Augmented Proliferation of Human Alveolar Macrophages After Allogeneic Bone Marrow Transplantation

Breast milk induces the differentiation of monocytes into macrophages, promoting human cytomegalovirus infection

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a ubiquitous herpesvirus found in human breast milk that is frequently transmitted from HCMV-seropositive mothers to their infants during the postnatal period. Despite extensive research, the mechanisms underlying HCMV transmission from breast milk and the anatomical location at which virus transfer takes place remain unclear. Breast milk contains many uniquely differentiated macrophages that undergo specific morphological and functional modifications in the mammary gland during lactation. Although the existence of permissive HCMV infection in differentiated macrophages has been well-described, the role of breast milk in this process remains unknown. Herein, we report that exposure of isolated peripheral blood monocytes to breast milk induces their differentiation into macrophages that exhibit an M2 phenotype (CD14highCD163highCD68highCD206high) and promotes a productive and sustained HCMV infection. We also found that breast milk triggers macrophage proliferation and thus sustains a unique population of proliferating, long-lived, and HCMV-susceptible macrophages that are capable of ongoing production of infectious virions. These results suggest a mechanism that explains chronic HCMV shedding into the breast milk of postpartum seropositive mothers. We also found that HCMV virions released from breast milk-induced macrophages generate a productive infection in primary infant tonsil epithelial cells. Collectively, our results suggest that breast milk may facilitate HCMV transmission from mother to infant via the oropharyngeal mucosa.

IMPORTANCE

While human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is frequently detected in the breast milk of HCMV-seropositive women and is often transmitted to infants via breastfeeding, the mechanisms by which this transmission occurs remain unclear. In this study, we modeled HCMV transmission at the oropharyngeal mucosa. We treated human monocytes with breast milk to mimic the lactating mammary gland microenvironment. We found that monocytes differentiated into macrophages with an M2 phenotype, which were highly permissive for HCMV. We also discovered that breast milk induces macrophage proliferation. Thus, exposure to breast milk increased the number of HCMV-susceptible macrophages and supported high levels of infectious HCMV. We found that HCMV virions released from breast milk-induced macrophages could infect primary infant tonsil epithelial cells. Collectively, these findings reveal the dual role of breast milk that induces the differentiation and proliferation of macrophages in the mammary gland and thus facilitates mother-to-child HCMV transmission at the oropharyngeal mucosa.

Immunological and microbial shifts in the aging rhesus macaque lung during nontuberculous mycobacterial infection

Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are environmentally ubiquitous organisms that predominately cause NTM pulmonary disease (NTMPD) in individuals over the age of 65. The incidence of NTMPD has increased in the U.S., exceeding that of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. However, the mechanisms leading to higher susceptibility and severity of NTMPD with aging are poorly defined in part due to the lack of animal models that accurately recapitulate human disease. Here, we compared bacterial load, microbial communities, and host responses longitudinally between three young (two female and one male) and two aged (two female) rhesus macaques inoculated with Mycobacterium avium subsp. hominissuis (MAH) in the right caudal lobe. Unilateral infection resulted in a low bacterial load in both young and aged animals confined to the infected side. Although a robust inflammatory response was only observed in the inoculated lung, immune cell infiltration and antigen-specific T cells were detected in both lungs. Computed tomography, gross pathology, and histopathology revealed increased disease severity and persistence of bacterial DNA in aged animals. Additional analyses showed the translocation of gut and oral-pharyngeal bacterial DNA into the lower respiratory microbiome. Finally, single-cell RNA sequencing revealed a heightened inflammatory response to MAH infection by alveolar macrophages in aged animals. These data are consistent with the model that increased disease severity in the aged is mediated by a dysregulated macrophage response that may be sustained through persistent antigen presence.

IMPORTANCE

Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are emerging as pathogens of high consequence, as cases of NTM pulmonary disease (NTMPD) have exceeded those of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. NTMPD can be debilitating, particularly in patients over 65 years of age, as it causes chronic cough and fatigue requiring prolonged treatments with antibiotics. The underlying mechanisms of this increased disease severity with age are poorly understood, hampering the development of therapeutics and vaccines. Here, we use a rhesus macaque model to investigate the impact of age on host-NTM interactions. This work shows that aging is associated with increased disease severity and bacterial persistence in aged rhesus macaques, thus providing a preclinical model to develop and test novel therapeutics and interventions.

