Carbon monoxide-releasing molecule-2 (CORM-2) attenuates acute hepatic ischemia reperfusion injury in rats

Controlled therapeutic delivery of CO from carbon monoxide-releasing molecules (CORMs)

Carbon monoxide (CO) has been regarded as a "silent killer" for its toxicity toward biological systems. However, a low concentration of endogenously produced CO has shown a number of therapeutic benefits such as anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative, anti-apoptosis, and cytoprotective activities. Carbon monoxide-releasing molecules (CORMs) have been developed as alternatives to direct CO inhalation, which requires a specialized setting for strict dose control. CORMs are efficient CO donors, with central transition metals (such as ruthenium, iron, cobalt, and manganese) surrounded by CO as a ligand. CORMs can stably store and subsequently release their CO payload in the presence of certain triggers including solvent, light, temperature, and ligand substitution. However, CORMs require appropriate delivery strategies to improve short CO release half-life and target specificity. Herein, we highlighted the therapeutic potential of inhalation and CORMs-delivered CO. The applications of conjugate and nanocarrier systems for controlling CO release and improving therapeutic efficacy of CORMs are also described in detail. The review concludes with some of the hurdles that limit clinical translation of CORMs. Keeping in mind the tremendous potential and growing interest in CORMs, this review would be helpful for designing controlled CO release systems for clinical applications.

Targeting the Hepatic Microenvironment to Improve Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury: New Insights into the Immune and Metabolic Compartments

Hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) is mainly characterized by high activation of immune inflammatory responses and metabolic responses. Understanding the molecular and metabolic mechanisms underlying development of hepatic IRI is critical for developing effective therapies for hepatic IRI. Recent advances in research have improved our understanding of the pathogenesis of IRI. During IRI, hepatocyte injury and inflammatory responses are mediated by crosstalk between the immune cells and metabolic components. This crosstalk can be targeted to treat or reverse hepatic IRI. Thus, a deep understanding of hepatic microenvironment, especially the immune and metabolic responses, can reveal new therapeutic opportunities for hepatic IRI. In this review, we describe important cells in the liver microenvironment (especially non-parenchymal cells) that regulate immune inflammatory responses. The role of metabolic components in the diagnosis and prevention of hepatic IRI are discussed. Furthermore, recent updated therapeutic strategies based on the hepatic microenvironment, including immune cells and metabolic components, are highlighted.

Hydrophilic CO-Releasing Material of PEGlyated Ruthenium Carbonyl Complex

The poor water-solubility and instability of Ru(II) carbonyl complex hamper the therapeutic application as CO releasing materials (CO-RMs). To enhance the hydrophilicity and bio-utility of CO, a robust Ru(I) carbonyl sawhorse skeleton was grafted with water-soluble PEGylated sidearm. In this case, 12 PEGylated sawhorse Ru₂(CO)₄ complexes were prepared with satisfactory yields and characterized by IR and ¹H- and ¹³C- NMR. X-ray diffraction analysis of CO-RM 8, 13 and 14 revealed the featured diruthenium sawhorse skeleton and PEGylated axial ligands. The flask-shaking method measures the water-solubility of CO-RMs, indicating that both bridging carboxylate ligands and PEGlyated axial ligands regulate the hydrophilicity of these CO-RMs. Under photolysis conditions, CO-RM 4–13 sustainable released therapeutic amounts of CO in the myoglobin assay. The correlation of the CO release kinetics and hydrophilicity of CO-RMs demonstrated that the more hydrophilic CO-RM released CO faster. The biological test found that the low cytotoxic CO-RM 4 showed a specific anticancer activity toward HT-29 tumour cells.

Hepatoprotective Effect of Actinidia deliciosa against Streptozotocin-Induced Oxidative Stress, Apoptosis, and Inflammations in Rats

The present research intended to assess the possible protective and hypoglycemic effect of Actinidia deliciosa fruit aqueous extract (ADAE) in diabetic rats. The scavenging antioxidant capabilities of ADAE were evaluated using GC-MS analysis. In addition, rats were divided into four groups: control, ADAE, streptozotocin-induced DM (STZ), and STZ-treated rats + ADAE in an in vivo investigation. GC-MS analysis of ADAE was shown to include major components with high total phenolic contents and high DPPH scavenging activity. In diabetic rats, significant elevation in blood glucose level, lipid peroxidation, bilirubin, and lactate dehydrogenase activity as well as a change in lipid profile was observed, while insulin, body and liver weights, enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants, liver function biomarkers, and protein content were significantly decreased. Furthermore, changes in the expression of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR-γ), apoptotic, and inflammation-related genes were found. In addition, histological differences in rat liver tissue architecture were discovered, corroborating the biochemical modifications. However, consuming ADAE alone reduced lipid peroxidation and improved antioxidant status. Furthermore, diabetic rats given ADAE showed significant reductions in oxidative stress indicators and biochemical parameters, as well as improved tissue structure, when compared to the diabetic rats’ group. Also, ADAE supplementation protects diabetic rats’ hepatic tissue by upregulating PPAR-γ and downregulating apoptotic and inflammatory-related gene expression. In conclusion, A. deliciosa has beneficial protective effects so, it might be used as a complementary therapy in diabetes mellitus.

Protective effects of di- and tri-peptides containing proline, glycine, and leucine on liver enzymology and histopathology of diabetic mice

CONTEXT

Small peptides as multifunctional biomolecules can prevent the metabolic disorders such as diabetes.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of small peptides on the enzymes and histopathology of the liver in mice exposed to diabetes.

METHODS

Di- and tri-peptides containing proline, glycine, and leucine were produced by solid phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) protocol. The effects of produced peptides as well as carnosine (Ala-His) and glutathione (Glu-Cys-Gly) were evaluated on hepatic enzymes activity by enzymatic method and histopathology of liver using hematoxylin and eosin and TUNEL staining to assess histologic changes and apoptosis in diabetes induced by multiple low doses of streptozotocin (MLDS).

RESULTS

The Ala-His, Leu-Gly and Pro-Gly-Pro peptides had the higher protective effects against the effects of diabetes on the enzymes and histologic changes of liver in mice.

CONCLUSION

These peptides can be raised as considerable pharmaceutical preventive agent against diabetes development.

Protective mechanisms of telmisartan against hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats may involve PPARγ-induced TLR4/NF-κB suppression

Hepatic ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) is an important cause of liver damage in many clinical situations. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) is an inflammatory pathway activated in hepatic I/R injury. Telmisartan, a selective angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonist and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARγ) partial agonist, can inhibit the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The present work investigated the possible protective effect of telmisartan against hepatic I/R injury and explored its possible mechanisms in rats. Rats were divided into four equal groups: sham-operated control, telmisartan-treated sham-operated control, I/R untreated, and I/R telmisartan-treated groups. Hepatic injury was evaluated biochemically by serum activity of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and histopathological examination. Hepatic oxidative stress biomarkers, myeloperoxidase level, PPARγ and TLR4 mRNA expression, and NF-κB and active caspase 3 immunoexpression were determined. The study showed that telmisartan attenuated hepatic I/R, as evidenced by decreased serum ALT and AST activities and confirmed by improvement of the histopathological changes. The protective effect of telmisartan was associated with modulation of oxidative stress parameters, myeloperoxidase level, PPARγ and TLR4 mRNA expression, and NF-κB and caspase 3 immunoexpression. Taken together, the current study showed that telmisartan could protect the rat liver from I/R injury. This hepatoprotective effect was attributed to, at least in part, increase in PPARγ expression and suppression of TLR4/NF-κB pathway.

