytes and monocyte/macrophages from hematopoietic stem cell progenitors. It is required for differentiating monocytes into dendritic cells (DC). Although approved for recovery of granulocytes/monocytes in patients receiving chemotherapy, G-CSF is preferred. Enthusiasm for GM-CSF monotherapy as a melanoma treatment was dampened by two large randomized trials. Although GM-CSF has been injected into tumors for many years, the efficacy of this has not been tested. There is a strong rationale for GM-CSF as a vaccine adjuvant, but it appears of benefit only for strategies that directly involve DCs, such as intratumor talimogene laherparepvec and vaccines in which DCs are loaded with antigen ex vivo and injected admixed with GM-CSF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert O Dillman
- Chief Medical Officer, AIVITA Biomedical, Inc. Irvine, CA 92612, USA.,Clinical Professor Medicine, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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10
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Banday AH, Shameem SA, Ajaz SJ. Potential Repurposed Therapeutics and New Vaccines against COVID-19 and Their Clinical Status. SLAS DISCOVERY 2020; 25:1097-1107. [PMID: 32692266 PMCID: PMC8960149 DOI: 10.1177/2472555220945281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), was first reported in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. Since then, the virus has stretched its grip to almost all the countries in the world, affecting millions of people and causing enormous casualties. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a pandemic on March 11, 2019. As of June 12, 2020, almost 7.30 million people have already been infected globally, with 413,000 reported casualties. In the United States alone, 2.06 million people have been infected and 115,000 have succumbed to this pandemic. A multipronged approach has been launched toward combating this pandemic, with the main focus on exhaustive screening, developing efficacious therapies, and vaccines for long-term immunity. Several pharmaceutical companies in collaboration with various academic institutions and governmental organizations have started investigating new therapeutics and repurposing approved drugs so as to find fast and affordable treatments against this disease. The present communication is aimed at highlighting the efforts that are currently underway to treat or prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection, with details on the science, clinical status, and timeline for selected investigational drugs and vaccines. This article is going to be of immense help to the scientific community and researchers as it brings forth all the necessary clinical information of the most-talked-about therapeutics against SARS-CoV-2. All the details pertaining to the clinical status of each therapeutic candidate have been updated as of June 12, 2020.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abid H. Banday
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Islamia College of Science and Commerce, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India
- Corresponding Author: Abid H. Banday, Department of Chemistry, Islamia College of Science and Commerce, Srinagar-India, 190002, India.
| | - Shameem A. Shameem
- Department of Chemistry, Islamia College of Science and Commerce, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India
| | - Sheikh J. Ajaz
- Government Medical College, Karan Nagar, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India
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11
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Park M, Vaikari VP, Dhandhukia JP, Alachkar H, MacKay JA. Human Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor Fused to Elastin-Like Polypeptides Assembles Biologically-Active Nanoparticles. Bioconjug Chem 2020; 31:1551-1561. [PMID: 32319752 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.0c00204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (hGMCSF) is crucial in the immune system as it stimulates survival, proliferation, differentiation, and functional activation of myeloid hematopoietic cells. hGMCSF is integral to approved therapies, including monoclonal antibodies against checkpoint inhibitors, chimeric antigen receptors, and prevention of chemotherapy-induced neutropenia. Recombinant hGMCSF can be purified from Escherichia. coli; however, it forms inclusion bodies that require solubilization and refolding. Alternatively, this manuscript describes its fusion with an elastin-like polypeptide (ELP). Previously reported as purification tags and solubility enhancers, ELPs are recombinant polypeptides that undergo reversible temperature-dependent phase separation. This report is the first to show that fusion to an ELP enables direct purification of hGMCSF fusions from the soluble fraction of bacterial lysate. Surprisingly, these ELP-fusions assemble stable, small, spherical nanoparticles that maintain pro-mitotic activity of hGMCSF. These nanoparticles exhibit ELP-mediated phase separation; however, nanoparticle assembly significantly increases the entropic and enthalpic cost of phase separation compared to ELP alone. The attachment of a high molecular weight ELP to a difficult-to-express protein, like hGMCSF, appears to be a useful strategy to stabilize bioactive, protein-based nanoparticles, which may have broad applications in medicine and biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mincheol Park
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Vijaya P Vaikari
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Jugal P Dhandhukia
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Houda Alachkar
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States.,USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - J Andrew MacKay
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States.,Department of Ophthalmology, USC Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
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12
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Lee S, Yamamoto S, Hamana M, Okamoto H, Hatayama T, Danbara F, Fujii Y, Murakami Y, Otsuki T. Effects of a Cloth Panel Containing a Specific Ore Powder on Patients with Japanese Cedar Pollen Allergy During the Pollen Dispersal Season. J Clin Med 2019; 8:jcm8122164. [PMID: 31817806 PMCID: PMC6947445 DOI: 10.3390/jcm8122164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Pollen allergy remains a big problem in contemporary societies. We have shown in previous studies that a cloth containing a special natural ore powder (CCSNOP) is effective in relieving symptoms in patients with pollen allergies. However, in that study, subjects were exposed to CCSNOP for only one hour. In the present study, CCSNOP or control (non-woven cloth; NWC) panels were placed in the bedrooms of pollen allergy patients for two weeks during the pollen dispersal season in 2018, and the effects were investigated. Twenty-one subjects were exposed to CCSNOP panels and 10 subjects were exposed to NWC panels. Our investigations showed that use of CCSNOP resulted in relief of symptoms and reduced use of therapeutics. Moreover, the ratio of eosinophil count decrease during exposure was higher in the CCSNOP group. Furthermore, a formula for measuring various cytokines and other parameters was established and clearly showed a distinction between the CCSNOP and NWC groups. In this formula, Granulocyte Macrophage colony-stimulating Factor (GM-SCF), Interleukin (IL)-12p40, Immunoglobulin (Ig) G4 and eosinophil count were extracted. These results indicated that CCNSNOP has a beneficial effect on pollen allergy patients. Future studies shall engage in long-term monitoring of pollen allergy patients who will utilize this mineral powder for at least one year.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suni Lee
- Department of Hygiene, Kawasaki Medical School, 577 Matsushima, Kurashiki City, Okayama 701-0192, Japan; (S.L.); (S.Y.); (T.H.)
| | - Shoko Yamamoto
- Department of Hygiene, Kawasaki Medical School, 577 Matsushima, Kurashiki City, Okayama 701-0192, Japan; (S.L.); (S.Y.); (T.H.)
| | - Maiko Hamana
- Wadakohsan Corporation, 4-2-13, Sakaemachidori, Chuo-ku, Kobe City, Hyogo 650-0023, Japan; (M.H.); (F.D.); (Y.M.)
| | - Hiroshi Okamoto
- Cosmic Garden Co., Ltd., 1-2-25 Ima, Kita-ku, Okayama City, Okayama 700-0975, Japan; (H.O.); (Y.F.)
| | - Tamayo Hatayama
- Department of Hygiene, Kawasaki Medical School, 577 Matsushima, Kurashiki City, Okayama 701-0192, Japan; (S.L.); (S.Y.); (T.H.)
| | - Fukusou Danbara
- Wadakohsan Corporation, 4-2-13, Sakaemachidori, Chuo-ku, Kobe City, Hyogo 650-0023, Japan; (M.H.); (F.D.); (Y.M.)
| | - Yoshio Fujii
- Cosmic Garden Co., Ltd., 1-2-25 Ima, Kita-ku, Okayama City, Okayama 700-0975, Japan; (H.O.); (Y.F.)
