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Patel P, Benzle K, Pei D, Wang GL. Cell-penetrating peptides for sustainable agriculture. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 29:1131-1144. [PMID: 38902122 PMCID: PMC11449662 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2024.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are short (typically 5-30 amino acids), cationic, amphipathic, or hydrophobic peptides that facilitate the cellular uptake of diverse cargo molecules by eukaryotic cells via direct translocation or endocytosis across the plasma membrane. CPPs can deliver a variety of bioactive cargos, including proteins, peptides, nucleic acids, and small molecules into the cell. Once inside, the delivered cargo may function in the cytosol, nucleus, or other subcellular compartments. Numerous CPPs have been used for studies and drug delivery in mammalian systems. Although CPPs have many potential uses in plant research and agriculture, the application of CPPs in plants remains limited. Here we review the structures and mechanisms of CPPs and highlight their potential applications for sustainable agriculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preeti Patel
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Kyle Benzle
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Dehua Pei
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Guo-Liang Wang
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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2
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İncir İ, Kaplan Ö. Escherichia coli as a versatile cell factory: Advances and challenges in recombinant protein production. Protein Expr Purif 2024; 219:106463. [PMID: 38479588 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2024.106463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 02/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
E. coli plays a substantial role in recombinant protein production. Its importance increased with the discovery of recombinant DNA technology and the subsequent production of the first recombinant insulin in E. coli. E. coli is a widely used and cost-effective host to produce recombinant proteins. It is also noteworthy that a significant portion of the approved therapeutic proteins have been produced in this organism. Despite these advantages, it has some disadvantages, such as toxicity and lack of eukaryotic post-translational modifications that can lead to the production of misfolded, insoluble, or dysfunctional proteins. This study focused on the challenges and engineering approaches for improved expression and solubility in recombinant protein production in E. coli. In this context, solution strategies such as strain and vector selection, codon usage, mRNA stability, expression conditions, translocation to the periplasmic region and addition of fusion tags in E. coli were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- İbrahim İncir
- Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University, Kazım Karabekir Vocational School, Department of Medical Services and Techniques, Environmental Health Program Karaman, Turkey.
| | - Özlem Kaplan
- Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat University, Rafet Kayış Faculty of Engineering, Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Antalya, Turkey.
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Song Y, Wang Y, Yan S, Nakamura K, Kikukawa T, Ayabe T, Aizawa T. Efficient recombinant production of mouse-derived cryptdin family peptides by a novel facilitation strategy for inclusion body formation. Microb Cell Fact 2023; 22:9. [PMID: 36635697 PMCID: PMC9838031 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-023-02016-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A number of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) hold promise as new drugs owing to their potent bactericidal activity and because they are often refractory to the development of drug resistance. Cryptdins (Crps) are a family of antimicrobial peptides found in the small intestine of mice, comprising six isoforms containing three sets of disulfide bonds. Although Crp4 is actively being investigated, there have been few studies to date on the other Crp isoforms. A prerequisite for detailed characterization of the other Crp isoforms is establishment of efficient sample preparation methods. RESULTS To avoid degradation during recombinant expression of Crps in E. coli, co-expression of Crps with the aggregation-prone protein human α-lactalbumin (HLA) was used to promote the formation of stable inclusion bodies. Using this method, the production of Crp4 and Crp6 by the BL21 strain was effective, but the expression of other Crp isoforms was not as efficient. The results of a cell-free system study suggested that Crps were degraded, even though a substantial amounts of Crps were synthesized. Therefore, using the Origami™ B strain, we were able to significantly increase the expression efficiency of Crps by promoting the formation of erroneous intermolecular disulfide bonds between HLA and Crps, thereby promoting protein aggregation and inclusion body formation, which prevented degradation. The various Crp isoforms were successfully refolded in vitro and purified using reversed-phase HPLC. In addition, the yield was further improved by deformylation of formyl-Crps. We measured the antibacterial activity of Crps against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Each Crp isoform exhibited a completely different trend in antimicrobial activity, although conformational analysis by circular dichroism did not reveal any significant steric differences. CONCLUSION In this study, we established a novel and efficient method for the production of the cryptdin family of cysteine-containing antimicrobial peptides. Additionally, we found that there were notable differences in the antibacterial activities of the various Crp family members. The expression system established in this study is expected to provide new insights regarding the mechanisms underlying the different antibacterial activities of the Crp family of peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchi Song