Carbon Monoxide Releasing Molecule A1 Reduces Myocardial Damage After Acute Myocardial Infarction in a Porcine Model

ABSTRACT

Infarct size is a major determinant of outcomes after acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Carbon monoxide-releasing molecules (CORMs), which deliver nanomolar concentrations of carbon monoxide to tissues, have been shown to reduce infarct size in rodents. We evaluated efficacy and safety of CORM-A1 to reduce infarct size in a clinically relevant porcine model of AMI. We induced AMI in Yorkshire White pigs by inflating a coronary angioplasty balloon to completely occlude the left anterior descending artery for 60 minutes, followed by deflation of the balloon to mimic reperfusion. Fifteen minutes after balloon occlusion, animals were given an infusion of 4.27 mM CORM-A1 (n = 7) or sodium borate control (n = 6) over 60 minutes. Infarct size, cardiac biomarkers, ejection fraction, and hepatic and renal function were compared amongst the groups. Immunohistochemical analyses were performed to compare inflammation, cell proliferation, and apoptosis between the groups. CORM-A1-treated animals had significant reduction in absolute infarct area (158 ± 16 vs. 510 ± 91 mm2, P < 0.001) and infarct area corrected for area at risk (24.8% ± 2.6% vs. 45.2% ± 4.0%, P < 0.0001). Biochemical markers of myocardial injury also tended to be lower and left ventricular function tended to recover better in the CORM-A1 treated group. There was no evidence of hepatic or renal toxicity with the doses used. The cardioprotective effects of CORM-A1 were associated with a significant reduction in cell proliferation and inflammation. CORM-A1 reduces infarct size and improves left ventricular remodeling and function in a porcine model of reperfused MI by a reduction in inflammation. These potential cardioprotective effects of CORMs warrant further translational investigations.

The Protective Role of the Heme Catabolic Pathway in Hepatic Disorders

Significance: As the central metabolic organ, the liver is exposed to a variety of potentially cytotoxic, proinflammatory, profibrotic, and carcinogenic stimuli. To protect the organism from these deleterious effects, the liver has evolved a number of defense systems, which include antioxidant substrates and enzymes, anti-inflammatory tools, enzymatic biotransformation systems, and metabolic pathways. Recent Advances: One of the pivotal systems that evolved during phylogenesis was the heme catabolic pathway. Comprising the important enzymes heme oxygenase and biliverdin reductase, this complex pathway has a number of key functions including enzymatic activities, but also cell signaling, and DNA transcription. It further generates two important bile pigments, biliverdin and bilirubin, as well as the gaseous molecule carbon monoxide. These heme degradation products have potent antioxidant, immunosuppressive, and cytoprotective effects. Recent data suggest that the pathway participates in the regulation of metabolic and hormonal processes implicated in the pathogenesis of hepatic and other diseases. Critical Issues: This review discusses the impact of the heme catabolic pathway on major liver diseases, with particular focus on the involvement of cellular targeting and signaling in the pathogenesis of these conditions. Future Directions: To utilize the biological consequences of the heme catabolic pathway, several unique therapeutic strategies have been developed. Research indicates that pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and lifestyle modifications positively affect the pathway, delivering potentially long-term clinical benefits. However, further well-designed studies are needed to confirm the clinical benefits of these approaches. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 35, 734-752.

The Diverse Roles of Heme Oxygenase-1 in Tumor Progression

Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is an inducible intracellular enzyme that is expressed in response to a variety of stimuli to degrade heme, which generates the biologically active catabolites carbon monoxide (CO), biliverdin and ferrous iron (Fe²⁺). HO-1 is expressed across a range of cancers and has been demonstrated to promote tumor progression through a variety of mechanisms. HO-1 can be expressed in a variety of cells within the tumor microenvironment (TME), including both the malignant tumor cells as well as stromal cell populations such as macrophages, dendritic cells and regulatory T-cells. Intrinsically to the cell, HO-1 activity provides antioxidant, anti-apoptotic and cytoprotective effects via its catabolites as well as clearing toxic intracellular heme. However, the catabolites of heme degradation can also diffuse outside of the cell to extrinsically modulate the wider TME, influencing cellular functionality and biological processes which promote tumor progression, such as facilitating angiogenesis and metastasis, as well as promoting anti-inflammation and immune suppression. Pharmacological inhibition of HO-1 has been demonstrated to be a promising therapeutic approach to promote anti-tumor immune responses and inhibit metastasis. However, these biological functions might be context, TME and cell type-dependent as there is also conflicting reports for HO-1 activity facilitating anti-tumoral processes. This review will consider our current understanding of the role of HO-1 in cancer progression and as a therapeutic target in cancer.

Does Short-Term and Low-Dose N-Acetylcysteine Affect Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in The Liver Tissues of Diabetic Rats?

Diabetes mellitus is a serious chronic disease in which the oxidant-antioxidant balance is impaired, causing many complications, including hepatopathy. In this study, the effects of short-term and low-dose N-acetylcysteine (NAC) administration on the biochemical, proinflammatory, and oxidative stress parameters in the liver tissue of diabetic rats were investigated. Twenty-four adult male Wistar albino rats weighing approximately 250-300 g were divided into 4 groups (n = 6): Control, Streptozotosin (STZ)-induced diabetes (DM), NAC treatment (60 mg/kg), and STZ-induced diabetes treated with NAC (DM+NAC; 60 mg/kg). NAC treatment was administered intraperitoneally as a single daily dose for 7 days. At the end of the experiment (3 weeks), blood and liver samples were collected for biochemical parameter analysis. Lipid peroxidation, antioxidant parameters, and nitric oxide (NOx) levels were determined by spectrophotometric method. Tissue inflammation parameters were evaluated by ELISA. Lipid peroxidation, proinflammatory cytokines, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) values increased significantly with diabetes. NAC treatment significantly decreased serum ALT and AST levels and proinflammatory cytokines in the diabetic group. Liver glutathione (GSH) and NOx levels increased significantly in the DM+NAC group (p < 0.05). While NAC treatment reduced lipid peroxidation in the liver, it improved the inflammatory response and antioxidant status. The beneficial effect of NAC treatment may be due to its antioxidant activity and the resulting increased level of GSH. The results show that low-dose and short-term NAC treatment had a positive effect on oxidative damage and inflammation in liver tissue. NAC can be used as a potential antioxidant in diabetes to prevent hepatopathy.

Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor Blockade Reduces Preservation Damage in Livers from Donors after Cardiac Death

We previously demonstrated that the blockade of mGluR5 by 2-methyl-6(phenylethynyl)pyridine (MPEP) reduces both cold and warm ischemia/reperfusion injury. Here we evaluated whether MPEP reduces the hepatic preservation injury in rat livers from cardiac-death-donors (DCDs). Livers from DCD rats were isolated after an in situ warm ischemia (30 min) and preserved for 22 h at 4 °C with UW solution. Next, 10 mg/Kg MPEP or vehicle were administered 30 min before the portal clamping and added to the UW solution (3 µM). LDH released during washout was quantified. Liver samples were collected for iNOS, eNOS, NO, TNF-α, ICAM-1, caspase-3 and caspase-9 protein expression and nuclear factor-erythroid-2-related factor-2 (Nrf2) gene analysis. Lower LDH levels were detected in control grafts versus DCD groups. An increase in eNOS and NO content occurred after MPEP treatment; iNOS and TNF-α content was unchanged. ICAM-1 expression was reduced in the MPEP-treated livers as well as the levels of caspase-3 and caspase-9. Nrf2, oxidative stress-sensitive gene, was recovered to control value by MPEP. These results suggest that MPEP can be used to reclaim DCD livers subjected to an additional period of cold ischemia during hypothermic storage. MPEP protects against apoptosis and increased eNOS, whose overexpression has been previously demonstrated to be protective in hepatic ischemia/reperfusion damage.