| | - Youichi Murakami
- Wadakohsan Corporation, 4-2-13, Sakaemachidori, Chuo-ku, Kobe City, Hyogo 650-0023, Japan; (M.H.); (F.D.); (Y.M.)
| | - Takemi Otsuki
- Department of Hygiene, Kawasaki Medical School, 577 Matsushima, Kurashiki City, Okayama 701-0192, Japan; (S.L.); (S.Y.); (T.H.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-86-462-1111
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13
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Miyake M, Hori S, Ohnishi S, Toritsuka M, Fujii T, Shimizu T, Owari T, Morizawa Y, Gotoh D, Itami Y, Nakai Y, Anai S, Torimoto K, Tanaka N, Fujimoto K. Supplementary granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor to chemotherapy and programmed death-ligand 1 blockade decreases local recurrence after surgery in bladder cancer. Cancer Sci 2019; 110:3315-3327. [PMID: 31385407 PMCID: PMC6778624 DOI: 10.1111/cas.14158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Revised: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite advances and refinements in surgery and perioperative chemotherapy, there are still unmet medical needs with respect to radical cystectomy for muscle‐invasive bladder cancer (MIBC). We investigated the potential benefit of supplementary granulocyte macrophage colony‐stimulating factor (GM‐CSF) to chemoimmunotherapy with programmed cell death protein‐1 (PD‐1)/programmed death‐ligand 1 (PD‐L1) axis blockade and standard neoadjuvant chemotherapy in bladder cancer. We inoculated 2 × 105MBT2 cells s.c. in C3H mice to create a syngeneic animal model of local recurrence (LR). When the tumor diameter reached 12 mm, the mice were allocated randomly as follows: (i) non‐treated control (vehicle only); (ii) anti‐mPD‐L1 monotherapy; (iii) mGM‐CSF monotherapy; (iv) anti‐mPD‐L1 plus mGM‐CSF; (v) gemcitabine and cisplatin (GC); (vi) GC plus anti‐mPD‐L1; (vii) GC plus mGM‐CSF; and (viii) GC plus anti‐mPD‐L1 plus mGM‐CSF. After completing 2‐week neoadjuvant therapy, tumors were resected for resection margin evaluation and immunohistochemical staining and blood was collected for flow cytometry and ELISA. Operative wounds were sutured, and the operative site was monitored to detect LR. Addition of anti‐mPD‐L1 and mGM‐CSF to neoadjuvant GC chemotherapy enhanced the antitumor effect and reduced positive resection margins (50% vs 12.5%). Combination of GC, anti‐mPD‐L1, and mGM‐CSF resulted in longer LR‐free survival and cancer‐specific survival compared to those in other groups. These effects involved an immunotherapy‐related decrease in oncological properties such as tumor invasion capacity and epithelial‐mesenchymal transition. mGM‐CSF significantly decreased the accumulation of myeloid‐derived suppressor cells in both the blood and tumor microenvironment and blood interleukin‐6 levels. Supplementary GM‐CSF to neoadjuvant GC plus PD‐L1 blockade could decrease LR after radical surgery by immune modulation in the blood and tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makito Miyake
- Department of Urology, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
| | - Shunta Hori
- Department of Urology, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
| | - Sayuri Ohnishi
- Department of Urology, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
| | | | - Tomomi Fujii
- Department of Diagnostic Pathology, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
| | - Takuto Shimizu
- Department of Urology, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
| | - Takuya Owari
- Department of Urology, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
| | | | - Daisuke Gotoh
- Department of Urology, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
| | | | - Yasushi Nakai
- Department of Urology, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
| | - Satoshi Anai
- Department of Urology, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
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14
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Wu X, Shen Y. Management of human immunodeficiency virus-associated cryptococcal meningitis: Current status and future directions. Mycoses 2019; 62:874-882. [PMID: 31365770 DOI: 10.1111/myc.12977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Revised: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 07/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Cryptococcal meningitis (CM) is one of the most common opportunistic infections of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), as well as an important cause of hospitalisation and death. In recent years, the mortality of CM has remained high in HIV/AIDS population, with up to 30%, including within developed countries. The treatment usually encompasses controls of Cryptococcus, HIV, and increased intracranial pressure. Recent progress on the management of HIV-associated CM mainly centres in optimising induction regimens, looking for appropriate timing of initiating antiretroviral therapy and prevention of symptomatic onset and adverse consequences. This review compared several international guidelines combined with the results from some clinical researches to illustrate the similarities, differences and potential in CM treatment. The present practice is still far from satisfactory, and there remains much to explore due to our limited understanding of the pathogenesis of HIV-associated CM. Thus, screening and monitoring should be strengthened, and better therapies in line with the actual situation of each country should be discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueyun Wu
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yinzhong Shen
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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15
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Giuffrida P, Cococcia S, Delliponti M, Lenti MV, Di Sabatino A. Controlling Gut Inflammation by Restoring Anti-Inflammatory Pathways in Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Cells 2019; 8:E397. [PMID: 31052214 PMCID: PMC6562982 DOI: 10.3390/cells8050397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is caused by a dysregulated immune response against normal components of the intestinal microflora combined with defective functioning of anti-inflammatory pathways. Currently, all therapies approved for IBD manipulate the immune system by inhibiting pro-inflammatory mechanisms, such as tumor necrosis factor-α, gut-homing α4β7 integrin, interleukin-12/interleukin-23, and Janus kinases. However, some IBD patients are non-responders to these drugs, which are also associated with serious side effects. Thus, it has been hypothesized that therapies aimed at restoring anti-inflammatory signals, by exploiting the tolerogenic potential of cytokines (interleukin-10, transforming growth factor-β, granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor), immune cells (regulatory T cells, tolerogenic dendritic cells), or mesenchymal stem cells, might offer promising results in terms of clinical efficacy with fewer side effects. In this review, we provide new insights into putative novel treatments aimed at restoring anti-inflammatory signaling pathways in IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Giuffrida
- First Department of Internal Medicine, University of Pavia and Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
| | - Sara Cococcia
- First Department of Internal Medicine, University of Pavia and Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
| | - Mariangela Delliponti
- First Department of Internal Medicine, University of Pavia and Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
| | - Marco Vincenzo Lenti
- First Department of Internal Medicine, University of Pavia and Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
| | - Antonio Di Sabatino
- First Department of Internal Medicine, University of Pavia and Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
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16
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Malekian R, Sima S, Jahanian-Najafabadi A, Moazen F, Akbari V. Improvement of soluble expression of GM-CSF in the cytoplasm of Escherichia coli using chemical and molecular chaperones. Protein Expr Purif 2019; 160:66-72. [PMID: 30998976 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2019.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Revised: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The most common approaches to improve soluble expression of heterologous proteins are applications of molecular chaperones such as DnaK, DnaJ, GrpE, GroEL and GroES. The aim of present study was to enhance soluble expression of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) in Escherichia coli by different approaches including modification of cultivation and induction conditions, and thermally, genetically and chemically enhancement of expression of cellular chaperones. To genetically enhance amount of molecular chaperones, co-expression of pET28-GM-CSF and pKJE7 plasmids was performed. The soluble expressed protein was affinity purified and subjected to endotoxin removal. Co-expression with molecular chaperones significantly increased soluble expression of GM-CSF. Addition of chemical chaperones and osmolytes like NaCl (0.5 M), sucrose (0.5 M), sorbitol (0.5 M) and MgCl2 (1 mM) to growing media could improve solubility of GM-CSF. Biological activity of purified GM-CSF was confirmed based on its proliferative effect on HL-60 cell lines. The approach developed in the present study can be applied to improve soluble expression of other recombinant protein proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raziyeh Malekian
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Isfahan Pharmaceutical Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Setareh Sima
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Isfahan Pharmaceutical Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Ali Jahanian-Najafabadi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Isfahan Pharmaceutical Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Moazen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Isfahan Pharmaceutical Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Vajihe Akbari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Isfahan Pharmaceutical Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
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17
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Ribatti D, Tamma R. Hematopoietic growth factors and tumor angiogenesis. Cancer Lett 2018; 440-441:47-53. [PMID: 30312730 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2018.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Revised: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Angiogenesis is regulated by numerous "classic" factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and many other endogenous "non-classic"peptides, including erythropoietin (Epo), and granulocyte-/granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor (G-/GM-CSF). The latter play an important regulatory role in angiogenesis, especially under pathological conditions and constitute a crosslink between angiogenesis and hematopoiesis. This article reviews studies on the ability of hematopoietic cytokines to affect several endothelial cell functions in tumor angiogenesis. These findings in all these studies support the hypothesis formulated at the beginning of this century that a common ancestral cell, the hemangioblast, gives rise to cells of both the endothelial and the hematopoietic lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Ribatti
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neurosciences and Sensory Organs, University of Bari Medical School, Bari, Italy.