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Laboratory of Protein Science, Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido Japan
| | - Yi Wang
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Laboratory of Protein Science, Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido Japan
| | - Shaonan Yan
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Laboratory of Protein Science, Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido Japan
| | - Kiminori Nakamura
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Innate Immunity Laboratory, Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido Japan
| | - Takashi Kikukawa
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Laboratory of Biological Information Analysis Science, Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido Japan
| | - Tokiyoshi Ayabe
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Innate Immunity Laboratory, Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido Japan
| | - Tomoyasu Aizawa
- grid.39158.360000 0001 2173 7691Laboratory of Protein Science, Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido Japan
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Falak S, Sajed M, Rashid N. Strategies to enhance soluble production of heterologous proteins in Escherichia coli. Biologia (Bratisl) 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11756-021-00994-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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5
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Rodríguez V. Insights into post-translational modification enzymes from RiPPs: A toolkit for applications in peptide synthesis. Biotechnol Adv 2022; 56:107908. [PMID: 35032597 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.107908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The increasing length and complexity of peptide drug candidates foster the development of novel strategies for their manufacture, which should include sustainable and efficient technologies. In this context, including enzymatic catalysis in the production of peptide molecules has gained interest. Here, several enzymes from ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides biosynthesis pathways are reviewed, with attention to their capacity to introduce stability-promoting structural features on peptides, providing an initial framework towards their use in therapeutic peptide production processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vida Rodríguez
- Faculty of Engineering, Science and Technology, Bernardo O'Higgins University, Viel 1497, Santiago, Chile.
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6
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The co-expression of denileukin diftitox immunotoxin with Artemin: soluble and aggregation analysis in presence of an efficient protein chaperone. Biologia (Bratisl) 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11756-021-00846-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Quiroz C, Saavedra YB, Armijo-Galdames B, Amado-Hinojosa J, Olivera-Nappa Á, Sanchez-Daza A, Medina-Ortiz D. Peptipedia: a user-friendly web application and a comprehensive database for peptide research supported by Machine Learning approach. DATABASE-THE JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL DATABASES AND CURATION 2021; 2021:6363751. [PMID: 34478499 PMCID: PMC8415426 DOI: 10.1093/database/baab055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Peptides have attracted attention during the last decades due to their extraordinary therapeutic properties. Different computational tools have been developed to take advantage of existing information, compiling knowledge and making available the information for common users. Nevertheless, most related tools available are not user-friendly, present redundant information, do not clearly display the data, and usually are specific for particular biological activities, not existing so far, an integrated database with consolidated information to help research peptide sequences. To solve these necessities, we developed Peptipedia, a user-friendly web application and comprehensive database to search, characterize and analyse peptide sequences. Our tool integrates the information from 30 previously reported databases with a total of 92 055 amino acid sequences, making it the biggest repository of peptides with recorded activities to date. Furthermore, we make available a variety of bioinformatics services and statistical modules to increase our tool’s usability. Moreover, we incorporated a robust assembled binary classification system to predict putative biological activities for peptide sequences. Our tools’ significant differences with other existing alternatives become a substantial contribution for developing biotechnological and bioengineering applications for peptides. Peptipedia is available for non-commercial use as an open-access software, licensed under the GNU General Public License, version GPL 3.0. The web platform is publicly available at peptipedia.cl. Database URL: Both the source code and sample data sets are available in the GitHub repository https://github.com/ProteinEngineering-PESB2/peptipedia
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristofer Quiroz
- Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Autonóma de Chile, Cinco Pte. 1670, Talca 3467987, Chile
| | - Yasna Barrera Saavedra
- Escuela de Ingeniería en Bioinformática, Universidad de Talca, Avenida Lircay SN, Talca 3460000, Chile
| | - Benjamín Armijo-Galdames
- Centre for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Universidad de Chile, Beauchef 851, Santiago 8370448, Chile.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Biotechnology and Materials, Universidad de Chile, Beauchef 851, Santiago 8370448, Chile