CORM-2-entrapped ultradeformable liposomes ameliorate acute skin inflammation in an ear edema model via effective CO delivery

The short release half-life of carbon monoxide (CO) is a major obstacle to the effective therapeutic use of carbon monoxide-releasing molecule-2 (CORM-2). The potential of CORM-2-entrapped ultradeformable liposomes (CORM-2-UDLs) to enhance the release half-life of CO and alleviate skin inflammation was investigated in the present study. CORM-2-UDLs were prepared by using soy phosphatidylcholine to form lipid bilayers and Tween 80 as an edge activator. The deformability of CORM-2-UDLs was measured and compared with that of conventional liposomes by passing formulations through a filter device at a constant pressure. The release profile of CO from CORM-2-UDLs was evaluated by myoglobin assay. In vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory effects of CORM-2-UDLs were assessed in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages and TPA-induced ear edema model, respectively. The deformability of the optimized CORM-2-UDLs was 2.3 times higher than conventional liposomes. CORM-2-UDLs significantly prolonged the release half-life of CO from 30 s in a CORM-2 solution to 21.6 min. CORM-2-UDLs demonstrated in vitro anti-inflammatory activity by decreasing nitrite production and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels. Furthermore, CORM-2-UDLs successfully ameliorated skin inflammation by reducing ear edema, pathological scores, neutrophil accumulation, and inflammatory cytokines expression. The results demonstrate that CORM-2-UDLs could be used as promising therapeutics against acute skin inflammation.

Rationale for ozone-therapy as an adjuvant therapy in COVID-19: a narrative review

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is the respiratory disease caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 and is characterized by clinical manifestations ranging from mild, flu-like symptoms to severe respiratory insufficiency and multi-organ failure. Patients with more severe symptoms may require intensive care treatments and face a high mortality risk. Also, thrombotic complications such as pulmonary embolisms and disseminated intravascular coagulation are frequent in these patients. Indeed, COVID-19 is characterized by an abnormal inflammatory response resembling a cytokine storm, which is associated to endothelial dysfunction and microvascular complications. To date, no specific treatments are available for COVID-19 and its life-threatening complication. Immunomodulatory drugs, such as hydroxychloroquine and interleukin-6 inhibitors, as well as antithrombotic drugs such as heparin and low molecular weight heparin, are currently being administered with some benefit. Ozone therapy consists in the administration of a mixture of ozone and oxygen, called medical ozone, which has been used for over a century as an unconventional medicine practice for several diseases. Medical ozone rationale in COVID-19 is the possibility of contrasting endothelial dysfunction, modulating the immune response and acting as a virustatic agent. Thus, medical ozone could help to decrease lung inflammation, slow down viral growth, regulate lung circulation and oxygenation and prevent microvascular thrombosis. Ozone-therapy could be considered a feasible, cost-effective and easy to administer adjuvant therapy while waiting for the synthesis of a therapy or the development of the vaccine.

Novel Role of Carbon Monoxide in Improving Neurological Outcome After Cardiac Arrest in Aged Rats: Involvement of Inducing Mitochondrial Autophagy

Background

Dysfunctional mitochondria are associated with neurological injury after cardiac arrest (CA). Although carbon monoxide (CO) has shown various potential therapeutic effects in preclinical tissue injury models, its mechanism of action in CA remains unclear. We sought to investigate the effects of a novel CO‐releasing molecule on cerebral mitochondrial dysfunction and neurological injury after CA.

Methods and Results

Male Sprague‐Dawley rats aged 20 to 22 months were subjected to 6‐minute asphyxia CA before receiving CO treatment. Survival, neurologic deficit scores, neuronal death, mitochondrial function, and autophagy were evaluated after the return of spontaneous circulation. Results showed that CO post‐treatment increased 3‐day survival rate from 25% to 70.83% and reduced neurologic deficit scores. CO also ameliorated CA‐induced neuronal apoptosis and necrosis in the cerebral cortex and improved cerebral mitochondrial function by reducing reactive oxygen species, reversing mitochondrial membrane potential depolarization, and preventing cytochrome C release. Furthermore, CO increased mitochondrial autophagy by inducing mitochondrial accumulation of PINK1 (PTEN‐induced putative kinase 1) and Parkin. Downregulation of PINK1 with genetic silencing siRNA abolished CO‐afforded mitochondrial autophagy.

Conclusions

Taken together, our results indicate, for the first time, that CO treatment confers neuroprotection against ischemic neurological injury after CA possibly by promoting mitochondrial autophagy.

Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima) seeds protect against formaldehyde-induced major organ damages

Exposures to hazardous chemicals including formaldehyde are harmful to human health. In this study, the authors investigate the protective effects of pumpkin seed oil (PSO) extract against formaldehyde-induced major organ damages in mice. Administration of formaldehyde (FA) caused significant elevation of serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT), serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT), serum creatinine, etc. Histopathological examinations of liver, kidney, and brain tissues showed the degenerations of those organs. Mice pretreated with PSO extract significantly attenuated the FA-induced elevation of SGOT (39.0 ± 1.30 vs 20.5 ± 0.65 IU/L; FA-group vs PSO treatment group), SGPT (91.8 ± 1.65 vs 51.0 ± 1.29 IU/L), serum creatinine (1.05 ± 0.07 vs 0.65 ± 0.07 IU/L), and preserved the normal histology of organ tissues. The FA-induced elevation of malondialdehyde (MDA) in the brain, liver, and kidneys was suppressed by pretreatment with PSO extract. The extract also attenuated the FA-induced reduction of endogenous antioxidant pools. In vitro phytochemical analyses showed that PSO extract possesses free radical scavenging and total antioxidant activities due to the presence of phenolic and flavonoid compounds. Thus, PSO extract has significant protective effects against FA-induced organ toxicities by scavenging oxidative stress and inhibiting lipid peroxidation.

The Protective Effects of Carbon Monoxide Against Hepatic Warm Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in MHC-Inbred Miniature Swine

BACKGROUND

The development of treatment strategies to protect against ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) to livers is important not only for liver surgeries but also in regard to increasing the utilization of livers from marginal donors. In this study, we examined whether inhalational carbon monoxide (CO) therapy reduced IRI after a 45-min (min) warm ischemia (WI) in a miniature swine model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Six CLAWN miniature swine underwent a 45-min hepatic WI induced by clamping the portal vein and proper hepatic artery. Three animals were subjected to control conditions while the remaining three were treated with CO inhalation for a total of 345-min, including 120-min after reperfusion to maintain a concentration of CO-Hb under 15% (CO-treated group). IRI of the livers was evaluated by liver function tests, serum pro-inflammatory cytokines, and liver biopsies.

RESULTS

All controls had statistically significant increased levels of liver enzymes compared to the CO-treated group (p < 0.05). In controls, liver biopsies at 2 h after reperfusion showed marked histological changes including diffuse hemorrhage, congestion, necrosis, vacuolization, and neutrophil infiltration with apoptosis. In contrast, the CO-treated group showed less obvious or only minimal histological changes. Furthermore, increases in high-mobility group box 1, TNF-α, and IL-6 in sera that were induced by IRI in controls were markedly inhibited by the CO treatment.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated that low-dose CO inhalation reduces hepatic warm IRI, potentially through downregulation of pro-inflammatory mediators and activation of anti-apoptotic pathways. To our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating CO inhalation attenuated hepatic IRI following WI in a large animal model.

The hepatoprotective effect of sitagliptin against hepatic ischemia reperfusion-induced injury in rats involves Nrf-2/HO-1 pathway

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress and inflammation play a key role in the development of hepatic ischemia reperfusion (HIR)-induced injury. Nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor-2 (Nrf-2) is a main regulator of numerous genes, encoding cytoprotective molecules including heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Sitagliptin (Sit) is an incretin enhancer acting via inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) enzyme. This study was undertaken to investigate the ability of Sit to prevent the hepatic pathological changes of HIR induced injury and to modify Nrf-2 and its target HO-1.