Luteolin Inhibited the Self-Renewal and Altered the Polarization of Primary Alveolar Macrophages

Pure plant extract luteolin has been demonstrated to possess numerous biological and immunological effects. However, how luteolin affects mice alveolar macrophages' self-renewal and polarization closely related to inflammatory and immunomodulatory is still unknown. In our study, the transcriptomic analysis showed that several self-renewal-related pathways in luteolin-pretreated alveolar macrophages were inhibited compared to the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-treated group. Ki-67 staining and EdU assay indicated that luteolin inhibited GM-CSF-induced alveolar macrophage proliferation. Moreover, GM-CSF-induced expressions of c-Myc and KLF4 were significantly suppressed by luteolin at transcriptional and protein levels. Besides, we found that luteolin promoted M1 macrophage polarization induced by LPS plus IFN-γ. At the same time, it inhibited M2 macrophage polarization induced by IL-4 in both alveolar and bone marrow-derived macrophages by detecting macrophage polarization-related gene expressions at mRNA and protein levels. We found that luteolin inhibited self-renewal and altered the polarization of primary alveolar macrophages. Taken together, our data will aid in a better understanding of the immunomodulatory effects of luteolin on the primary alveolar macrophages.

Stem cell donors should be screened for CHIP

This article has a companion Counterpoint by Gibson and Lindsley.

Effects of Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation on the Pulmonary Immune Response to Infection

Pulmonary infections are common in hematopoietic cell transplant (HCT) patients of all ages and are associated with high levels of morbidity and mortality. Bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic pathogens are all represented as causes of infection. The lung mounts a complex immune response to infection and this response is significantly affected by the pre-HCT conditioning regimen, graft characteristics, and ongoing immunomodulatory therapy. We review the published literature, including animal models as well as human data, to describe what is known about the pulmonary immune response to infection in HCT recipients. Studies have focused on the pulmonary immune response to Aspergillus fumigatus, gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, and viruses, and show a range of defects associated with both the innate and adaptive immune responses after HCT. There are still many open areas for research, to delineate novel therapeutic targets for pulmonary infections as well as to explore linkages to non-infectious inflammatory lung conditions.

GM-CSF Dependent Differential Control of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection in Human and Mouse Macrophages: Is Macrophage Source of GM-CSF Critical to Tuberculosis Immunity?

Although classically associated with myelopoiesis, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is being increasingly recognized for its potential role in innate resistance against tuberculosis (TB). While the GM-CSF is produced by a variety of host cells, including conventional and non-conventional T cells, macrophages, alveolar epithelial cells, the cell population that promotes GM-CSF mediated innate protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection remains unclear. This is because studies related to the role of GM-CSF so far have been carried out in murine models of experimental TB, which is inherently susceptible to TB as compared to humans, who exhibit a resolution of infection in majority of cases. We found a significantly higher amount of GM-CSF production by human macrophages, compared to mouse macrophages, after infection with M. tuberculosis in vitro. The higher levels of GM-CSF produced by human macrophages were also directly correlated with their increased life span and ability to control M. tuberculosis infection. Other evidence from recent studies also support that M. tuberculosis infected human macrophages display heterogeneity in their antibacterial capacity, and cells with increased expression of genes involved in GM-CSF signaling pathway can control intracellular M. tuberculosis growth more efficiently. Collectively, these emerging evidence indicate that GM-CSF produced by lung resident macrophages could be vital for the host resistance against M. tuberculosis infection in humans. Identification of GM-CSF dependent key cellular pathways/processes that mediate intracellular host defense can lay the groundwork for the development of novel host directed therapies against TB as well as other intracellular infections.

HIV-1 Persistence and Chronic Induction of Innate Immune Responses in Macrophages

A hallmark of HIV-1 infection is chronic inflammation, which plays a significant role in disease pathogenesis. Acute HIV infection induces robust inflammatory responses, which are insufficient to prevent or eliminate virus in mucosal tissues. While establishment of viral set-point is coincident with downregulation of acute innate responses, systemic inflammatory responses persist during the course of chronic HIV infection. Since the introduction of combination antiviral therapy (cART), most HIV-1⁺ individuals can suppress viremia under detection levels for decades. However, chronic immune activation persists and has been postulated to cause HIV associated non-AIDS complications (HANA). Importantly, inflammatory cytokines and activation markers associated with macrophages are strongly and selectively correlated with the incidence of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND), cardiovascular dysfunctions (CVD) and other HANA conditions. In this review, we discuss the roles of macrophages in facilitating viral persistence and contributing to generation of persistent inflammatory responses.