| | - Juan Amado-Hinojosa
- Centre for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Universidad de Chile, Beauchef 851, Santiago 8370448, Chile.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Biotechnology and Materials, Universidad de Chile, Beauchef 851, Santiago 8370448, Chile
| | - Álvaro Olivera-Nappa
- Centre for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Universidad de Chile, Beauchef 851, Santiago 8370448, Chile.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Biotechnology and Materials, Universidad de Chile, Beauchef 851, Santiago 8370448, Chile
| | - Anamaria Sanchez-Daza
- Centre for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Universidad de Chile, Beauchef 851, Santiago 8370448, Chile.,Institute for Cell Dynamics and Biotechnology, Beauchef 851, Santiago 8370456, Chile
| | - David Medina-Ortiz
- Centre for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Universidad de Chile, Beauchef 851, Santiago 8370448, Chile.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Biotechnology and Materials, Universidad de Chile, Beauchef 851, Santiago 8370448, Chile
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Okasha H, Nasr SM, Samir S. Recombinant Expression of Cec-B Peptide in Escherichia coli with a Significant Anticancer Effect on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2021; 22:1235-1245. [PMID: 33397234 DOI: 10.2174/1389201022666210104121709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cecropin-B (Cec-B) is an Antimicrobial Peptide (AMP) found in insects. OBJECTIVES Recombinant production of Cec-B peptide in Escherichia coli (Rosetta™ DE3), and studying its anticancer effect on Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell line (HCC). METHODS The Cec-B gene of Drosophila melanogaster was synthesized by PCR assembly using the Simplified Gene Synthesis (SGS) method. To express the recombinant peptide in E. coli (Rosetta™ DE3); the synthesized gene was cloned into pET-15b expression vector. The recombinant peptide was expressed as insoluble aggregates called Inclusion Bodies (IBs) using 2mM lactose inducer. IBs were solubilized in a denatured form using 8 M urea followed by in-vitro protein refolding using rapid dilution method. The refolded Cec-B was purified using cation-exchange SP-FF column. Cytotoxicity of recombinant Cec-B (rCec-B) was reported on normal human lung cell line (WI-38), and Hepatocellular carcinoma cell line (HepG2). RESULTS The Cec-B gene was expressed and purified at concentration 1.212±0.1 mg/ml which represents 48.49±4% of the total proteins injected to the column (2.5±0.2 mg/ml). The safe dose of purified rCec-B on normal WI-38 cells was calculated to be 1.57 mg/ml. The half-maximal Inhibitory Concentration (IC50) of rCec-B on HepG2 cell line was calculated to be 25 μg/ml. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) showed that untreated and treated HepG2 cells had cell diameters from 11-12.92 μm and 14.18-21.58 μm, respectively. CONCLUSION The results of this study revealed a successful expression of the rCec-B peptide using a pET-based expression system with a simple purification step. The purified peptide could be considered as a hopeful anticancer drug against HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hend Okasha
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Giza, Egypt
| | - Sami Mohamed Nasr
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Giza, Egypt
| | - Safia Samir
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Giza, Egypt
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Mehri N, Jamshidizad A, Ghanei Z, Karkhane AA, Shamsara M. Optimizing the Expression and Solubilization of an E. coli-Produced Leukemia Inhibitory Factor for Anti-LIF Antibody Production and Use Thereof for Contraception in Mice. Mol Biotechnol 2021; 63:1169-1182. [PMID: 34272681 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-021-00369-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) is an essential cytokine for blastocyst implantation. This study evaluated the effect of LIF inhibition on the blockage of embryo implantation. A truncated mouse LIF (tmLIF) was designed and expressed in E. coli. The protein expression was optimized using different culture media and inducers. To block pregnancy, the mice were immunized by the purified protein via maternal injection of the protein or in utero injection of the anti-LIF serum. The expression of implantation-relevant genes was quantified in the uterine tissue. The results showed that the protein was expressed in aggregated form in E. coli. The highest yield of protein was produced in the M9 medium. The insoluble protein was completely dissociated by SDS and 2-ME combination, but not by urea. The maternal immunization reduced the number of offspring, but not significantly. Instead, in utero injection of the anti-LIF serum prevented the blastocyst implantation. Gene expression analyses showed decrease of Jam2, Msx1and HB-EGF genes and increase of Muc1 gene as the result of intrauterine administration of the anti-LIF serums. In conclusion, SDS-mediated solubilization of inclusion bodies was compatible with in vivo studies. The intrauterine administration of anti-LIF serum could prevent mouse pregnancy. This indicates that in utero application of LIF antibodies might be used as a contraceptive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nahid Mehri
- Animal Biotechnology Group, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abbas Jamshidizad
- Animal Biotechnology Group, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Ghanei
- Animal Biotechnology Group, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali-Asghar Karkhane
- Department of Industrial and Environmental Biotechnology, National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehdi Shamsara
- Animal Biotechnology Group, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Tehran, Iran.