METHODS

Pringle's maneuver was used to induce total HIR in adult male rats that were randomly assigned into 4 groups. Group1 (sham-operated control), Group 2 (sham-operated + Sit-control group), Group 3 (HIR non-treated), and Group 4 (HIR + Sit). Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities together with hepatic contents of malondialdhyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO) and reduced glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity were evaluated. Hepatic tissue mRNA of Nrf-2 and protein content of HO-1 along with histopathological examination and scoring of hepatic injury were performed.

RESULTS

Sit caused a significant reduction in ALT and AST activities together with attenuation of HIR-induced histopathological liver injury. Effect of Sit was associated with decreased hepatic level of MDA and NO with increased GSH level and SOD activity. Non-treated rats with HIR showed an increase in Nrf-2 mRNA expression and HO-1 content in hepatic tissue which was further increased by Sit treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that hepatoprotective activity of Sit against HIR is attributed at least in part to modulation of Nrf-2/ HO-1 signaling pathway.

Modulation of oxidative–nitrosative stress and inflammatory response by rapamycin in target and distant organs in rats exposed to hindlimb ischemia–reperfusion: the role of mammalian target of rapamycin

Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) has been recognized with potential immunomodulatory properties playing an important role in various physiopathological processes including ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) injury. I/R injury stimulate reactive oxygen and nitrogen species by activating nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase and inducible nitric oxide synthase, respectively. Controversial results have been obtained in different I/R models following localized I/R; however, the precise role of the mTOR signaling pathway remains undefined. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the role of the mTOR in oxidative–nitrosative stress and inflammation in hindlimb I/R-induced injury in target and remote organ injuries. In rats subjected to I/R, an increased expression of ribosomal protein S6 (rpS6), inhibitor κB (IκB)-α, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65, inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase 2, gp91phox, and levels of tumor necrosis factor α, nitrite, nitrotyrosine, malondialdehyde and the activities of myeloperoxidase and catalase in the tissues and (or) sera were detected. Treatment with rapamycin, a selective inhibitor of mTOR, reversed all the I/R-induced changes as manifested by its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in kidney and gastrocnemius muscle of rats. Collectively, these findings suggest that rapamycin protects against I/R-induced oxidative–nitrosative stress and inflammation leading to organ injuries via suppression of mTOR/IκB-α/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Carbon monoxide ameliorates acetaminophen-induced liver injury by increasing hepatic HO-1 and Parkin expression

Acetaminophen (APAP) is widely used as an antifebrile and analgesic drug at recommended doses, whereas an overdose of APAP can cause severe liver damage. The molecular mechanisms underlying APAP-induced liver damage remain incompletely understood. Carbon monoxide (CO), an end-product of heme oxygenase (HO)-1 activity, can confer anti-inflammatory and antiapoptotic properties in cellular models of toxicity via regulation of mitochondrial function. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of CO on APAP-induced hepatotoxicity and CO's relationship to regulation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and mitochondrial signaling using CO-releasing molecules or low concentrations of CO applied as pretreatment or posttreatment. Using genetic deletion or knockdown approaches in alpha mouse liver cells or primary hepatocytes, respectively, we investigated the role of HO-1 and the mitophagy regulator protein Parkin on APAP-induced expression of the ER stress-associated apoptosis regulator cytosine-cytosine-adenosine-adenosine-thymidine (CCAAT)/enhancer-binding protein homologous protein (CHOP). We found that CO induced Parkin expression in hepatocytes via the protein kinase RNA-like ER kinase/eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2-α/activating transcription factor-4 signaling pathway. Additionally, CO gas inhalation significantly alleviated APAP-induced liver damage in vivo and correspondingly reduced serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase levels as well as proinflammatory cytokines and reduced the expression of CHOP in liver tissues while dramatically increasing hepatic HO-1 and Parkin expression. We found that the protective effects of CO on APAP-induced liver damage were mediated by down-regulation of CHOP at a transcriptional and post-translational level via induction of HO-1 and Parkin, respectively, and associated with decreases in reactive oxygen species production and JNK phosphorylation. We conclude that CO may represent a promising therapeutic agent for APAP-induced liver injury.-Chen, Y., Park, H.-J., Park, J., Song, H.-C., Ryter, S. W., Surh, Y.-J., Kim, U.-H., Joe, Y., Chung, H. T. Carbon monoxide ameliorates acetaminophen-induced liver injury by increasing hepatic HO-1 and Parkin expression.

Cellular and molecular approaches to enhance myocardial recovery after myocardial infarction

Reperfusion therapy has resulted in significant improvement in post-myocardial infarction morbidity and mortality in over the last 4 decades. Nonetheless, it is well recognized that simply restoring patency of the epicardial artery may not stop or reverse damage at microvascular level, and myocardial salvage is often suboptimal. Numerous efforts have been undertaken to elucidate the mechanisms underlying extensive myonecrosis to facilitate the discovery of therapies to provide additional and incremental benefits over current therapeutic pathways. To date, conclusively effective strategies to promote myocardial recovery have not yet been established. Novel approaches are investigating the foundational cellular and molecular bases of myocardial ischemia and irreversible injury. Herein, we review the emerging concepts and proposed therapies that may improve myocardial protection and reduce infarct size. We examine the preclinical and clinical evidence for reduced infarct size with these strategies, including anti-inflammatory agents, intracellular ion channel modulators, agents affecting the reperfusion injury salvage kinase (RISK) and nitric oxide signaling pathways, modulators of mitochondrial function, anti-apoptotic agents, and stem cell and gene therapy. We review the potential reasons of failures to date and the potential for new strategies to further promote myocardial recovery and improve prognosis.

Carbon Monoxide Ameliorates 6-Hydroxydopamine-Induced Cell Death in C6 Glioma Cells

Carbon monoxide (CO) is well-known as toxic gas and intrinsic signaling molecule such as neurotransmitter and blood vessel relaxant. Recently, it has been reported that low concentration of CO exerts therapeutic actions under various pathological conditions including liver failure, heart failure, gastric cancer, and cardiac arrest. However, little has been known about the effect of CO in neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's disease (PD). To test whether CO could exert a beneficial action during oxidative cell death in PD, we examined the effects of CO on 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced cell death in C6 glioma cells. Treatment of CO-releasing molecule-2 (CORM-2) significantly attenuated 6-OHDA-induced apoptotic cell death in a dose-dependent manner. CORM-2 treatment decreased Bax/Bcl2 ratio and caspase-3 activity, which had been increased by 6-OHDA. CORM-2 increased phosphorylation of NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) which is a transcription factor regulating antioxidant proteins. Subsequently, CORM-2 also increased the expression of heme oxygenase-1 and superoxide dismutases (CuZnSOD and MnSOD), which were antioxidant enzymes regulated by Nrf2. These results suggest that CO released by CORM-2 treatment may have protective effects against oxidative cell death in PD through the potentiation of cellular adaptive survival responses via activation of Nrf2 and upregulation of heme oxygenase-1, leading to increasing antioxidant defense capacity.