Improvement of native pulmonary alveolar proteinosis after contralateral single living-donor lobar lung transplantation: A case report

PAP is a rare disease characterized by the accumulation of surfactant materials in the alveolar spaces due to the imbalance of surfactant homeostasis (production and clearance). We herein report a case of an 8-year-old girl who developed PAP after BMT from her mother for the treatment of DBA. The anemia was improved by BMT; however, respiratory dysfunction due to graft-versus-host disease gradually progressed. She eventually underwent right single LDLLT from her mother when she was 14 years old. A pathological examination of the excised lung confirmed the finding of diffuse bronchiolitis obliterans and unexpectedly revealed widespread alveolar proteinosis. Interestingly, the GGO of her native left lung on chest X-ray was improved after LDLLT. We present the very unique clinical course of this patient and discuss the mechanisms underlying the development of PAP after BMT and its improvement after LDLLT from the same donor.

Lung Macrophage Functional Properties in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is caused by the chronic exposure of the lungs to toxic particles and gases. These exposures initiate a persistent innate and adaptive immune inflammatory response in the airways and lung tissues. Lung macrophages (LMs) are key innate immune effector cells that identify, engulf, and destroy pathogens and process inhaled particles, including cigarette smoke and particulate matter (PM), the main environmental triggers for COPD. The number of LMs in lung tissues and airspaces is increased in COPD, suggesting a potential key role for LMs in initiating and perpetuating the chronic inflammatory response that underpins the progressive nature of COPD. The purpose of this brief review is to discuss the origins of LMs, their functional properties (chemotaxis, recruitment, mediator production, phagocytosis and apoptosis) and changes in these properties due to exposure to cigarette smoke, ambient particulate and pathogens, as well as their persistent altered functional properties in subjects with established COPD. We also explore the potential to therapeutically modulate and restore LMs functional properties, to improve impaired immune system, prevent the progression of lung tissue destruction, and improve both morbidity and mortality related to COPD.

Origin and ontogeny of lung macrophages: from mice to humans

Macrophages are tissue-resident myeloid cells with essential roles in host defense, tissue repair, and organ homeostasis. The lung harbors a large number of macrophages that reside in alveoli. As a result of their strategic location, alveolar macrophages are critical sentinels of healthy lung function and barrier immunity. They phagocytose inhaled material and initiate protective immune responses to pathogens, while preventing excessive inflammatory responses and tissue damage. Apart from alveolar macrophages, other macrophage populations are found in the lung and recent single-cell RNA-sequencing studies indicate that lung macrophage heterogeneity is greater than previously appreciated. The cellular origin and development of mouse lung macrophages has been extensively studied, but little is known about the ontogeny of their human counterparts, despite the importance of macrophages for lung health. In this context, humanized mice (mice with a human immune system) can give new insights into the biology of human lung macrophages by allowing in vivo studies that are not possible in humans. In particular, we have created humanized mouse models that support the development of human lung macrophages in vivo. In this review, we will discuss the heterogeneity, development, and homeostasis of lung macrophages. Moreover, we will highlight the impact of age, the microbiota, and pathogen exposure on lung macrophage function. Altered macrophage function has been implicated in respiratory infections as well as in common allergic and inflammatory lung diseases. Therefore, understanding the functional heterogeneity and ontogeny of lung macrophages should help to develop future macrophage-based therapies for important lung diseases in humans.

Targeting Cytokines as Evolving Treatment Strategies in Chronic Inflammatory Airway Diseases

Cytokines are key players in the initiation and propagation of inflammation in chronic inflammatory airway diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), bronchiectasis and allergic asthma. This makes them attractive targets for specific novel anti-inflammatory treatment strategies. Recently, both interleukin-1 (IL-1) and IL-6 have been associated with negative health outcomes, mortality and a pro-inflammatory phenotype in COPD. IL-6 in COPD was shown to correlate negatively with lung function, and IL-1beta was induced by cigarette smoke in the bronchial epithelium, causing airway inflammation. Furthermore, IL-8 has been shown to be a pro-inflammatory marker in bronchiectasis, COPD and allergic asthma. Clinical trials using specific cytokine blockade therapies are currently emerging and have contributed to reduce exacerbations and steroid use in COPD. Here, we present a review of the current understanding of the roles of cytokines in the pathophysiology of chronic inflammatory airway diseases. Furthermore, outcomes of clinical trials in cytokine blockade as novel treatment strategies for selected patient populations with those diseases will be discussed.