| | - Roberto Tamma
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neurosciences and Sensory Organs, University of Bari Medical School, Bari, Italy.
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18
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Khalil MAM, Khalil MAU, Khan TFT, Tan J. Drug-Induced Hematological Cytopenia in Kidney Transplantation and the Challenges It Poses for Kidney Transplant Physicians. J Transplant 2018; 2018:9429265. [PMID: 30155279 PMCID: PMC6093016 DOI: 10.1155/2018/9429265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug-induced hematological cytopenia is common in kidney transplantation. Various cytopenia including leucopenia (neutropenia), thrombocytopenia, and anemia can occur in kidney transplant recipients. Persistent severe leucopenia or neutropenia can lead to opportunistic infections of various etiologies. On the contrary, reducing or stopping immunosuppressive medications in these events can provoke a rejection. Transplant clinicians are often faced with the delicate dilemma of balancing cytopenia and rejection from adjustments of immunosuppressive regimen. Differentials of drug-induced cytopenia are wide. Identification of culprit medication and subsequent modification is also challenging. In this review, we will discuss individual drug implicated in causing cytopenia and correlate it with corresponding literature evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Taqi F. Taufeeq Khan
- King Salman Armed Forces Hospital, Tabuk King Abdul Aziz Rd., Tabuk 47512, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jackson Tan
- RIPAS Hospital, Bandar Seri Begawan BA1710, Brunei Darussalam
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19
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Recent Advances in the Treatment of Scedosporiosis and Fusariosis. J Fungi (Basel) 2018; 4:jof4020073. [PMID: 29912161 PMCID: PMC6023441 DOI: 10.3390/jof4020073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Revised: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Species of Scedosporium and Fusarium are considered emerging opportunistic pathogens, causing invasive fungal diseases in humans that are known as scedosporiosis and fusariosis, respectively. These mold infections typically affect patients with immune impairment; however, cases have been reported in otherwise healthy individuals. Clinical manifestations vary considerably, ranging from isolated superficial infection to deep-seated invasive infection—affecting multiple organs—which is often lethal. While there have been a number of advances in the detection of these infections, including the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), diagnosis is often delayed, leading to substantial morbidity and mortality. Although the optimal therapy is controversial, there have also been notable advances in the treatment of these diseases, which often depend on a combination of antifungal therapy, reversal of immunosuppression, and in some cases, surgical resection. In this paper, we review these advances and examine how the management of scedosporiosis and fusariosis may change in the near future.
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20
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Yu WL, Hua ZC. Evaluation of effectiveness of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor therapy to cancer patients after chemotherapy: a meta-analysis. Oncotarget 2018; 9:28226-28239. [PMID: 29963274 PMCID: PMC6021338 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.24890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The impact of granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) on hematologic indexes and complications remains existing contradictory evidence in cancer patients after treatment of chemotherapy. Eligible studies up to March 2017 were searched and reviewed from PubMed and Wanfang databases. Totally 1043 cancer patients from 15 studies were included in our research. The result indicated that GM-CSF could significantly improve white blood cells count (SMD = 1.16, 95% CI: 0.71 – 1.61, Z = 5.03, P < 0.00001) and reduce the time to leukopenia recovery (SMD = -0.85, 95% CI: -1.16 – -0.54, Z = 5.38, P < 0.00001) in cancer patients after treatment of chemotherapy. It also could improve absolute neutrophil count (SMD = 1.11, 95% CI: 0.39 – 1.82, Z = 3.04, P = 0.002) and significantly shorten the time to neutropenia recovery (SMD = -1.47, 95% CI: -2.20 – -1.75, Z = 3.99, P < 0.0001). However, GM-CSF could not improve blood platelet (SMD = 0.46, 95% CI: -0.37 – -1.29, Z = 1.10, P = 0.27). And GM-CSF had significant connection with fever (RR = 3.44, 95% CI: 1.43 – 8.28, Z = 2.76, P = 0.006). The publication bias existed in the data of the impact of GM-CSF on blood platelet and complication. In conclusions, GM-CSF had an intimate association with some hematologic indexes and complications. Our study suggested that more hematological indexes and even more other indexes need to be observed in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Liang Yu
- The State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macao, China
| | - Zi-Chun Hua
- The State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macao, China.,The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.,Changzhou High-Tech Research Institute of Nanjing University and Jiangsu TargetPharma Laboratories Inc., Changzhou, China
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21
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Gogesch P, Schülke S, Scheurer S, Mühlebach MD, Waibler Z. Modular MLV-VLPs co-displaying ovalbumin peptides and GM-CSF effectively induce expansion of CD11b + APC and antigen-specific T cell responses in vitro. Mol Immunol 2018; 101:19-28. [PMID: 29852456 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2018.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2017] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The development of novel vaccination strategies is a persistent challenge to provide effective prophylactic treatments to encounter viral infections. In general, the physical conjugation of selected vaccine components, e.g. antigen and adjuvant, has been shown to enhance the immunogenicity and hence, can increase effectiveness of the vaccine. In our proof-of-concept study, we generated non-infectious, replication deficient Murine Leukemia Virus (MLV)-derived virus-like particles (VLPs) that physically link antigen and adjuvant in a modular fashion by co-displaying them on their surface. For this purpose, we selected the immunodominant peptides of the model antigen ovalbumin (OVA) and the cytokine granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) as non-classical adjuvant. Our results show that murine GM-CSF displayed on MLV-VLPs mediates expansion and proliferation of CD11b+ cells within murine bone marrow and total spleen cells. Moreover, we show increased immunogenicity of modular VLPs co-displaying OVA peptides and GM-CSF by their elevated capacity to induce OVA-specific T cell-activation and -proliferation within OT-I and OT-II splenocyte cultures. These enhanced effects were not achieved by using an equimolar mixture of VLPs displaying either OVA or GM-CSF. Taken together, OVA and GM-CSF co-displaying MLV-VLPs are able to target and expand antigen presenting cells which in turn results in enhanced antigen-specific T cell activation and proliferation in vitro. These data suggest MLV-VLPs to be an attractive platform to flexibly combine antigen and adjuvant for novel modular vaccination approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Gogesch
- Section "Product Testing of Immunological Biomedicines", Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, D-63225, Langen, Germany
| | - Stefan Schülke
- Section Molecular Allergology, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, D-63225, Langen, Germany
| | - Stephan Scheurer
- Section Molecular Allergology, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, D-63225, Langen, Germany
| | - Michael D Mühlebach
- Section Product Testing of IVMP, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, Langen, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, D-63225, Langen, Germany.
| | - Zoe Waibler
- Section "Product Testing of Immunological Biomedicines", Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, D-63225, Langen, Germany.