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10
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Strategies for the Production of Soluble Interferon-Alpha Consensus and Potential Application in Arboviruses and SARS-CoV-2. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11060460. [PMID: 34063766 PMCID: PMC8223780 DOI: 10.3390/life11060460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Biopharmaceutical production is currently a multibillion-dollar industry with high growth perspectives. The research and development of biologically sourced pharmaceuticals are extremely important and a reality in our current healthcare system. Interferon alpha consensus (cIFN) is a non-natural synthetic antiviral molecule that comprises all the most prevalent amino acids of IFN-α into one consensus protein sequence. For clinical use, cIFN is produced in E. coli in the form of inclusion bodies. Here, we describe the use of two solubility tags (Fh8 and DsbC) to improve soluble cIFN production. Furthermore, we analyzed cIFN production in different culture media and temperatures in order to improve biopharmaceutical production. Our results demonstrate that Fh8-cIFN yield was improved when bacteria were cultivated in autoinduction culture medium at 30 °C. After hydrolysis, the recovery of soluble untagged cIFN was 58% from purified Fh8-cIFN molecule, fourfold higher when compared to cIFN recovered from the DsbC-cIFN, which achieved 14% recovery. The biological activity of cIFN was tested on in vitro model of antiviral effect against Zika, Mayaro, Chikungunya and SARS-CoV-2 virus infection in susceptible VERO cells. We show, for the first time, that cIFN has a potent activity against these viruses, being very low amounts of the molecule sufficient to inhibit virus multiplication. Thus, this molecule could be used in a clinical approach to treat Arboviruses and SARS-CoV-2.
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11
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Sakhel B, Jayanthi S, Muhoza D, Okoto P, Krishnaswamy Suresh Kumar T, Adams P. Simplification of the purification of heat stable recombinant low molecular weight proteins and peptides from GST-fusion products. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2021; 1172:122627. [PMID: 33773335 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2021.122627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis and purification of peptides of importance in the fields of research and medicine continue to be a challenging task. Chemical synthesis of oligopeptides, especially those greater than 25 amino acids, is cost prohibitive. On the other hand, several bottlenecks exist in the production of recombinant short peptides in heterologous expression hosts such as Escherichia coli (E. coli). In this study, a rapid, cost-effective, and reliable method for the production and single-step-purification of peptides and small proteins was developed. Five peptides and small proteins were overexpressed in E. coli as GST-fusion products in high yields. The recombinant peptides or proteins were successfully purified after enzymatic cleavage with selective heat-induced precipitation of the GST-affinity tag. Qualitative and quantitative analysis using SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometric methods suggest that the recombinant peptides/ proteins were purified to greater than 95% homogeneity. Results of biophysical experiments, including multi-dimensional NMR spectroscopy, show that the purified proteins/ peptides retain their native conformation. Isothermal titration calorimetry studies indicate no significant change in the binding affinity of the heat-treated purified product to their interacting partner(s) compared to the recombinant peptides purified by conventional chromatographic procedures without subjecting to heat treatment. In our opinion, the results reported render the purification of recombinant proteins/ peptides of biomedical relevance using our proposed method easy and reliable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice Sakhel
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - Srinivas Jayanthi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - Djamali Muhoza
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - Patience Okoto
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | | | - Paul Adams
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