Understanding the Biology of Self-Renewing Macrophages

Macrophages reside in specific territories in organs, where they contribute to the development, homeostasis, and repair of tissues. Recent work has shown that the size of tissue macrophage populations has an impact on tissue functions and is determined by the balance between replenishment and elimination. Macrophage replenishment is mainly due to self-renewal of macrophages, with a secondary contribution from blood monocytes. Self-renewal is a recently discovered trait of macrophages, which can have a major impact on their physiological functions and hence on the wellbeing of the organism. In this review, I discuss our current understanding of the developmental origin of self-renewing macrophages and the mechanisms used to maintain a physiologically stable macrophage pool.

Transplantation of CCR5∆32 Homozygous Umbilical Cord Blood in a Child With Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Perinatally Acquired HIV Infection

BACKGROUND

Allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT) in a CCR5∆32 homozygous donor resulted in HIV cure. Understanding how allo-HCT impacts the HIV reservoir will inform cure strategies.

METHODS

A 12-year-old with perinatally acquired, CCR5-tropic HIV and acute lymphoblastic leukemia underwent myeloablative conditioning and umbilical cord blood (UCB) transplantation from a CCR5∆32 homozygous donor. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and the rectum were sampled pre- and post-transplant. The brain, lung, lymph node (LN), stomach, duodenum, ileum, and colon were sampled 73 days after transplantation (day +73), when the patient died from graft-vs-host disease. Droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) and in situ hybridization (ISH) were used detect the HIV reservoir in tissues. CCR5 and CD3 expression in the LN was assessed using immunohistochemistry (IHC).

RESULTS

HIV DNA (vDNA) was detected in PBMCs by ddPCR pretransplant but not post-transplant. vDNA was detected by ISH in the rectum at days -8 and +22, and in the LN, colon, lung, and brain day +73. vDNA was also detected in the lung by ddPCR. IHC revealed CCR5+CD3+ cells in the LN postmortem.

CONCLUSIONS

HIV was detected in multiple tissues 73 days after CCR5∆32 homozygous UCB allo-HCT despite myeloablative conditioning and complete donor marrow engraftment. These results highlight the importance of analyzing tissue during HIV cure interventions and inform the choice of assay used to detect HIV in tissue reservoirs.

Heterozygous Mutations in OAS1 Cause Infantile-Onset Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis with Hypogammaglobulinemia

Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) is characterized by accumulation of a surfactant-like substance in alveolar spaces and hypoxemic respiratory failure. Genetic PAP (GPAP) is caused by mutations in genes encoding surfactant proteins or genes encoding a surfactant phospholipid transporter in alveolar type II epithelial cells. GPAP is also caused by mutations in genes whose products are implicated in surfactant catabolism in alveolar macrophages (AMs). We performed whole-exome sequence analysis in a family affected by infantile-onset PAP with hypogammaglobulinemia without causative mutations in genes associated with PAP: SFTPB, SFTPC, ABCA3, CSF2RA, CSF2RB, and GATA2. We identified a heterozygous missense variation in OAS1, encoding 2,′5′-oligoadenylate synthetase 1 (OAS1) in three affected siblings, but not in unaffected family members. Deep sequence analysis with next-generation sequencing indicated 3.81% mosaicism of this variant in DNA from their mother’s peripheral blood leukocytes, suggesting that PAP observed in this family could be inherited as an autosomal-dominant trait from the mother. We identified two additional de novo heterozygous missense variations of OAS1 in two unrelated simplex individuals also manifesting infantile-onset PAP with hypogammaglobulinemia. PAP in the two simplex individuals resolved after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, indicating that OAS1 dysfunction is associated with impaired surfactant catabolism due to the defects in AMs.

Clinical characteristics and cytokine changes in children with pneumonia requiring mechanical ventilation

Objective

To assess clinical characteristics and cytokine levels in children with severe pneumonia who required ventilatory support.