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22
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Tran AM, Nguyen TT, Nguyen CT, Huynh-Thi XM, Nguyen CT, Trinh MT, Tran LT, Cartwright SP, Bill RM, Tran-Van H. Pichia pastoris versus Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a case study on the recombinant production of human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. BMC Res Notes 2017; 10:148. [PMID: 28376863 PMCID: PMC5379694 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-017-2471-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Recombinant human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (rhGM-CSF) is a glycoprotein that has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of neutropenia and leukemia in combination with chemotherapies. Recombinant hGM-CSF is produced industrially using the baker’s yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, by large-scale fermentation. The methylotrophic yeast, Pichia pastoris, has emerged as an alternative host cell system due to its shorter and less immunogenic glycosylation pattern together with higher cell density growth and higher secreted protein yield than S. cerevisiae. In this study, we compared the pipeline from gene to recombinant protein in these two yeasts. Results Codon optimization in silico for both yeast species showed no difference in frequent codon usage. However, rhGM-CSF expressed from S. cerevisiae BY4742 showed a significant discrepancy in molecular weight from those of P. pastoris X33. Analysis showed purified rhGM-CSF species with molecular weights ranging from 30 to more than 60 kDa. Fed-batch fermentation over 72 h showed that rhGM-CSF was more highly secreted from P. pastoris than S. cerevisiae (285 and 64 mg total secreted protein/L, respectively). Ion exchange chromatography gave higher purity and recovery than hydrophobic interaction chromatography. Purified rhGM-CSF from P. pastoris was 327 times more potent than rhGM-CSF from S. cerevisiae in terms of proliferative stimulating capacity on the hGM-CSF-dependent cell line, TF-1. Conclusion Our data support a view that the methylotrophic yeast P. pastoris is an effective recombinant host for heterologous rhGM-CSF production. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13104-017-2471-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anh-Minh Tran
- Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, VNU-HCM, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
| | - Thanh-Thao Nguyen
- Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, VNU-HCM, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
| | - Cong-Thuan Nguyen
- Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, VNU-HCM, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
| | - Xuan-Mai Huynh-Thi
- Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, VNU-HCM, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
| | - Cao-Tri Nguyen
- Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, VNU-HCM, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
| | - Minh-Thuong Trinh
- Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, VNU-HCM, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
| | - Linh-Thuoc Tran
- Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, VNU-HCM, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
| | | | - Roslyn M Bill
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham, UK
| | - Hieu Tran-Van
- Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, VNU-HCM, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam.
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23
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Alexander WS. In vivo at last: Demonstrating the biological credentials and clinical potential of GM-CSF. Exp Hematol 2016; 44:669-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2016.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2015] [Revised: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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24
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Abstract
This article highlights the most common morphologic features identified in the bone marrow after chemotherapy for hematologic malignancies, growth-stimulating agents, and specific targeted therapies. The key is to be aware of these changes while reviewing post-therapeutic bone marrow biopsies and to not mistake reactive patterns for neoplastic processes. In addition, given the development and prevalent use of targeted therapy, such as tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immune modulators, knowledge of drug-specific morphologic changes is required for proper bone marrow interpretation and diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- K David Li
- Hematopathology, Department of Pathology, University of Utah/ARUP Laboratories, 500 Chipeta Way, 115-G04, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Mohamed E Salama
- Hematopathology, Department of Pathology, University of Utah/ARUP Laboratories, 500 Chipeta Way, 115-G04, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA.
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25
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Liao HF, Wu TJ, Tai JL, Chi MC, Lin LL. Immunomodulatory Potential of the Polysaccharide-Rich Extract from Edible Cyanobacterium Nostoc commune. Med Sci (Basel) 2015; 3:112-123. [PMID: 29083396 PMCID: PMC5635763 DOI: 10.3390/medsci3040112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2015] [Revised: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A dry sample of Nostoc commune from an organic farm in Pingtung city (Taiwan) was used to prepare polysaccharide-rich (NCPS) extract. The conditioned medium (CM) from NCPS-treated human peripheral blood (PB)-mononuclear cells (MNC) effectively inhibited the growth of human leukemic U937 cells and triggered differentiation of U937 monoblast cells into monocytic/macrophagic lines. Cytokine levels in MNC-CMs showed upregulation of granulocyte/macrophage-colony stimulatory factor and IL-1β and downregulation of IL-6 and IL-17 upon treatment with NCPS. Moreover, murine macrophage RAW264.7 cells treated with NCPS exhibited the stimulatory effects of nitric oxide and superoxide secretion, indicating that NCPS might activate the immunity of macrophages. Collectively, the present study demonstrates that NCPS from N. commune could be potentially used for macrophage activation and consequently inhibited the leukemic cell growth and induced monocytic/macrophagic differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Fen Liao
- Department of Biochemical Science and Technology, National Chiayi University, 300 Syuefu Road, Chiayi City 60004, Taiwan.
| | - Tai-Jung Wu
- Department of Biochemical Science and Technology, National Chiayi University, 300 Syuefu Road, Chiayi City 60004, Taiwan.
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Chiayi University, 300 Syuefu Road, Chiayi City 60004, Taiwan.
| | - Jia-Liang Tai
- Sung Yu Technology Co., Ltd., 7 Dali Road, Rende District, Tainan City 71754, Taiwan.
| | - Meng-Chun Chi
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Chiayi University, 300 Syuefu Road, Chiayi City 60004, Taiwan.
| | - Long-Liu Lin
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Chiayi University, 300 Syuefu Road, Chiayi City 60004, Taiwan.