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Zou Y, Chen T. Engineered Akkermansia muciniphila: A promising agent against diseases (Review). Exp Ther Med 2020; 20:285. [PMID: 33209129 PMCID: PMC7668130 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2020.9415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Achieving a harmonious gut microbial ecosystem has been hypothesized to be a successful method for alleviating metabolic disorders. The administration of probiotics, such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacteria, is a known traditional and safe pathway to regulate human commensal microbes. With advancements in genetic sequencing and genetic editing tools, more bacteria are able to function as engineered probiotics with multiple therapeutic properties. As one of the next-generation probiotic candidates, Akkermansia muciniphila (A. muciniphila) has been discovered to enhance the gut barrier function and moderate inflammatory responses, exhibit improved effects with pasteurization and display beneficial probiotic effects in individuals with obesity, type 2 diabetes, atherosclerosis and autism-related gastrointestinal disturbances. In view of this knowledge, the present review aimed to summarize the effects of A. muciniphila in the treatment of metabolic disorders and to discuss several mature recombination systems for the genetic modification of A. muciniphila. From gaining an enhanced understanding of its genetic background, ingested A. muciniphila is expected to be used in various applications, including as a diagnostic tool, and in the site-specific delivery of therapeutic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixuan Zou
- Institute of Translational Medicine, National Engineering Research Center for Bioengineering Drugs and Technologies, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330031, P.R. China
| | - Tingtao Chen
- Institute of Translational Medicine, National Engineering Research Center for Bioengineering Drugs and Technologies, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330031, P.R. China
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Nelapati AK, Das BK, Ponnan Ettiyappan JB, Chakraborty D. In-silico epitope identification and design of Uricase mutein with reduced immunogenicity. Process Biochem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2020.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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14
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Heidari-Japelaghi R, Haddad R, Valizadeh M, Dorani-Uliaie E, Jalali-Javaran M. Elastin-like polypeptide fusions for high-level expression and purification of human IFN-γ in Escherichia coli. Anal Biochem 2019; 585:113401. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2019.113401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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15
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Nasrin T, Patra M, Escudey M, Das TK. Biosynthesized CdS nanoparticles disturb E. coli growth through reactive oxygen production. Microb Pathog 2019; 135:103639. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2019.103639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2017] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Mahmoud Al-Hejin A, Singh Bora R, Morsi M. Ahmed M. Plasmids for Optimizing Expression of Recombinant Proteins in E. coli. Plasmid 2019. [DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.82205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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17
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New trends in aggregating tags for therapeutic protein purification. Biotechnol Lett 2018; 40:745-753. [PMID: 29605942 DOI: 10.1007/s10529-018-2543-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The rapid growth of the therapeutic protein market calls for more efficient purification methods. Various aggregating tags have recently emerged as simple, fast, cost-effective and column-free technologies for protein (and peptide) purification. In general, these column-free protein purification technologies involve the use of aggregating tags that induce the target protein into insoluble aggregates. These aggregates can be easily separated from soluble impurities and the target protein or peptide is then liberated by a cleavage process. This review summarizes the current state-of-the-art in using aggregating tags for protein purification. The methods are here categorized as follows: (1) tags that allow soluble expression of target protein in vivo and induce aggregation in vitro; (2) tags that induce soluble expression and self-assembling of target protein on insoluble biological polyester beads in vivo; (3) tags that induce formation of inactive aggregates in vivo; (4) tags that induce formation of active aggregates in vivo.