Role of mitofusin 2 in the protective effect of breviscapine against hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of breviscapine injection on hepatic ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in rats. To explore the relevance and discuss the underlying mechanism of mitofusin 2 (Mfn2) in hepatic I/R injury, 40 Sprague-Dawley male rats were randomly and equally divided into five groups (n=8 per group) as follows: Sham, I/R + normal saline 1 (NS1), I/R + breviscapine 1 (Bre1), I/R + NS2 and I/R + Bre2 groups. Groups 1 and 2 represented ischemia for 20 and 60 min, respectively. Breviscapine or normal saline was injected via the tail vein (single dose of 10 mg/kg) 1 h prior to surgery and immediately postoperatively. The classical model of hepatic I/R injury was used in the present study. The blood and liver samples of different groups were collected following reperfusion to observe serum transaminases and histopathological changes. Alterations in Mfn2, cytosolic cytochrome c and cleaved caspase-3 were additionally assessed. The results demonstrated that breviscapine improved liver function, based on histopathological analysis, and decreased levels of the liver enzymes aspartate and alanine aminotransferase in the I/R + Bre groups compared with the I/R + NS group (P<0.05). The expression of Mfn2 was significantly increased in the I/R + Bre groups (P<0.05), whereas the expression of caspase-3 and cytosolic cytochrome c protein was decreased in the I/R + Bre groups (P<0.05) compared with the I/R + NS group. These data provided substantial evidence that breviscapine treatment exerted a protective effect against damage induced by hepatic I/R. This protective effect was possibly due to its ability to inhibit I/R-induced apoptosis and promote the expression of Mfn2.

DADLE improves hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury in mice via activation of the Nrf2/HO‑1 pathway

Hepatic ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is a common pathophysiological process that occurs following liver surgery, which is associated with oxidative stress, and can cause acute liver injury and lead to liver failure. Recently, the development of drugs for the prevention of hepatic I/R injury has garnered interest in the field of liver protection research. Previous studies have demonstrated that [D‑Ala2, D‑Leu5]‑Enkephalin (DADLE) exerts protective effects against hepatic I/R injury. To further clarify the specific mechanism underlying the effects of DADLE on hepatic I/R injury, the present study aimed to observe the effects of various doses of DADLE on hepatic I/R injury in mice. The results indicated that DADLE, at a concentration of 5 mg/kg, significantly reduced the levels of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase in the serum, and the levels of malondialdehyde in the liver homogenate. Conversely, the levels of glutathione, catalase and superoxide dismutase in the liver homogenate were increased. In addition, DADLE was able to promote nuclear factor, erythroid 2 like 2 (Nrf2) nuclear translocation and upregulate the expression of heme oxygenase (HO)‑1, which is a factor downstream of Nrf2, thus improving hepatic I/R injury in mice. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that DADLE was able to significantly improve hepatic I/R injury in mice, and the specific mechanism may be associated with the Nrf2/HO‑1 signaling pathway.

Effect of melatonin versus vitamin D as antioxidant and Hepatoprotective agents in STZ-induced diabetic rats

Background

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a serious chronic disease, with multiple complications including hepatopathy associated with imbalance of the oxidative status. The purpose of this study is to observe possible protective effects of vitamin-D and melatonin on glucose profile, antioxidant-oxidant status, lipid peroxidation, and histopathological protection of the liver in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.

Methods

Eighty three male albino rats were divided into nine groups as follows: G1 (n = 10) Normal control rats; G2 (n = 8) were normal rats treated with melatonin only; G3 (n = 10) were normal rats treated with vitamin D only; G4 (n = 9) were diabetic rats, which received no medications; G5 (n = 8) were diabetic rat treated with insulin only; G6 (n = 10) were diabetic rats treated with melatonin only; G7 (n = 9) were diabetic rats treated with melatonin and insulin; G8 (n = 9) were diabetic rats treated with vitamin D only; G9 (n = 10) were diabetic rats treated with vitamin D and insulin. Two months post treatment, blood was collected to measure: Fasting blood sugar (FBS), glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), fructosamine (FA), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), malondialdahyde (MDA). livers were isolated for histopathological study.

Results

As compared to normal rats, our results demonstrate that glucose, fructosamine and HbA1c levels is increased in diabetic groups and declined to lesser levels in treated groups. TAC level of diabetic rats is not significantly changed. Vitamin D administration significantly increased TAC while it is not changed with melatonin either in treated or non-treated groups. The liver of diabetic rats shows only mild focal microvesicular fatty degeneration. The liver of diabetic rats treated with insulin shows degeneration of cell edema in the stroma. The liver of diabetic rats treated with melatonin with or without insulin, exhibited marked improvement. The liver of diabetic rats treated with vitamin D with or without insulin, shows degeneration of cells and edema in the stroma.

Conclusion

Our results demonstrated the beneficial antioxidant effect of vitamin D administration to normal and diabetic rats as compared to melatonin. Nevertheless, melatonin still shows more therapeutic effect on liver cell injury induced by induction of diabetes.

CRAMP deficiency leads to a pro-inflammatory phenotype and impaired phagocytosis after exposure to bacterial meningitis pathogens

BACKGROUND

Antimicrobial peptides are important components of the host defence with a broad range of functions including direct antimicrobial activity and modulation of inflammation. Lack of cathelin-related antimicrobial peptide (CRAMP) was associated with higher mortality and bacterial burden and impaired neutrophil granulocyte infiltration in a model of pneumococcal meningitis. The present study was designed to characterize the effects of CRAMP deficiency on glial response and phagocytosis after exposure to bacterial stimuli.

METHODS

CRAMP-knock out and wildtype glial cells were exposed to bacterial supernatants from Streptococcus pneumoniae and Neisseria meningitides or the bacterial cell wall components lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan. Cell viability, expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators and activation of signal transduction pathways, phagocytosis rate and glial cell phenotype were investigated by means of cell viability assays, immunohistochemistry, real-time RT-PCR and Western blot.

RESULTS

CRAMP-deficiency was associated with stronger expression of pro-inflammatory and weakened expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines indicating a higher degree of glial cell activation even under resting-state conditions. Furthermore, increased translocation of nuclear factor 'kappa-light-chain-enhancer' of activated B-cells was observed and phagocytosis of S. pneumoniae was reduced in CRAMP-deficient microglia indicating impaired antimicrobial activity.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, the present study detected severe alterations of the glial immune response due to lack of CRAMP. The results indicate the importance of CRAMP to maintain and regulate the delicate balance between beneficial and harmful immune response in the brain.

The Carbon monoxide releasing molecule ALF-186 mediates anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects via the soluble guanylate cyclase ß1 in rats' retinal ganglion cells after ischemia and reperfusion injury

BACKGROUND

The endogenously produced gaseous molecule carbon monoxide is able to promote organ protection after ischemia-reperfusion injuries (IRI). The impact of carbon monoxide releasing molecules (CORM) regarding inflammation in neuronal tissues has not been studied in detail. In this investigation, we aimed to analyze the effects of the CORM ALF-186 on neuro-inflammation and hypothesized that the soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) is playing a decisive role.

METHODS

Retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury was performed for 60 min in Sprague-Dawley rats. Thereafter, the CORM ALF-186 (10 mg/kg) in the presence or absence of the sGC inhibitor ODQ was injected via a tail vein. Retinal tissue was harvested 24 h later to analyze mRNA or protein expression of sGC-β1 subunit, transcription factors NF-κB and CREB, the inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6, as well as the heat shock proteins (HSP) HSP-70 and HSP-90. Immunohistochemistry was performed on frozen sections of the retina. The overall neuroprotective effect of ALF-186 was assessed by counting fluorogold-pre-labeled retinal ganglion cells (RGC) 7 days after IRI.

RESULTS

Ischemia-reperfusion mediated loss of vital RGC was attenuated by the administration of ALF-186 after injury. ALF-186 treatment after IRI induced sGC-ß1 leading to a decreased NF-κB and CREB phosphorylation. Consecutively, ALF-186 mitigated IRI induced TNF-α and IL-6 expression in the retina and in the rats' serum. Moreover, ALF-186 attenuated heat shock protein 70 (Hsp-70) while increasing Hsp-90. The sGC-inhibitor ODQ attenuated the anti-inflammatory effects of ALF-186 and increased retinal loss of ganglion cells. These results were confirmed by immunohistochemistry.