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26
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Schneble EJ, Berry JS, Trappey FA, Clifton GT, Ponniah S, Mittendorf E, Peoples GE. The HER2 peptide nelipepimut-S (E75) vaccine (NeuVax™) in breast cancer patients at risk for recurrence: correlation of immunologic data with clinical response. Immunotherapy 2015; 6:519-31. [PMID: 24896623 DOI: 10.2217/imt.14.22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Nelipepimut-S (formerly known as E75) is an immunogenic peptide from the HER2 protein that is highly expressed in breast cancer. The NeuVax™ (Galena, OR, USA) vaccine, nelipepimut-S plus granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, is designed for the prevention of clinical recurrences in high risk, disease-free breast cancer patients. Although cancer vaccines such as NeuVax represent promising approaches to cancer immunotherapy, much remains to be elucidated regarding their mechanisms of action: particularly given that multiple cancer vaccine trials have failed to demonstrate a correlation between immunologic data and clinical outcome. Here, we briefly discuss our clinical trial experience with NeuVax focusing on immunologic response data and its implication on how the immune system may be affected by this peptide vaccine. Most importantly, we demonstrate the potential capability of certain immunologic assays to predict clinical benefit in our trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika J Schneble
- San Antonio Military Medical Center, Department of General Surgery, Fort Sam Houston, TX, USA
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27
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Däbritz J, Weinhage T, Varga G, Wirth T, Walscheid K, Brockhausen A, Schwarzmaier D, Brückner M, Ross M, Bettenworth D, Roth J, Ehrchen JM, Foell D. Reprogramming of monocytes by GM-CSF contributes to regulatory immune functions during intestinal inflammation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 194:2424-38. [PMID: 25653427 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1401482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Human and murine studies showed that GM-CSF exerts beneficial effects in intestinal inflammation. To explore whether GM-CSF mediates its effects via monocytes, we analyzed effects of GM-CSF on monocytes in vitro and assessed the immunomodulatory potential of GM-CSF-activated monocytes (GMaMs) in vivo. We used microarray technology and functional assays to characterize GMaMs in vitro and used a mouse model of colitis to study GMaM functions in vivo. GM-CSF activates monocytes to increase adherence, migration, chemotaxis, and oxidative burst in vitro, and primes monocyte response to secondary microbial stimuli. In addition, GMaMs accelerate epithelial healing in vitro. Most important, in a mouse model of experimental T cell-induced colitis, GMaMs show therapeutic activity and protect mice from colitis. This is accompanied by increased production of IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13, and decreased production of IFN-γ in lamina propria mononuclear cells in vivo. Confirming this finding, GMaMs attract T cells and shape their differentiation toward Th2 by upregulating IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13 in T cells in vitro. Beneficial effects of GM-CSF in Crohn's disease may possibly be mediated through reprogramming of monocytes to simultaneously improved bacterial clearance and induction of wound healing, as well as regulation of adaptive immunity to limit excessive inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Däbritz
- Department of Pediatric Rheumatology and Immunology, University Children's Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany; Interdisciplinary Center of Clinical Research, University Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany; Gastrointestinal Research in Inflammation & Pathology, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne, Parkville 3052, Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne Medical School, Parkville 3052, Victoria, Australia;
| | - Toni Weinhage
- Department of Pediatric Rheumatology and Immunology, University Children's Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany
| | - Georg Varga
- Department of Pediatric Rheumatology and Immunology, University Children's Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany
| | - Timo Wirth
- Department of Pediatric Rheumatology and Immunology, University Children's Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany
| | - Karoline Walscheid
- Department of Pediatric Rheumatology and Immunology, University Children's Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany
| | - Anne Brockhausen
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany; Institute of Immunology, University Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany; and
| | - David Schwarzmaier
- Department of Pediatric Rheumatology and Immunology, University Children's Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany
| | - Markus Brückner
- Department of Medicine B, University Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany
| | - Matthias Ross
- Department of Medicine B, University Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany
| | - Dominik Bettenworth
- Department of Medicine B, University Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany
| | - Johannes Roth
- Interdisciplinary Center of Clinical Research, University Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany; Institute of Immunology, University Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany; and
| | - Jan M Ehrchen
- Interdisciplinary Center of Clinical Research, University Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany; Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany
| | - Dirk Foell
- Department of Pediatric Rheumatology and Immunology, University Children's Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany; Interdisciplinary Center of Clinical Research, University Hospital Münster, Münster 48149, Germany
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Cheung NKV, Cheung IY, Kramer K, Modak S, Kuk D, Pandit-Taskar N, Chamberlain E, Ostrovnaya I, Kushner BH. Key role for myeloid cells: phase II results of anti-G(D2) antibody 3F8 plus granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor for chemoresistant osteomedullary neuroblastoma. Int J Cancer 2014; 135:2199-205. [PMID: 24644014 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.28851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Revised: 02/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Anti-G(D2) murine antibody 3F8 plus subcutaneously (sc) administered granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) was used against primary refractory neuroblastoma in metastatic osteomedullary sites. Large study size and long follow-up allowed assessment of prognostic factors in a multivariate analysis not reported with other anti-G(D2) antibodies. In a phase II trial, 79 patients without prior progressive disease were treated for persistent osteomedullary neuroblastoma documented by histology and/or metaiodobenzyl-guanidine (MIBG) scan. In the absence of human antimouse antibody, 3F8 + scGM-CSF cycles were repeated up to 24 months. Minimal residual disease (MRD) in bone marrow was measured by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction pre-enrollment and post-cycle #2, before initiation of 13-cis-retinoic acid. Study endpoints were: (i) progression-free survival (PFS) compared with the predecessor trial of 3F8 plus intravenously administered (iv) GM-CSF (26 patients) and (ii) impact of MRD on PFS. Using all 105 patients from the two consecutive 3F8 + GM-CSF trials, prognostic factors were analyzed by multivariate Cox regression model. Complete response rates to 3F8 + scGM-CSF were 87% by histology and 38% by MIBG. Five-year PFS was 24 ± 6%, which was significantly superior to 11 ± 7% with 3F8 + ivGM-CSF (p = 0.002). In the multivariate analysis, significantly better PFS was associated with R/R or H/R FCGR2A polymorphism, sc route of GM-CSF and early MRD response. MYCN amplification was not prognostic. Complement consumption was similar with either route of GM-CSF. Toxicities were manageable, allowing outpatient treatment. 3F8 + scGM-CSF is highly active against chemoresistant osteomedullary neuroblastoma. MRD response may be an indicator of tumor sensitivity to anti-G(D2) immunotherapy. Correlative studies highlight the antineoplastic potency of myeloid effectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nai-Kong V Cheung
- Department of Pediatrics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah K. Browne
- Laboratory of Clinical Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892;
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Shultz SR, Tan XL, Wright DK, Liu SJ, Semple BD, Johnston L, Jones NC, Cook AD, Hamilton JA, O'Brien TJ. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor is neuroprotective in experimental traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2014; 31:976-83. [PMID: 24392832 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2013.3106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an international health concern with a complex pathogenesis resulting in major long-term neurological, neurocognitive, and neuropsychiatric outcomes. Although neuroinflammation has been identified as an important pathophysiological process resulting from TBI, the function of specific inflammatory mediators in the aftermath of TBI remains poorly understood. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is an inflammatory cytokine that has been reported to have neuroprotective effects in various animal models of neurodegenerative disease that share pathological similarities with TBI. The importance of GM-CSF in TBI has yet to be studied, however. We examined the role of GM-CSF in TBI by comparing the effects of a lateral fluid percussion (LFP) injury or sham injury in GM-CSF gene deficient (GM-CSF(-/-)) versus wild-type (WT) mice. After a 3-month recovery interval, mice were assessed using neuroimaging and behavioral outcomes. All mice given a LFP injury displayed significant brain atrophy and behavioral impairments compared with those given sham-injuries; however, this was significantly worse in the GM-CSF(-/-) mice compared with the WT mice. GM-CSF(-/-) mice given LFP injury also had reduced astrogliosis compared with their WT counterparts. These novel findings indicate that the inflammatory mediator, GM-CSF, may have significant protective properties in the chronic sequelae of experimental TBI and suggest that further research investigating GM-CSF and its potential benefits in the injured brain is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandy R Shultz
- 1 Department of Medicine (The Royal Melbourne Hospital), Melbourne Brain Centre, The University of Melbourne , Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Abstract
Invasive yeast infections are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with defective immune response, such as those with cancer-related immunosuppression, organ transplantation or other immunodeficiencies, and neonates. Hospitalization in the intensive care unit may increase the risk for such infections. Despite the advent of new antifungal agents, the problem is escalating as the number of susceptible hosts increase and virulent, more resistant fungal strains emerge. Over the past few years, advances in immunology and molecular biology have greatly contributed to a better understanding of the pathogenesis of yeast infections. There is evidence that reconstitution of the host immune function is a major contributor to the resolution of yeast infections. Strategies aiming to increase the phagocyte number (e.g., granulocyte transfusions), to stimulate immune response (e.g., administration of hematopoietic growth factors and other proinflammatory cytokines) and to stimulate antigen-specific immunity (e.g., antibody therapy or vaccination) benefit patients at risk of, or suffering from, yeast infections. Further preclinical and clinical studies, as well as improving our understanding of immune system functions and dysfunctions, remain a future challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Garbino
- University Hospitals of Geneva, Infectious Diseases Division (Clinical Research), 24 Rue Micheli du Crest, 1211 Geneva 14, Switzerland.