Methods

In this prospective, descriptive, cross-sectional study, blood and endotracheal fluid samples were obtained from patients with severe pneumonia, aged <5 years, within 24 h following intubation. Blood samples were also obtained from age-matched healthy controls. Cytokine levels were investigated using flow cytometry-assisted immunoassay.

Results

Forty-five patients with severe pneumonia requiring mechanical ventilation (aged 10 ± 5 months) and 35 healthy age-matched controls were included. Patients with severe pneumonia had significantly increased serum interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor concentrations compared with controls (80.84 pg/ml versus 2.06 pg/ml, 90.03 pg/ml versus 6.62 pg/ml, and 115.58 pg/ml versus 11.47 pg/ml, respectively). In the severe pneumonia group, serum IL-10 levels were significantly higher in patients aged <6 months versus those aged 6–12 months. Age-group differences in serum cytokine levels did not correspond to age-group differences in endotracheal-fluid cytokine levels. Serum IL-6 levels were significantly higher in patients who subsequently died versus those who survived (267.12 pg/ml versus 20.75 pg/ml, respectively).

Conclusion

High IL-6 concentrations were associated with mortality in patients <5 years of age with severe pneumonia requiring mechanical ventilation.

Recurrence of pulmonary alveolar proteinosis after bilateral lung transplantation in a patient with a nonsense mutation in CSF2RB

Hereditary pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) caused by mutations in CSF2RA or CSF2RB, which encode GM-CSF receptor α and β respectively, is a rare disease. Although some experimental therapeutic strategies have been proposed, no clinical evidence has yet been reported. We herein describe the clinical course and recurrence of hereditary PAP after lung transplantation. A 36-year-old woman developed PAP of unknown etiology. She underwent bilateral lung transplantation from living donors at the age of 42 years because of severe respiratory failure complicated by pulmonary fibrosis. However, PAP recurred after 9 months, and we found that donor-origin alveolar macrophages had been almost completely replaced with recipient-origin macrophages. We performed a genetic analysis and identified a point deletion in the CSF2RB gene that caused a GM-CSF receptor-mediated signaling defect. PAP progressed with fibrosis in both transplanted lungs, and the patient died of respiratory failure 5 years after the lung transplantation. Distinct from recent reports on pulmonary macrophage transplantation in mice, this case suggests that human alveolar macrophages might not maintain their population only by self-renewal but may depend on a supply of precursor cells from the circulation. Bone marrow transplantation should be considered for treatment of severe PAP with GM-CSF receptor gene deficiency.

Long-Term Persistence of Donor Alveolar Macrophages in Human Lung Transplant Recipients That Influences Donor-Specific Immune Responses

Steady-state alveolar macrophages (AMs) are long-lived lung-resident macrophages with sentinel function. Evidence suggests that AM precursors originate during embryogenesis and populate lungs without replenishment by circulating leukocytes. However, their presence and persistence are unclear following human lung transplantation (LTx). Our goal was to examine donor AM longevity and evaluate whether AMs of recipient origin seed the transplanted lungs. Origin of AMs was accessed using donor-recipient HLA mismatches. We demonstrate that 94-100% of AMs present in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) were donor derived and, importantly, AMs of recipient origin were not detected. Further, analysis of BAL cells up to 3.5 years post-LTx revealed that the majority of AMs (>87%) was donor derived. Elicitation of de novo donor-specific antibody (DSA) is a major post-LTx complication and a risk factor for development of chronic rejection. The donor AMs responded to anti-HLA framework antibody (Ab) with secretion of inflammatory cytokines. Further, in an experimental murine model, we demonstrate that adoptive transfer of allogeneic AMs stimulated humoral and cellular immune responses to alloantigen and lung-associated self-antigens and led to bronchiolar obstruction. Therefore, donor-derived AMs play an essential role in the DSA-induced inflammatory cascade leading to obliterative airway disease of the transplanted lungs.