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Pane K, Verrillo M, Avitabile A, Pizzo E, Varcamonti M, Zanfardino A, Di Maro A, Rega C, Amoresano A, Izzo V, Di Donato A, Cafaro V, Notomista E. Chemical Cleavage of an Asp-Cys Sequence Allows Efficient Production of Recombinant Peptides with an N-Terminal Cysteine Residue. Bioconjug Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.8b00083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mariavittoria Verrillo
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Università 100, Portici 80055, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | - Antimo Di Maro
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, Università della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Via Vivaldi 43, Caserta 81100, Italy
| | - Camilla Rega
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, Università della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Via Vivaldi 43, Caserta 81100, Italy
| | | | - Viviana Izzo
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Università degli Studi di Salerno, via S. Allende, Baronissi 84081, Italy
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Fu Y, Therkildsen M, Aluko RE, Lametsch R. Exploration of collagen recovered from animal by-products as a precursor of bioactive peptides: Successes and challenges. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2018; 59:2011-2027. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2018.1436038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Fu
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | | | - Rotimi E. Aluko
- Department of Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - René Lametsch
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
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20
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Hoffmann D, Ebrahimi M, Gerlach D, Salzig D, Czermak P. Reassessment of inclusion body-based production as a versatile opportunity for difficult-to-express recombinant proteins. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2017; 38:729-744. [DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2017.1398134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Hoffmann
- Institute of Bioprocess Engineering and Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Applied Sciences Mittelhessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Mehrdad Ebrahimi
- Institute of Bioprocess Engineering and Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Applied Sciences Mittelhessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Doreen Gerlach
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Project group Bioresources, Giessen, Germany
| | - Denise Salzig
- Institute of Bioprocess Engineering and Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Applied Sciences Mittelhessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Peter Czermak
- Institute of Bioprocess Engineering and Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Applied Sciences Mittelhessen, Giessen, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Project group Bioresources, Giessen, Germany
- Faculty of Biology and Chemistry, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
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21
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Xu Z, Moyle PM. Bioconjugation Approaches to Producing Subunit Vaccines Composed of Protein or Peptide Antigens and Covalently Attached Toll-Like Receptor Ligands. Bioconjug Chem 2017; 29:572-586. [PMID: 28891637 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.7b00478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Traditional vaccines derived from attenuated or inactivated pathogens are effective at inducing antibody-based protective immune responses but tend to be highly reactogenic, causing notable adverse effects. Vaccines with superior safety profiles can be produced by subunit approaches, utilizing molecularly defined antigens (e.g., proteins and polysaccharides). These antigens, however, often elicit poor immunological responses, necessitating the use of adjuvants. Immunostimulatory adjuvants have the capacity to activate antigen presenting cells directly through specific receptors (e.g., Toll-like receptors (TLRs)), resulting in enhanced presentation of antigens as well as the secretion of proinflammatory chemokines and cytokines. Consequently, innate immune responses are amplified and adaptive immunity is generated. Recently, site-specific conjugation of such immunostimulatory adjuvants (e.g., TLR ligands) onto defined antigens has shown superior efficacy over unconjugated mixtures, suggesting that the development of chemically characterized immunostimulatory adjuvants and optimized approaches for their conjugation with antigens may provide a better opportunity for the development of potent, novel vaccines. This review briefly summarizes various TLR agonists utilized as immunostimulatory adjuvants and focuses on the development of techniques (e.g., recombinant, synthetic, and semisynthetic) for generating adjuvant-antigen fusion vaccines incorporating peptide or protein antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenghui Xu
- School of Pharmacy , The University of Queensland , Woolloongabba 4102 , Queensland , Australia
| | - Peter Michael Moyle
- School of Pharmacy , The University of Queensland , Woolloongabba 4102 , Queensland , Australia
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22
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Biopharmaceuticals from microorganisms: from production to purification. Braz J Microbiol 2016; 47 Suppl 1:51-63. [PMID: 27838289 PMCID: PMC5156500 DOI: 10.1016/j.bjm.2016.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of biopharmaceuticals dates from the 19th century and within 5–10 years, up to 50% of all drugs in development will be biopharmaceuticals. In the 1980s, the biopharmaceutical industry experienced a significant growth in the production and approval of recombinant proteins such as interferons (IFN α, β, and γ) and growth hormones. The production of biopharmaceuticals, known as bioprocess, involves a wide range of techniques. In this review, we discuss the technology involved in the bioprocess and describe the available strategies and main advances in microbial fermentation and purification process to obtain biopharmaceuticals.