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Yasuda T, Mochizuki H. Use of growth factors for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Expert Rev Neurother 2014; 10:915-24. [DOI: 10.1586/ern.10.55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor: not just another haematopoietic growth factor. Med Oncol 2013; 31:774. [DOI: 10.1007/s12032-013-0774-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Zarogoulidis P, Darwiche K, Hohenforst-Schmidt W, Huang H, Li Q, Freitag L, Zarogoulidis K. Inhaled gene therapy in lung cancer: proof-of-concept for nano-oncology and nanobiotechnology in the management of lung cancer. Future Oncol 2013; 9:1171-94. [PMID: 23902248 DOI: 10.2217/fon.13.67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer still remains one of the leading causes of death among cancer patients. Although novel targeted therapies have been established in everyday treatment practice, and conventional platinum-based doublets have demonstrated effective results regarding overall and progression-free survival, we have still failed to achieve long-term survival. Therefore, several strategies of applying locoregional therapy are under investigation. Aerosol chemotherapy is already under investigation and, taking this a step further, aerosol gene therapies with multiple delivery systems are being developed. Several efforts have demonstrated its efficiency and effectiveness, but there are still multiple factors that have to be considered and combined to achieve an overall more effective multifunctional treatment. In the current review, we present data regarding aerosol delivery systems, transporters, carriers, vectors, genes, toxicity, efficiency, specificity, lung microenvironment and delivery gene therapy systems. Finally, we present current studies and future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Zarogoulidis
- Pulmonary Department-Oncology Unit, G Papanikolaou General Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
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Chang DZ, Lomazow W, Joy Somberg C, Stan R, Perales MA. Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor: An Adjuvant for Cancer Vaccines. Hematology 2013; 9:207-15. [PMID: 15204102 DOI: 10.1080/10245330410001701549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) enhances immune responses by inducing the proliferation, maturation, and migration of dendritic cells, and the expansion and differentiation of B and T lymphocytes. There is significant data in pre-clinical animal models demonstrating the adjuvant effects of GM-CSF in a variety of cancer vaccine approaches, including cellular vaccines, viral vaccines, peptide and protein vaccines, and DNA vaccines. GM-CSF is an attractive vaccine adjuvant because of its immune modulation effects and low toxicity profile. The results in animal models have been confirmed in pilot clinical trials and several clinical trials are currently ongoing.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Z Chang
- Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021, USA
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Role of Th17 cells in the pathogenesis of CNS inflammatory demyelination. J Neurol Sci 2013; 333:76-87. [PMID: 23578791 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2013.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2012] [Revised: 02/19/2013] [Accepted: 03/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS). The etiology of MS is not well understood, but it is believed that myelin-specific CD4(+) T cells play a central role in initiating and orchestrating CNS inflammation. In this scenario, CD4(+) T cells, activated in the periphery, infiltrate the CNS, where, by secreting cytokines and chemokines, they start an inflammatory cascade. Given the central role of CD4(+) T cells in CNS autoimmunity, they have been studied extensively, principally by using experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS. In the late 1980s, CD4(+) T cells, based on their cytokine production, were divided into two helper lineages, Th1 and Th2 cells. It was postulated that Th1 cells, which produce IFN-γ, mediate inflammation of the CNS in MS/EAE, while Th2 cells, which produce IL-4, have a beneficial effect in disease, because of their antagonistic effect on Th1 cells. The Th1/Th2 paradigm remained the prevailing view of MS/EAE pathogenesis until 2005, when a new lineage, Th17, was discovered. In a relatively short period of time it became apparent that Th17 cells, named after their hallmark cytokine, IL-17A, play a crucial role in many inflammatory diseases, including EAE, and likely in MS as well. The Th17 paradigm developed rapidly, initiating the debate of whether Th1 cells contribute to EAE/MS pathogenesis at all, or if they might even have a protective role due to their antagonistic effects on Th17 cells. Numerous findings support the view that Th17 cells play an essential role in autoimmune CNS inflammation, perhaps mainly in the initial phases of disease. Th1 cells likely contribute to pathogenesis, with their role possibly more pronounced later in disease. Hence, the current view on the role of Th cells in MS/EAE pathogenesis can be called the Th17/Th1 paradigm. It is certain that Th17 cells will continue to be the focus of intense investigation aimed at elucidating the pathogenesis of CNS autoimmunity.
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Tao Z, Yang H, Jia D, Wan L, Cheng J, Lu X. Molecular cloning, recombinant expression and characterization of GMCSF from the rhesus monkey, Macaca mulatta. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 40:69-77. [PMID: 23352624 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2012] [Revised: 01/07/2013] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies have found that, in addition to hematopoiesis, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GMCSF) plays pivotal roles in multiple immune disorders. The gene encoding Macaca mulatta GMCSF (mmGMCSF) was cloned from stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Concanavalin A (Con A) and mismatched allogeneic antigen-stimulation significantly increased the production of mmGMCSF by monkey PBMCs. The gene encoding mature mmGMCSF was first expressed as a soluble fusion protein in Escherichia coli, and native mmGMCSF was further prepared by protease cleavage. The recombinant mmGMCSF induced antigen-presenting dendritic cells from monkey PBMCs, suggesting a central role of mmGMCSF in the immune system of the rhesus monkey. Although the predicted mature mmGMCSF protein differs from human GMCSF (hGMCSF) at six amino acid residues, mmGMCSF showed a strong ability to support human TF-1 cell survival. Additional co-immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that mmGMCSF cross reacts with the hGMCSF receptor (hGMCSFR). In addition, the hGMCSF-neutralizing agents hGMCSFR-Fc and anti-hGMCSF antibody reduced the biological effects of mmGMCSF on TF-1 cells. These results suggest that recombinant mmGMCSF might be used for the in vitro evaluation of novel hGMCSF-neutralizing agents prior to the in vivo preclinical evaluation of these agents in the rhesus monkey model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ze Tao
- Key Lab of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, Ministry of Health, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
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38
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Nishiuchi T, Okutani Y, Yamagishi Y, Fujita T, Imataki O, Ohnishi H, Matsunaga T, Shimizu T, Shimizu H. Synergistic effect between Juzen-taiho-to, a Japanese traditional herbal medicine, and gemcitabine single-agent chemotherapy for advanced biliary tract cancer. J Altern Complement Med 2012; 19:593-7. [PMID: 23215436 DOI: 10.1089/acm.2012.0177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
This is the first report of the successful treatment of advanced biliary tract cancer with gemcitabine single-agent chemotherapy in combination with Juzen-taiho-to (JTT), a Japanese traditional herbal medicine. An 84-year-old woman was referred to our hospital with general fatigue and appetite loss; she was diagnosed with advanced biliary tract cancer and accompanying colonic invasion and hepatic metastasis. The patient's response to combination chemotherapy was extremely good, and her tumors disappeared. Recent studies have confirmed the occurrence of spontaneous and induced antitumor immune responses, carried out by tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in the tumor microenvironment. The availability, antigen presentation, and proliferation of these immune cells are increased by cytokines such as granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and interleukin (IL)-2. Recently, JTT has gained recognition as a biological response modifier that has stimulatory effects on systemic immune responses such as enhancement of cytokine expression (GM-CSF, IL-2, etc.). In addition, some chemotherapy agents, such as anthracyclines and gemcitabine, are effective boosters of the immune response through tumor-specific antigen overexpression after apoptotic tumor cell destruction. These findings suggest that JTT enhances the antitumor effects of gemcitabine, in particular its tumor-specific effects on immune response, and these drugs are a good combination for advanced biliary tract cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takamasa Nishiuchi
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Hematology, Rheumatology and Respiratory Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kita-Gun, Kagawa, Japan.