CONCLUSION

The CORM ALF-186 protected RGC from IRI induced loss. Furthermore, ALF-186 reduced IRI mediated neuroinflammation in the retina and in the serum by activating sGC. Inhibition of sGC stopped the beneficial and protective effects of ALF-186. ALF-186 may present a promising therapeutic alternative in treating inflammation after neuronal IRI.

Carbon monoxide ameliorates hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury via sirtuin 1-mediated deacetylation of high-mobility group box 1 in rats

Carbon monoxide (CO) exerts protective effects on hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI), but the underlying molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is an important mediator of injury and inflammation in hepatic IRI. Here, we investigated whether CO could attenuate hepatic IRI via inhibition of HMGB1 release, particularly through sirtuin 1 (SIRT1). CO was released by treatment with carbon monoxide-releasing molecule (CORM)-2. CORM-2-delivered CO ameliorated hepatic IRI, as indicated by lower serum aminotransferase levels, lower hepatic inflammatory responses, and less severe ischemia/reperfusion-associated histopathologic changes. Treatment with CORM-2 significantly inhibited IRI-induced HMGB1 translocation and release. SIRT1 expression was increased by CORM-2 pretreatment. When CORM-2-induced SIRT1 expression was inhibited using EX527, HMGB1 translocation and release were increased and hepatic IRI was worsened, whereas SIRT1 activation by resveratrol reversed this trend. In vitro, CORM-2 reduced hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced HMGB1 translocation and release, these inhibitions were blocked by SIRT1 inhibition using EX527 or SIRT1 small interfering RNA both in alpha mouse liver 12 cells and RAW264.7 macrophages. Moreover, SIRT1 directly interacted with and deacetylated HMGB1. IRI increased HMGB1 acetylation, which was abolished by CORM-2 treatment via SIRT1. In conclusion, these results suggest that CO may increase SIRT1 expression, which may decrease HMGB1 acetylation and subsequently reduce its translocation and release, thereby protecting against hepatic IRI. Liver Transplantation 23 510-526 2017 AASLD.

CO-releasing molecules CORM2 attenuates angiotensin II-induced human aortic smooth muscle cell migration through inhibition of ROS/IL-6 generation and matrix metalloproteinases-9 expression

Ang II has been involved in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) induced migration of human aortic smooth muscle cells (HASMCs) is the most common and basic pathological feature. Carbon monoxide (CO), a byproduct of heme breakdown by heme oxygenase, exerts anti-inflammatory effects in various tissues and organ systems. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effects and underlying mechanisms of carbon monoxide releasing molecule-2 (CORM-2) on Ang II-induced MMP-9 expression and cell migration of HASMCs. Ang II significantly up-regulated MMP-9 expression and cell migration of HASMCs, which was inhibited by transfection with siRNA of p47^phox, Nox2, Nox4, p65, angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R) and pretreatment with the inhibitors of NADPH oxidase, ROS, and NF-κB. In addition, Ang II also induced NADPH oxidase/ROS generation and p47^phox translocation from the cytosol to the membrane. Moreover, Ang II-induced oxidative stress and MMP-9-dependent cell migration were inhibited by pretreatment with CORM-2. Finally, we observed that Ang II induced IL-6 release in HASMCs via AT1R, but not AT2R, which could further caused MMP-9 secretion and cell migration. Pretreatment with CORM-2 reduced Ang II-induced IL-6 release. In conclusion, CORM-2 inhibits Ang II-induced HASMCs migration through inactivation of suppression of NADPH oxidase/ROS generation, NF-κB inactivation and IL-6/MMP-9 expression. Thus, application of CO, especially CORM-2, is a potential countermeasure to reverse the pathological changes of various cardiovascular diseases. Further effects aimed at identifying novel antioxidant and anti-inflammatory substances protective for heart and blood vessels that targeting CO and establishment of well-designed in vivo models properly evaluating the efficacy of these agents are needed.

•

Angiotensin II can induce HASMCs migration via activating ROS/NF-κB/IL-6/ MMP-9.

•

CORM-2 can inhibit Ang II-induced ROS/NF-κB/IL-6/MMP-9-dependent HASMCs migration.

•

The blockade of ROS by CORM-2 can be a preventive strategy of cardiovascular diseases.

Psoriasin has divergent effects on the innate immune responses of murine glial cells

Antimicrobial peptides are an important part of the innate immune defense in the central nervous system (CNS). The expression of the antimicrobial peptides psoriasin (S100A7) is up-regulated during bacterial meningitis. However, the exact mechanisms induced by psoriasin to modulate glial cell activity are not yet fully understood. Our hypothesis is that psoriasin induced pro- and anti-inflammatory signaling pathways as well as regenerative factors to contribute in total to a balanced immune response. Therefore, we used psoriasin-stimulated glial cells and analyzed the translocation of the pro-inflammatory transcription factor nuclear factor 'kappa-light-chain-enhancer' of activated B-cells (NFκB) in murine glial cells and the expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators by real time RT-PCR, ELISA technique, and western blotting. Furthermore, the relationship between psoriasin and the antioxidative stress transcription factor nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) was investigated. Stimulation with psoriasin not only enhanced NFκB translocation and increased the expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF- α) but also neurotrophin expression. Evidence for functional interactions between psoriasin and Nrf2 were detected in the form of increased antioxidant response element (ARE) activity and induction of Nrf2/ARE-dependent heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) expression in psoriasin-treated microglia and astrocytes. The results illustrate the ability of psoriasin to induce immunological functions in glia cells where psoriasin exerts divergent effects on the innate immune response.

Carbon monoxide inhibits the nuclear-cytoplasmic translocation of HMGB1 in an in vitro oxidative stress injury model of mouse renal tubular epithelial cells

Carbon monoxide (CO), as a vital small molecule in signaling pathways, is found to be involved in ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) in renal transplantation. CO-releasing molecule-2 (CORM-2), a CO-releasing molecule, is a type of metal carbonyl complexes which can quickly release CO in vivo. In this study, an in vitro oxidative stress injury model was established to examine the effect of CORM-2 pretreatment on the nuclear-cytoplasmic translocation of high mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) in mouse primary renal proximal tubular epithelial cells (RPTECs). Immunofluorescence staining showed that HMGB1 in the medium- and CORM-2-treated groups was predominantly localized in the nucleus of the cells, whereas higher amounts of HMGB1 translocated to the cytoplasm in the H₂O₂- and inactive CORM-2 (iCORM-2)-treated groups. Western blotting of HMGB1 showed that the total amounts of cytoplasmic HMGB1 in the H₂O₂-treated (0.59±0.27) and iCORM-2-treated (0.57±0.22) groups were markedly higher than those in the medium-treated (0.19±0.05) and CORM-2-treated (0.21±0.10) groups (P<0.05). Co-immunoprecipitation showed that the levels of acetylated HMGB1 in the H₂O₂-treated (642.98±57.25) and iCORM-2-treated (342.11±131.25) groups were markedly increased as compared with the medium-treated (78.72±74.17) and CORM-2-treated (71.42±53.35) groups (P<0.05), and no significant difference was observed between the medium-treated and CORM-2-treated groups (P>0.05). In conclusion, our study demonstrated that in the in vitro oxidative stress injury model of primary RPTECs, CORM-2 can significantly inhibit the nuclear-cytoplasmic translocation of HMGB1, which is probably associated with the prevention of HMGB1 acetylation.