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Spagnoli G, Bolchi A, Cavazzini D, Pouyanfard S, Müller M, Ottonello S. Secretory production of designed multipeptides displayed on a thermostable bacterial thioredoxin scaffold in Pichia pastoris. Protein Expr Purif 2016; 129:150-157. [PMID: 27133916 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2016.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2016] [Revised: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Internal grafting of designed peptides to scaffold proteins is a valuable strategy for a variety of applications including recombinant peptide antigen construction. A peptide epitope from human papillomavirus (HPV) minor capsid protein L2 displayed on thioredoxin (Trx) has been validated preclinically as a broadly protective and low-cost alternative HPV vaccine. Focusing on thioredoxin from the hyperthermophilic archaebacterium Pyrococcus furiosus (PfTrx) as a scaffold, we have constructed a modified Pichia pastoris expression vector and used a PfTrx fusion derivative containing three tandemly repeated copies of a 19 amino acids peptide epitope from HPV-L2 for expression optimization and biochemical-immunological characterization of the Pichia-produced PfTrx-L2 antigen. We show that PfTrx-L2 is produced at high levels (up to 100 mg from a 100 ml starting culture using a multi-cycle induction protocol) and secreted into the culture medium as a highly enriched (>70% pure), non-glycosylated polypeptide that can be purified to homogeneity in a single step. Oxidation and aggregation state, thermal stability and immunogenicity of the endotoxin-free PfTrx-L2 antigen produced in P. pastoris were tested and found to be identical to those of the same antigen produced in Escherichia coli. Secretory production of endotoxin-free PfTrx-peptides in P. pastoris represents a cost- and time-effective alternative to E. coli production. Specifically designed for peptide antigens, the PfTrx-expression vector and conditions described herein are easily transferable to a variety of applications centred on the use of structurally constrained bioactive peptides as immune as well as target-specific binder reagents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Spagnoli
- Department of Life Sciences, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Unit, University of Parma, Italy
| | - Angelo Bolchi
- Department of Life Sciences, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Unit, University of Parma, Italy
| | - Davide Cavazzini
- Department of Life Sciences, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Unit, University of Parma, Italy
| | | | | | - Simone Ottonello
- Department of Life Sciences, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Unit, University of Parma, Italy.
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Zhou J, Zhao M, Tang Y, Wang J, Wei C, Gu F, Lei T, Chen Z, Qin Y. The milk-derived fusion peptide, ACFP, suppresses the growth of primary human ovarian cancer cells by regulating apoptotic gene expression and signaling pathways. BMC Cancer 2016; 16:246. [PMID: 27012847 PMCID: PMC4806491 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-016-2281-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 03/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Background ACFP is an anti-cancer fusion peptide derived from bovine milk protein. This study was to investigate the anti-cancer function and underlying mechanisms of ACFP in ovarian cancer. Methods Fresh ovarian tumor tissues were collected from 53 patients who underwent initial debulking surgery, and primary cancer cells were cultured. Normal ovarian surface epithelium cells (NOSECs), isolated from 7 patients who underwent surgery for uterine fibromas, were used as normal control tissue. Anti-viabilities of ACFP were assessed by WST-1 (water-soluble tetrazolium 1), and apoptosis was measured using a flow cytometry-based assay. Gene expression profiles of ovarian cancer cells treated with ACFP were generated by cDNA microarray, and the expression of apoptotic-specific genes, such as bcl-xl, bax, akt, caspase-3, CDC25C and cyclinB1, was assessed by real time PCR and western blot analysis. Results Treatment with ACFP inhibited the viability and promoted apoptosis of primary ovarian cancer cells but exhibited little or no cytotoxicity toward normal primary ovarian cells. Mechanistically, the anti-cancer effects of ACFP in ovarian cells were shown to occur partially via changes in gene expression and related signal pathways. Gene expression profiling highlighted that ACFP treatment in ovarian cancer cells repressed the expression of bcl-xl, akt, CDC25C and cyclinB1 and promoted the expression of bax and caspase-3 in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Conclusions Our results suggest that ACFP may represent a potential therapeutic agent for ovarian cancer that functions by altering the expression and signaling of cancer-related pathways in ovarian cancer cells. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12885-016-2281-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Zhou
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230032, China
| | - Mengjing Zhao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230032, China
| | - Yigui Tang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230032, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230022, China
| | - Cai Wei
- Department of Pharmacy, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230601, China
| | - Fang Gu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230032, China
| | - Ting Lei
- Department of Pharmacy, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230601, China
| | - Zhiwu Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230032, China
| | - Yide Qin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, 230032, China.