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39
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Khasa YP, Khushoo A, Mukherjee KJ. Enhancing toxic protein expression in Escherichia coli fed-batch culture using kinetic parameters: Human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor as a model system. J Biosci Bioeng 2012; 115:291-7. [PMID: 23098681 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2012.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Revised: 09/11/2012] [Accepted: 09/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The kinetics of recombinant human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (hGM-CSF) expression was studied under the strong T7 promoter in continuous culture of Escherichia coli using complex medium to design an optimum feeding strategy for high cell density cultivation. Continuous culture studies were done at different dilution rates and the growth and product formation profiles were monitored post-induction. Recombinant protein expression was in the form of inclusion bodies with a maximum specific product formation rate (q(p)) of 63.5 mg g(-1) DCW h(-1) at a dilution rate (D) of 0.3 h(-1). The maximum volumetric product concentration achieved at this dilution rate was 474 mg l(-1), which translated a ~1.4 and ~1.75 folds increase than the values obtained at dilution rates of 0.2 h(-1) and 0.4 h(-1) respectively. The specific product yield (Y(P/x)) peaked at 138 mg g(-1) DCW, demonstrating a ~1.6 folds increase in the values obtained at other dilution rates. A drop in q(p) was observed within 5-6 h of induction at all the dilution rates, possibly due to protein toxicity and metabolic stress associated with protein expression. The data from the continuous culture studies allowed us to design an optimal feeding strategy and induction time in fed-batch cultures which resulted in a maximum product concentration of 3.95 g l(-1) with a specific hGM-CSF yield (Y(P/x)) of 107 mg g(-1) DCW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogender Pal Khasa
- Department of Microbiology, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, India.
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40
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Reljic R, Paul MJ, Arias MA. Cytokine therapy of tuberculosis at the crossroads. Expert Rev Respir Med 2012; 3:53-66. [PMID: 20477282 DOI: 10.1586/17476348.3.1.53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Drug treatment is the key strategy in TB control. However, the treatment course lasts 6-9 months because the current anti-TB drugs are poorly effective against nondividing (i.e., persistent) bacilli. As a result, completion rates are unsatisfactory, leading to emergence and spread of multidrug-resistant infection. It would, therefore, be very desirable to design a form of complementary treatment that could speed up the recovery process for people afflicted with TB and reduce the relapse rates. With the advancement of our understanding of the immunopathogenesis of TB, it has become increasingly possible to develop novel adjunctive immunotherapies for both drug-susceptible and drug-resistant TB. Notably, cytokines probably offer the most promising prospect of such a therapy being introduced in routine clinical practice. However, in many ways, the cytokine therapy of TB has reached a crossroad, since, although the initial promise failed to live up to expectations, sufficient encouraging evidence exists to warrant further exploration. There are clear arguments in favor as well as against such treatments. This review aims to provide a rationale for cytokine treatment of TB, to describe the current status of several cytokines that have been considered for that purpose and, ultimately, to make a case for the need for further clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajko Reljic
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, St George's, University of London, 43 Cranmer Terrace, London SW17 0RE, UK.
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41
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Antibody–cytokine fusion proteins. Arch Biochem Biophys 2012; 526:194-205. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2012.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2012] [Revised: 02/28/2012] [Accepted: 03/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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42
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The hematopoietic cytokine granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor is important for cognitive functions. Sci Rep 2012; 2:697. [PMID: 23019518 PMCID: PMC3458247 DOI: 10.1038/srep00697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2012] [Accepted: 09/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
We recently reported expression of hematopoietic growth factor GM-CSF and its receptor (GM-CSFR) in CNS neurons. Here we evaluated this system in learning and memory formation using GM-CSF deficient mice. In complementation, GM-CSF signalling was manipulated specifically in adult murine hippocampus by adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated GM-CSFR alpha overexpression or knock-down. GM-CSF ablation caused various hippocampus and amygdala-dependent deficits in spatial and fear memory while rendering intact basic parameters like motor function, inherent anxiety, and pain threshold levels. Corroborating these data, spatial memory of AAV-injected mice was positively correlated with GM-CSFRα expression levels. Hippocampal neurons of knock-out mice showed markedly pruned dendritic trees, reduced spine densities, and lower percentages of mature spines. Despite such morphological alterations, long-term potentiation (LTP) was unimpaired in the knock-out hippocampus. Collectively, these results suggest that GM-CSF signalling plays a major role in structural plasticity relevant to learning and memory.
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43
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Farese AM, Cohen MV, Stead RB, Jackson W, Macvittie TJ. Pegfilgrastim administered in an abbreviated schedule, significantly improved neutrophil recovery after high-dose radiation-induced myelosuppression in rhesus macaques. Radiat Res 2012; 178:403-13. [PMID: 22991919 DOI: 10.1667/rr2900.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Conventional daily administration of filgrastim is effective in reducing the duration of severe neutropenia and enhancing survival following lethal radiation, myelosuppressive cytotoxic therapy or myeloablation and stem cell transplantation. A sustained-duration form of filgrastim, pegfilgrastim has significantly simplified scheduling protocols after chemotherapy-induced neutropenia to a single injection while maintaining the therapeutic effectiveness of daily administration of filgrastim. We examined the ability of a single or double (weekly) administration of pegfilgrastim to significantly improve neutrophil recovery in a rhesus macaque model of severe radiation-induced myelosuppression. Animals were exposed to potentially lethal 6 Gy total-body X radiation. After irradiation all animals received supportive care and were administered either pegfilgrastim at 300 μg/kg on day 1 or day 1 and day 7 post exposure, or filgrastim at 10 μg/kg/day initiated on day 1 post exposure and continued daily through neutrophil recovery. Pharmacokinetic parameters and neutrophil-related values for duration of neutropenia, neutrophil nadir, time to recovery to an absolute neutrophil count ≥500/μL or ≥2000/μL, and days of antibiotic support were determined. Effective plasma concentrations of pegfilgrastim were maintained in neutropenic animals until after the onset of hematopoietic recovery, which is consistent with neutrophil-dependent properties of elimination. Administration of pegfilgrastim at day 1 and day 7 was most effective at improving neutrophil recovery compared to daily administration of filgrastim or a single injection of pegfilgrastim on day 1, after severe, radiation-induced myelosuppression in rhesus macaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Farese
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Maryland, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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Kwek SS, Dao V, Roy R, Hou Y, Alajajian D, Simko JP, Small EJ, Fong L. Diversity of antigen-specific responses induced in vivo with CTLA-4 blockade in prostate cancer patients. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 189:3759-66. [PMID: 22956585 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1201529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
CTLA-4 is a surface receptor on activated T cells that delivers an inhibitory signal, serving as an immune checkpoint. Treatment with anti-CTLA-4 Abs can induce clinical responses to different malignancies, but the nature of the induced Ag-specific recognition is largely unknown. Using microarrays spotted with >8000 human proteins, we assessed the diversity of Ab responses modulated by treatment with CTLA-4 blockade and GM-CSF. We find that advanced prostate cancer patients who clinically respond to treatment also develop enhanced Ab responses to a higher number of Ags than nonresponders. These induced Ab responses targeted Ags to which preexisting Abs are more likely to be present in the clinical responders compared with nonresponders. The majority of Ab responses are patient-specific, but immune responses against Ags shared among clinical responders are also detected. One of these shared Ags is PAK6, which is expressed in prostate cancer and to which CD4(+) T cell responses were also induced. Moreover, immunization with PAK6 can be both immunogenic and protective in mouse tumor models. These results demonstrate that immune checkpoint blockade modulates Ag-specific responses to both individualized and shared Ags, some of which can mediate anti-tumor responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena S Kwek