Carbon Monoxide Improves Neurologic Outcomes by Mitochondrial Biogenesis after Global Cerebral Ischemia Induced by Cardiac Arrest in Rats

Mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to brain injury following global cerebral ischemia after cardiac arrest. Carbon monoxide treatment has shown potent cytoprotective effects in ischemia/reperfusion injury. This study aimed to investigate the effects of carbon monoxide-releasing molecules on brain mitochondrial dysfunction and brain injury following resuscitation after cardiac arrest in rats. A rat model of cardiac arrest was established by asphyxia. The animals were randomly divided into the following 3 groups: cardiac arrest and resuscitation group, cardiac arrest and resuscitation plus carbon monoxide intervention group, and sham control group (no cardiac arrest). After the return of spontaneous circulation, neurologic deficit scores (NDS) and S-100B levels were significantly decreased at 24, 48, and 72 h, but carbon monoxide treatment improved the NDS and S-100B levels at 24 h and the 3-day survival rates of the rats. This treatment also decreased the number of damaged neurons in the hippocampus CA1 area and increased the brain mitochondrial activity. In addition, it increased mitochondrial biogenesis by increasing the expression of biogenesis factors including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α, nuclear respiratory factor-1, nuclear respiratory factor-2 and mitochondrial transcription factor A. Thus, this study showed that carbon monoxide treatment alleviated brain injury after cardiac arrest in rats by increased brain mitochondrial biogenesis.

Mechanisms of Diabetes-Induced Liver Damage: The role of oxidative stress and inflammation

Diabetes mellitus is a non-communicable disease that occurs in both developed and developing countries. This metabolic disease affects all systems in the body, including the liver. Hyperglycaemia, mainly caused by insulin resistance, affects the metabolism of lipids, carbohydrates and proteins and can lead to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, which can further progress to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, cirrhosis and, finally, hepatocellular carcinomas. The underlying mechanism of diabetes that contributes to liver damage is the combination of increased oxidative stress and an aberrant inflammatory response; this activates the transcription of pro-apoptotic genes and damages hepatocytes. Significant involvement of pro-inflammatory cytokines-including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and tumour necrosis factor-α-exacerbates the accumulation of oxidative damage products in the liver, such as malondialdehyde, fluorescent pigments and conjugated dienes. This review summarises the biochemical, histological and macromolecular changes that contribute to oxidative liver damage among diabetic individuals.

Pretreatment of Mouse Neural Stem Cells with Carbon Monoxide-Releasing Molecule-2 Interferes with NF-κB p65 Signaling and Suppresses Iron Overload-Induced Apoptosis

Neural stem cell (NSC) transplantation is a promising approach to repair the damaged brain after hemorrhagic stroke; however, it is largely limited by the poor survival of donor cells. Breakdown products of the hematoma and subsequent iron overload contribute to the impairment of survival of neural cells. There is little information regarding the mechanism involved in the death of grafted cells. Furthermore, therapeutic research targeted to improving the survival of grafted neural stem cells (NSCs) is strikingly lacking. Here, we showed that iron overload induced apoptosis of C17.2 cells, a cell line originally cloned from mouse NSCs and immortalized by v-myc. Pretreatment with carbon monoxide-releasing molecule-2 (CORM-2) markedly protected C17.2 cells against iron overload in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, CORM-2 interfered with NF-κB signaling, including inhibition of nuclear translocation and down-regulation of NF-κB p65. TUNEL staining showed that preconditioning C17.2 cells with CORM-2 enhanced their resistance to apoptosis induced by iron overload, which was concomitant with down-regulation of the pro-apoptotic proteins (Bax and cleaved caspase-3) and up-regulation of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl2. The protective effect of CORM-2 could be simulated by BAY11-7082, a special inhibitor of NF-κB p65. These results provide a novel and effective strategy to enhance the survival of NSCs after transplantation and, therefore, their efficacy in repairing brain injury due to hemorrhagic stroke.

Effect of breviscapine against hepatic ischemia reperfusion injury

BACKGROUND

Breviscapine is an active ingredient extracted from traditional Chinese medicine Erigeron breviscapus. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of breviscapine injection on hepatic ischemia and/or reperfusion injury.

METHODS

Forty rats were randomly divided into five groups (n = 8): Sham group, Ischemia reperfusion 1 (I/R1) + normal saline (NS) group, I/R1 + breviscapine (Bre), I/R2 + NS group, and I/R2 + Bre group. Group1 and group2 represent ischemia time for 10 min and 30 min, respectively. Breviscapine or normal saline was administered to rats (single dose of 10 mg/Kg, intravenously) 30 min before hepatic ischemia. Serum transaminases, histopathologic changes, malondialdehyde (MDA), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in liver tissues were evaluated. The expression level of mitochondrial fusion 2 (Mfn2) was also investigated.

RESULTS

After 24-h reperfusion, based on the histopathologic analysis, compared with NS control group, the liver function was improved in breviscapine group. Liver enzymes aspartate and alanine aminotransferase levels were significantly lower in the I/R + Bre group, when compared with the I/R + NS group. Pretreatment with breviscapine reduced MDA level (P < 0.05) and increased SOD activity significantly in I/R + Bre compared with I/R + NS group. Western blot and RT-q polymerase chain reaction showed that Mfn2 was significantly downregulated in breviscapine preconditioning group as compared to normal saline control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Breviscapine preconditioning attenuates liver ischemia reperfusion injury via inhibiting liver oxidative stress reaction. The protective mechanism probably inhibits Mfn2 protein and mRNA expression.

Hydrogen Sulfide and Carbon Monoxide Protect Gastric Mucosa Compromised by Mild Stress Against Alendronate Injury

BACKGROUND

Alendronate is an inhibitor of osteoclast-mediated bone resorption, but its clinical utility is limited due to gastrointestinal complications including bleeding erosions.

AIMS

We studied whether potent vasodilators hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and carbon monoxide (CO) can protect against alendronate-induced gastric lesions in rats exposed to mild stress.

METHODS

Three series (A, B, and C) of Wistar rats received alendronate (150-700 mg/kg i.g., series A) with or without NaHS (5 mg/kg), H₂S donor or CORM-2 (5 mg/kg) releasing CO administered i.g. 30 min before alendronate administration (series B) in rats exposed for 3 days before alendronate administration to mild stress (series C). The area of gastric lesions was assessed by planimetry, the gastric blood flow (GBF) was determined by H₂-gas clearance technique, and H₂S production via CSE/CBS/3-MST activity and the gastric expression of HO-1, HO-2, HIF-1α, NF-κB, iNOS, COX-2, IL-1β, TNF-α, GPx-1 and SOD-2 were analyzed by qPCR or Western blot.

RESULTS

Alendronate dose-dependently produced gastric mucosal lesions and significantly decreased GBF, and these effects were exacerbated by mild stress. NaHS and CORM-2 significantly reduced the alendronate-induced gastric lesions in non-stressed and stressed animals, but only NaHS but not CORM-2 raised H₂S production. NaHS and CORM-2 inhibited gastric expression of HIF-1α protein and HO-1, HIF-1α, NF-κB, COX-2, iNOS, IL-1β, TNF-α mRNAs but failed to affect those of HO-2, GPx-1, and SOD-2.

CONCLUSION

Both H₂S and CO released from their donors, NaHS and CORM-2, protect gastric mucosa compromised by stress against alendronate-induced gastric damage via mechanism involving downregulation of HIF-1α, NF-κB and proinflammatory factors COX-2, iNOS, IL-1β, and TNF-α.

Carbon Monoxide-Releasing Molecule-2 Reduces Intestinal Epithelial Tight-Junction Damage and Mortality in Septic Rats

Objective

Damage to intestinal epithelial tight junctions plays an important role in sepsis. Recently we found that Carbon Monoxide-Releasing Molecule-2 (CORM-2) is able to protect LPS-induced intestinal epithelial tight junction damage and in this study we will investigate if CORM-2 could protect intestinal epithelial tight junctions in the rat cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) model.

Materials and Methods

The CLP model was generated using male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats according to standard procedure and treated with CORM-2 or inactive CORM-2 (iCORM-2), 8 mg/kg, i.v. immediately after CLP induction and euthanized after 24h or 72h (for mortality rate only). Morphological changes were investigated using both transmission electron and confocal microscopy. The levels of important TJ proteins and phosphorylation of myosin light chain (MLC) were examined using Western blotting. Cytokines, IL-1β and TNF-α were measured using ELISA kits. The overall intestinal epithelial permeability was evaluated using FD-4 as a marker.