Diverse macrophage populations mediate acute lung inflammation and resolution

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a devastating disease with distinct pathological stages. Fundamental to ARDS is the acute onset of lung inflammation as a part of the body's immune response to a variety of local and systemic stimuli. In patients surviving the inflammatory and subsequent fibroproliferative stages, transition from injury to resolution and recovery is an active process dependent on a series of highly coordinated events regulated by the immune system. Experimental animal models of acute lung injury (ALI) reproduce key components of the injury and resolution phases of human ARDS and provide a methodology to explore mechanisms and potential new therapies. Macrophages are essential to innate immunity and host defense, playing a featured role in the lung and alveolar space. Key aspects of their biological response, including differentiation, phenotype, function, and cellular interactions, are determined in large part by the presence, severity, and chronicity of local inflammation. Studies support the importance of macrophages to initiate and maintain the inflammatory response, as well as a determinant of resolution of lung inflammation and repair. We will discuss distinct roles for lung macrophages during early inflammatory and late resolution phases of ARDS using experimental animal models. In addition, each section will highlight human studies that relate to the diverse role of macrophages in initiation and resolution of ALI and ARDS.

In vivo characterization of alveolar and interstitial lung macrophages in rhesus macaques: implications for understanding lung disease in humans

Alveolar macrophages (AMs) obtained by bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) are commonly used to study lung macrophage-mediated immune responses. Questions remain, however, about whether AMs fully represent macrophage function in the lung. This study was performed to determine the contribution of interstitial macrophages (IMs) of lung tissue to pulmonary immunity and that are not present in BAL sampling. In vivo BrdU injection was performed to evaluate the kinetics and monocyte/tissue macrophage turnover in Indian rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Lung macrophage phenotype and cell turnover were analyzed by flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry. AMs and IMs in lungs of rhesus macaques composed ∼70% of immune response cells in the lung. AMs represented a larger proportion of macrophages, ∼75-80%, and exhibited minimal turnover. Conversely, IMs exhibited higher turnover rates that were similar to those of blood monocytes during steady-state homeostasis. IMs also exhibited higher staining for TUNEL, suggesting a continuous transition of blood monocytes replacing IMs undergoing apoptosis. Although AMs appear static in steady-state homeostasis, increased influx of new AMs derived from monocytes/IMs was observed after BAL procedure. Moreover, ex vivo IFN-γ plus LPS treatment significantly increased intracellular expression of TNF-α in IMs, but not in AMs. These findings indicate that the longer-lived AMs obtained from BAL may not represent the entire pulmonary spectrum of macrophage responses, and shorter-lived IMs may function as the critical mucosal macrophage subset in the lung that helps to maintain homeostasis and protect against continuous pathogen exposure from the environment.

Distinct responses of lung and liver macrophages to acute endotoxemia: role of toll-like receptor 4

Exposure to excessive quantities of bacterial-derived lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is associated with injury to the lung and the liver. Macrophages are thought to play a key role in the pathogenic response to LPS by releasing proinflammatory/cytotoxic mediators. Macrophage responses to LPS are mediated in large part by toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). In the present studies we used C3H/HeJ mice, which possess a mutated nonfunctional TLR4, to examine its role in lung and liver macrophage responses to acute endotoxemia induced by LPS administration. Treatment of control C3H/HeOuJ mice with LPS (3 mg/ml, i.p.) was associated with a significant increase in the number of macrophages in both the lung and the liver. This was most prominent after 48 h, and was preceded by expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), suggesting that macrophage proliferation contributes to the response. In liver, but not lung macrophages, LPS administration resulted in a rapid (within 3 h) increase in mRNA expression of Mn superoxide dismutase (SOD) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), key enzymes in antioxidant defense. In contrast, HO-1 protein expression decreased 3 h after LPS administration in liver macrophages, while in lung macrophages it increased. mRNA expression of enzymes mediating the biosynthesis of eicosanoids, including cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1), but not 12/15-lipoxygenase (LOX), was upregulated in liver macrophages 3-24 h after LPS, with no effect on lung macrophages. However, COX-2 protein expression increased in both cell types. Loss of functional TLR4 significantly blunted the effects of LPS. Thus, no major changes were observed after LPS administration in the number of lung and liver macrophages recovered from TLR4 mutant mice, or on expression of PCNA. Increases in HO-1, MnSOD, COX-2 and PGES-1 mRNA expression in liver macrophages were also reduced in these mice. Conversely, in lung macrophages, loss of functional TLR4 resulted in increased expression of COX-2 protein and 12/15-LOX mRNA. These results demonstrate distinct lung and liver macrophage responses to acute endotoxemia are mediated, in part, by functional TLR4.