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
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GM-CSF protects rat photoreceptors from death by activating the SRC-dependent signalling and elevating anti-apoptotic factors and neurotrophins. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2012; 250:699-712. [PMID: 22297538 DOI: 10.1007/s00417-012-1932-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2011] [Revised: 01/10/2012] [Accepted: 01/11/2012] [Indexed: 10/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The term retinitis pigmentosa (RP) comprises a heterogeneous group of hereditary and sporadic human retinal degenerative diseases. The molecular and cellular events still remain obscure, thus hiding effective therapies. Granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is a hematopoietic factor which plays a crucial role in protecting neuronal cells. Binding of GM-CSF to its receptor induces several intracellular signaling pathways and kinases. Here we examined whether GM-CSF has a neuroprotective effect on photoreceptor degeneration in Royal College of Surgeons (RCS) rats. METHODS GM-CSF was injected into the vitreous body of RCS rats either once at the onset of photoreceptor degeneration at day 21, or twice at day 21 and day 42. At day 84, when photoreceptor degeneration is completed, the rats were sacrificed, their eyes enucleated and processed for histological staining and counting the surviving photoreceptor nuclei. The expression of apoptosis-related factors, such as BAD, APAF1 and BCL-2 was examined by Western blot analysis. The expression of neurotrophins such as ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and glia-derived neurotrophic actor (GDNF), as well as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) was analysed by Western blots and immunohistochemistry. The expression of JAK/STAT, ERK1/2 and SRC pathway proteins was assessed by Western blot analysis. RESULTS GM-CSF protects significantly against photoreceptor degeneration in comparison to control group. After a single injection of GM-CSF at P21, a 4-fold increase of photoreceptors was observed, whereas eyes which received a repeated injection of GM-CSF at P42 showed a 10-fold increase of photoreceptors. Western blot analysis revealed a decreased BAD and an increased pBAD and BCL-2 expression, indicating changed expression profiles of apoptosis-related proteins. Neurotrophic factors examined are up-regulated, whereas GFAP was also modulated. At cell signalling levels, GM-CSF activates SRC-dependent STAT3 which is independent of JAK2, while proteins of the ERK1/2 pathway are not affected. CONCLUSIONS The data suggest that GM-CSF is a potent therapeutic agent in photoreceptor degeneration caused by mutation of the receptor tyrosine kinase gene (Mertk), and may be also effective in other photoreceptor degeneration.
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Production and characterization of human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (hGM-CSF) expressed in the oleaginous yeast Yarrowia lipolytica. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2012; 96:89-101. [PMID: 22627758 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-012-4141-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2012] [Revised: 04/18/2012] [Accepted: 04/24/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Since its isolation, the human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (hGM-CSF) has been proposed as a new class of therapeutic biological products in the treatment of various diseases. However, the toxicity of this cytokine towards its expression host constitutes a major obstacle to bioprocess development for large-scale production. In this work, the optimized gene encoding hGM-CSF was expressed in the yeast Yarrowia lipolytica in one and two copies under the control of the fatty acid-inducible POX2 promoter. Protein secretion was directed by the targeting sequence of the extracellular lipase (LIP2): preXALip2. After 48 h of induction, Western blot analysis revealed the presence of a nonglycosylated form of 14.5 kDa and a trail of hGM-CSF hyperglycosylated varying from 23 kDa to more than 60 kDa. The two-copy transformants produced hGM-CSF level which was sevenfold higher compared to the single-copy ones. Deglycosylation with PNGase F showed two forms: a mature form of 14.5 kDa and an unprocessed form of 18 kDa. The addition of two alanines to the signal sequence resulted in correct hGM-CSF processing. The production level was estimated at 250 mg/l after preliminary optimization studies of the cultivation and induction phases. The purified hGM-CSF was identified by N-terminal sequencing and LC-MS/MS analysis; its biological activity was confirmed by stimulating the proliferation of TF1 cell line. This study demonstrated that Y. lipolytica is a promising host for the efficient production of active toxic proteins like hGM-CSF.
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Tietze JK, Sckisel GD, Hsiao HH, Murphy WJ. Antigen-specific versus antigen-nonspecific immunotherapeutic approaches for human melanoma: the need for integration for optimal efficacy? Int Rev Immunol 2012; 30:238-93. [PMID: 22053969 DOI: 10.3109/08830185.2011.598977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Due to its immunogenecity and evidence of immune responses resulting in tumor regression, metastatic melanoma has been the target for numerous immunotherapeutic approaches. Unfortunately, based on the clinical outcomes, even the successful induction of tumor-specific responses does not correlate with efficacy. Immunotherapies can be divided into antigen-specific approaches, which seek to induce T cells specific to one or several known tumor associated antigens (TAA), or with antigen-nonspecific approaches, which generally activate T cells to become nonspecifically lytic effectors. Here the authors critically review the different immunotherapeutic approaches in melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia K Tietze
- Departments of Dermatology and Internal Medicine, University of California-Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
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Wu B, Qi R, Li B, Yuan T, Liu H, He J, Lin Z, Li W, Fu Y, Niu D. Effect of active immunization against a recombinant mouse granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor/somatostatin fusion protein on the growth of mice. Mol Biol Rep 2012; 39:6773-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s11033-012-1502-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Liu YK, Huang LF, Ho SL, Liao CY, Liu HY, Lai YH, Yu SM, Lu CA. Production of mouse granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor by gateway technology and transgenic rice cell culture. Biotechnol Bioeng 2011; 109:1239-47. [PMID: 22125231 DOI: 10.1002/bit.24394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Revised: 11/04/2011] [Accepted: 11/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
To establish a production platform for recombinant proteins in rice suspension cells, we first constructed a Gateway-compatible binary T-DNA destination vector. It provided a reliable and effective method for the rapid directional cloning of target genes into plant cells through Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. We used the approach to produce mouse granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (mGM-CSF) in a rice suspension cell system. The promoter for the αAmy3 amylase gene, which is induced strongly by sugar depletion, drove the expression of mGM-CSF. The resulting recombinant protein was fused with the αAmy3 signal peptide and was secreted into the culture medium. The production of rice-derived mGM-CSF (rmGM-CSF) was scaled up successfully in a 2-L bioreactor, in which the highest yield of rmGM-CSF was 24.6 mg/L. Due to post-translational glycosylation, the molecular weight of rmGM-CSF was larger than that of recombinant mGM-CSF produced in Escherichia coli. The rmGM-CSF was bioactive and could stimulate the proliferation of a murine myeloblastic leukemia cell line, NSF-60.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Kuo Liu
- Graduate Institute of Biochemical and Biomedical Engineering, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Taoyuan County, Taiwan, ROC.
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Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor: Evaluation of biopharmaceutical formulations by stability-indicating RP-LC method and bioassay. Biologicals 2011; 39:211-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2011.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2010] [Revised: 05/09/2011] [Accepted: 05/12/2011] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
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