Results

CORM-2, but not iCORM-2, significantly reduced sepsis-induced damage of intestinal mucosa (including TJ disruption), TJ protein reduction (including zonula occludens-l (ZO-1), claudin-1 and occludin), MLC phosphorylation and proinflammatory cytokine release. The overall outcomes showed that CORM-2 suppressed sepsis-induced intestinal epithelial permeability changes and reduced mortality rate of those septic rats.

Conclusions

Our data strongly suggest that CORM-2 could be a potential therapeutic reagent for sepsis by suppressing inflammation, restoring intestinal epithelial barrier and reducing mortality.

Hydrogen sulphide induces HIF-1α and Nrf2 in THP-1 macrophages

The transcription factor HIF-1α regulates the adaptive response of cells to hypoxia and oxidative stress. In addition, an important regulatory role for HIF-1α in immune reactions and inflammation is suggested. The present study attempts to investigate the effect of the gaseous signalling molecule hydrogen sulphide (H2S) on HIF-1α in THP-1 macrophages using the slow H2S releasing donor GYY4137. We found that H2S induced HIF-1α protein accumulation in THP-1 macrophages in a concentration-dependent manner. Western blot analysis of cell fractions showed that HIF-1α protein translocates into the nucleus and leads to an increase of its target protein glucose transporter-1 (GLUT-1). Activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), as well as secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), were reduced in the presence of H2S. These findings indicate that HIF-1α accumulation due to H2S was not triggered by the NF-κB pathway. The antioxidant pathway Nrf2/HO-1 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/heme oxygenase-1) was activated by H2S. Inhibition of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) reversed H2S mediated effects, suggesting that the p38 MAPK pathway may be involved in H2S induced HIF-1α/Nrf2 signalling pathways.

Liver protection strategies in liver transplantation

BACKGROUND

Liver transplantation is the therapy of choice for patients with end-stage liver diseases. However, the gap between the low availability of organs and high demand is continuously increasing. Innovative strategies for organ protection are necessary to expand donor pool and to achieve better outcomes for liver transplantation. The present review analyzed and compared various strategies of liver protection.

DATA SOURCES

Databases such as PubMed, Embase and Ovid were searched for the literature related to donor liver protection strategies using following key words: "ischemia reperfusion injury", "graft preservation", "liver transplantation", "machine perfusion" and "conditioning". Of the 146 studies identified, only those with cutting edge strategies were analyzed.

RESULTS

A variety of therapeutic approaches were proposed to alleviate graft ischemia/reperfusion injury, which included static cold storage, machine perfusion (hypothermic, normothermic and subnormothermic), manual conditioning (pre, post and remote), and pharmacological conditioning. Evidences from animal experiments and clinical trials suggested that all these strategies could potentially protect liver graft; however, their clinical applications are limited partially due to their own disadvantages.

CONCLUSIONS

There are a plenty of methods suggested to decrease the degree of donor liver transplantation-related injury. However, none of these approaches is perfect in clinical practice. More translational researches (molecular and clinical studies) are needed to improve the techniques in liver graft protection.

Hydrogen sulfide augments survival signals in warm ischemia and reperfusion of the mouse liver

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) ameliorates hepatic ischemia and reperfusion injury (IRI), but the precise mechanism remains elusive. We investigated whether sodium hydrogen sulfide (NaHS), a soluble derivative of H2S, would ameliorate hepatic IRI, and if so, via what mechanism.

METHODS

Mice were subjected to partial warm ischemia for 75 min followed by reperfusion. Either NaHS or saline was administered intravenously 10 min before reperfusion. The liver and serum were collected 3, 6, and 24 h after reperfusion.

RESULTS

In the NaHS(-) group, severe IRI was apparent by the ALT leakage, tissue injury score, apoptosis, lipid peroxidation, and inflammation (higher plasma TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, IFN-γ, IL-23, IL-17, and CD40L), whereas IRI was significantly ameliorated in the NaHS(+) group. These effects could be explained by the augmented nuclear translocation of Nrf2, and the resulting up-regulation of HO-1 and thioredoxin-1. Phosphorylation of the PDK-1/Akt/mTOR/p70S6k axis, which is known to mediate pro-survival and anti-apoptotic signals, was significantly augmented in the NaHS(+) group, with a higher rate of PCNA-positive cells thereafter.

CONCLUSION

NaHS ameliorated hepatic IRI by direct and indirect anti-oxidant activities by augmenting pro-survival, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory signals via mechanisms involving Nrf-2, and by accelerating hepatic regeneration via mechanisms involving Akt-p70S6k.

Protective effects of carbon monoxide-releasing molecule-2 on the barrier function of intestinal epithelial cells

Objective

To investigate the protective effects and mechanisms of carbon monoxide-releasing molecule-2 (CORM-2) on barrier function of intestinal epithelial cells.

Materials and Methods

After pre-incubation with CORM-2 for 1 hour, cultured intestinal epithelial IEC-6 cells were stimulated with 50 µg/ml lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Cytokines levels in culture medium were detected using ELISA kits. Trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TER) of IEC-6 cell monolayers in Transwells were measured with a Millipore electric resistance system (ERS-2; Millipore) and calculated as Ω/cm² at different time points after LPS treatment. The permeability changes were also measured using FITC-dextran. The levels of tight junction (TJ) proteins (occludin and ZO-1) and myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation were detected using Western blotting with specific antibodies. The subsequent structural changes of TJ were visualized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM).

Results

CORM-2 significantly reduced LPS-induced secretion of TNF-α and IL-1β. The LPS-induced decrease of TER and increase of permeability to FITC-dextran were inhibited by CORM-2 in a concentration dependent manner (P<0.05). LPS-induced reduction of tight junction proteins and increase of MLC phosphorylation were also attenuated. In LPS-treated cells, TEM showed diminished electron-dense material and interruption of TJ and desmosomes between the apical lateral margins of adjoining cells, which were prevented by CORM-2 treatment.

Conclusions

The present study demonstrates that CORM-2, as a novel CO-releasing molecule, has ability to protect the barrier function of LPS-stimulated intestinal epithelial cells. Inhibition of inflammatory cytokines release, restoration of TJ proteins and suppression of MLC phosphorylation are among the protective effects of CORM-2.

Rodent models of hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury: time and percentage-related pathophysiological mechanisms

Ischemia and reperfusion (IR) injury remains one of the major problems in liver surgery and transplantation, which determines the viability of the hepatic tissue after resection and of the grafted organ. This review aims to elucidate the mechanisms involved in IR injury of the liver in rodent experimental studies and the preventative methods and pharmacologic agents that have been applied. Many time- and percentage-related liver IR injury rodent models have been used to examine the pathophysiological mechanisms and the parameters implicated with different morbidity, mortality, and pathology findings. The most preferred experimental rodent model of liver IR is the induction of 70% IR for 45 min, which is associated with almost 100% survival. In this model, plasma levels of several parameters such as alanine transaminase, aspartate aminotransferase, gamma-glutamyltransferase, endothelin-1, malonodialdehyde, tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin 1b, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and caspases are increased. The increase of caspases is associated with the initiation of hepatic cellular apoptosis. The main injuries observed 24 h after reperfusion are nuclear pyknosis, cytoplasmic hypereosinophilia, severe necrosis, and loss of intercellular borders. Both ischemic pre- and post-conditioning preventative methods and pharmacologic agents are successfully applied to alleviate the IR injuries. The selection of the time- and percentage-related liver IR injury rodent model and the potential preventative method should be related to the clinical question being answered.