Reconstitution of the immune system after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in humans

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is associated with a severe immune deficiency. As a result, the patient is at high risk of infections. Innate immunity, including epithelial barriers, monocytes, granulocytes, and NK cells recovers within weeks after transplantation. By contrast, adaptive immunity recovers much slower. B- and T-cell counts normalize during the first months after transplantation, but in particular, T-cell immunity may remain impaired for years. During the last decade, much of the underlying mechanisms have been identified. These insights may provide new therapies to accelerate recovery.

Lung macrophages serve as obligatory intermediate between blood monocytes and alveolar macrophages

Alveolar macrophages are a unique type of mononuclear phagocytes that populate the external surface of the lung cavity. Early studies have suggested that alveolar macrophages originate from tissue-resident, local precursors, whereas others reported their derivation from blood-borne cells. However, the role of circulating monocytes as precursors of alveolar macrophages was never directly tested. In this study, we show through the combined use of conditional cell ablation and adoptive cell transfer that alveolar macrophages originate in vivo from blood monocytes. Interestingly, this process requires an obligate intermediate stage, the differentiation of blood monocytes into parenchymal lung macrophages, which subsequently migrate into the alveolar space. We also provide direct evidence for the ability of both lung and alveolar macrophages to proliferate.

Donor CD4+ T-cell production of tumor necrosis factor alpha significantly contributes to the early proinflammatory events of graft-versus-host disease

OBJECTIVE

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) is an old foe in allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (allo-BMT) promoting acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD). We investigated to what extent donor T cells contribute to TNFalpha production.

METHODS

Lethally irradiated B6D2F1 mice were transplanted with bone marrow (BM) and T cells from syngeneic B6D2F1 or allogeneic B6 donors and assessed for cytokine production, aGVHD, and survival.

RESULTS

Analysis of serum TNFalpha kinetics in recipients of allogeneic B6 wild-type BM and wild-type T cells revealed that TNFalpha levels peaked around day 7 after allo-BMT, whereas TNFalpha was undetectable in syngeneic controls. TNFalpha was produced by both host and donor cells. Further exploration showed that specifically donor CD4(+) but not CD8(+) T cells were the primary donor cell source of TNFalpha at this early time point; numbers of TNFalpha expressing splenic CD4(+) T cells were higher than CD8(+) T cells 7 days after allo-BMT, and maximal serum TNFalpha levels were detected following allo-BMT with only CD4(+) T cells compared to levels found in allogeneic recipients of only wild-type CD8(+) or to only CD4(+) TNFalpha(-/-) T cells. Concurrent with increased TNFalpha levels, early clinical aGVHD and mortality were more severe following allo-BMT with either wild-type CD4(+) and CD8(+) or CD4(+) T cells only.

CONCLUSION

Our data demonstrate that in addition to residual host cells donor CD4(+) T cells significantly contribute to the proinflammatory cytokine milieu engendered early after allo-BMT through the production of TNFalpha. These findings support strategies focusing on TNFalpha neutralization as primary treatment for aGVHD.

Macrophages in experimental rat lung isografts and allografts: infiltration and proliferation in situ

Alveolar macrophages (AMs) and peribronchial/perivascular macrophages are probably involved in lung allograft damage. We investigate leukocyte infiltration into graft tissue and address the question whether proliferation in situ contributes to macrophage homeostasis and accumulation. Lung transplantation was performed in the Lewis (LEW)-to-LEW and in the Dark Agouti-to-LEW rat strain combination. Graft infiltration by ED1+ and ED2+ (CD163) macrophages was analyzed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) and compared with infiltration by lymphocytes. Cells in the S-phase of the cell cycle were pulse-labeled with BrdU and detected immunohistochemically. Finally, the donor or recipient origin of AMs was determined by IHC and in situ hybridization. ED1+ AMs in allogeneic transplants increased by more than 25-fold from Days 1 to 5. In addition, large, peribronchial/perivascular infiltrates developed containing numerous ED1+ cells. Although AMs in normal rat lungs are CD163-, AMs up-regulated CD163 between Days 4 and 5, reaching maximum values on Day 6. Lymphocytes were less numerous than macrophages. About 16% of the AMs and 10% of the peribronchial/perivascular macrophages were in the S-phase of the cell cycle on Day 2 post-transplantation. No differences in the frequency of BrdU+ macrophages were obvious between isografts and allografts. AMs of donor origin increased in number considerably during allograft rejection. In conclusion, the cellular infiltrate in lung allografts is dominated by macrophages, which exhibit an unusual phenotype and a strong capacity for mitotic self-renewal.

Monocyte and macrophage heterogeneity

Heterogeneity of the macrophage lineage has long been recognized and, in part, is a result of the specialization of tissue macrophages in particular microenvironments. Circulating monocytes give rise to mature macrophages and are also heterogeneous themselves, although the physiological relevance of this is not completely understood. However, as we discuss here, recent studies have shown that monocyte heterogeneity is conserved in humans and mice, allowing dissection of its functional relevance: the different monocyte subsets seem to reflect developmental stages with distinct physiological roles, such as recruitment to inflammatory lesions or entry to normal tissues. These advances in our understanding have implications for the development of therapeutic strategies that are targeted to modify particular subpopulations of monocytes.

Optimal timing to repopulation of resident alveolar macrophages with donor cells following total body irradiation and bone marrow transplantation in mice

To determine the time required to repopulate mouse lungs with donor alveolar macrophages following total body irradiation (TBI) and bone marrow transplantation (BMT), C57Bl/6 mice were subjected to TBI with 900 cGy, followed by transplantation of bone marrow cells from mice expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) in their somatic cells. The mice were euthanized at either 30 (n=5), 60 (n=5) or 90 (n=5) days following BMT. Thirty days following transplantation, 87.8 +/- 3.9% (mean +/- S.E.M.) circulating leukocytes in recipient mice were derived from the donor, as determined by fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis for GFP. However, only 46.9 +/- 7.4% of the resident alveolar cells expressed GFP, indicating incomplete repopulation. By day 60 post-transplantation, the percentage of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) cells expressing GFP reached 74.5 +/- 2.4%, remaining stable 90 days after transplantation (80.4 +/- 1.9%). We conclude that 60 days after TBI with 900 cGy and bone marrow transplantation, the majority of the lung resident alveolar macrophages is of donor origin. This study provides useful information regarding the time of reconstitution with donor alveolar macrophages in the pulmonary airspaces of recipient mice following marrow transplantation.

Severe pulmonary hypertension: a frequent complication of stem cell transplantation for malignant infantile osteopetrosis

This report describes eight infants who developed acute severe pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) at days -2 to +89 after allogeneic stem cell transplantation (SCT) for malignant infantile osteopetrosis (MIOP). They were taken from a total of 28 children (frequency 29%) transplanted for this disease at three institutions between 1996 and 2002. Typical presentations were acute dyspnoea, hypoxia and brady/tachycardia usually in the absence of fever, crepitations or other evidence of infection. Six patients (75%) required assisted ventilation and five (62%) died. There was clinical or pathological evidence of veno-occlusive disease (VOD) in three children, but absence of VOD in the remaining five suggests that a separate disease process may be responsible for the PAH. Responses to nitric oxide (NO), defibrotide (DF), nicardipine and steroids in varying combinations were disappointing. Three children showed sustained improvement after administration of epoprostenol (EP, prostacyclin) in conjunction with NO and/or DF and remain well and free of PAH 25, 31 and 32 months post-transplant. PAH must therefore be excluded in any child who becomes acutely breathless after SCT for osteopetrosis.

Functional heterogeneity of colony-stimulating factor-induced human monocyte-derived macrophages

Macrophages have various functions and play a critical role in host defense and the maintenance of homeostasis. However, macrophages are heterogeneous and exhibit a wide range of phenotypes with regard to their morphology, cell surface antigen expression, and function. When blood monocytes are cultured in medium alone in vitro, monocytes die, and colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) such as macrophage (M)-CSF or granulocyte-macrophage (GM)-CSF are necessary for their survival and differentiation into macrophages. However, M-CSF-induced monocyte-derived macrophages (M-Mphi) and GM-CSF-induced monocyte-derived macrophages (GM-Mphi) are distinct in their morphology, cell surface antigen expression, and functions, including Fcgamma receptor mediated-phagocytosis, H2O2 production, H2O2 sensitivity, catalase activity, susceptibility to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and suppressor activity. The characteristics of GM-Mphi resemble those of human alveolar macrophages.