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Pane K, Durante L, Pizzo E, Varcamonti M, Zanfardino A, Sgambati V, Di Maro A, Carpentieri A, Izzo V, Di Donato A, Cafaro V, Notomista E. Rational Design of a Carrier Protein for the Production of Recombinant Toxic Peptides in Escherichia coli. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0146552. [PMID: 26808536 PMCID: PMC4726619 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0146552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Commercial uses of bioactive peptides require low cost, effective methods for their production. We developed a new carrier protein for high yield production of recombinant peptides in Escherichia coli very well suited for the production of toxic peptides like antimicrobial peptides. GKY20, a short antimicrobial peptide derived from the C-terminus of human thrombin, was fused to the C-terminus of Onconase, a small ribonuclease (104 amino acids), which efficiently drove the peptide into inclusion bodies with very high expression levels (about 200-250 mg/L). After purification of the fusion protein by immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography, peptide was obtained by chemical cleavage in diluted acetic acid of an acid labile Asp-Pro sequence with more than 95% efficiency. To improve peptide purification, Onconase was mutated to eliminate all acid labile sequences thus reducing the release of unwanted peptides during the acid cleavage. Mutations were chosen to preserve the differential solubility of Onconase as function of pH, which allows its selective precipitation at neutral pH after the cleavage. The improved carrier allowed the production of 15-18 mg of recombinant peptide per liter of culture with 96-98% purity without the need of further chromatographic steps after the acid cleavage. The antimicrobial activity of the recombinant peptide, with an additional proline at the N-terminus, was tested on Gram-negative and Gram-positive strains and was found to be identical to that measured for synthetic GKY20. This finding suggests that N-terminal proline residue does not change the antimicrobial properties of recombinant (P)GKY20. The improved carrier, which does not contain cysteine and methionine residues, Asp-Pro and Asn-Gly sequences, is well suited for the production of peptides using any of the most popular chemical cleavage methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katia Pane
- Department of Biology, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Durante
- Department of Biology, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy
| | - Elio Pizzo
- Department of Biology, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy
| | - Mario Varcamonti
- Department of Biology, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy
| | - Anna Zanfardino
- Department of Biology, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy
| | - Valeria Sgambati
- Department of Biology, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy
| | - Antimo Di Maro
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, Seconda Università di Napoli, Caserta, Italy
| | - Andrea Carpentieri
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy
| | - Viviana Izzo
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Università degli Studi di Salerno, Baronissi, Italy
| | - Alberto Di Donato
- Department of Biology, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy
| | - Valeria Cafaro
- Department of Biology, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy
| | - Eugenio Notomista
- Department of Biology, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy
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Abstract
In the era of biomedicines and engineered carrier systems, cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) have been established as a promising tool for therapeutic application. Likewise, other therapeutic peptides, successful in vivo application of CPPs will strongly depend on peptide stability, the bottleneck for this type of biodegradable molecules. In this review, the authors describe the current knowledge of the in vivo degradation for known CPPs and the different strategies available to provide a higher resistance to metabolic degradation while preserving cell penetration efficiency. Peptide stability can be improved by different means, either modifying the structure to make it unrecognizable to proteases, or preventing access of proteolytic enzymes by applying conformation restriction or shielding strategies.
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27
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Rodríguez V, Lascani J, Asenjo JA, Andrews BA. Production of Cell-Penetrating Peptides in Escherichia coli Using an Intein-Mediated System. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2015; 175:3025-37. [DOI: 10.1007/s12010-015-1484-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/05/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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28
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Corchero JL, Vázquez E, García-Fruitós E, Ferrer-Miralles N, Villaverde A. Recombinant protein materials for bioengineering and nanomedicine. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2014; 9:2817-28. [DOI: 10.2217/nnm.14.153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteins are essential macromolecules supporting life. Being efficient catalyzers and offering specific cross-molecular contacts, proteins are largely exploited in biotechnology and biomedicine as therapeutics, in industrial catalysis or as molecular reagents. Recombinant enzymes, hormones, immunogens and antibodies are produced aiming to different applications, on the basis of their ability to interact with or modify substrates or biological targets. In nature, proteins also perform task-specific architectonic roles, and they can organize in supramolecular complexes with intriguing physical properties such as elasticity and adhesiveness, and with regulatable stiffness, flexibility and mechanical strength. Proteins have recently gained interest as materials for bioengineering and nanomedicine as they can combine these features with functionality, biocompatibility and degradability in unusually versatile composites. We revise here the fundamental properties of the diverse categories of emerging protein materials resulting from biological synthesis and how they can be genetically re-designed to engineer the interplay between mechanical and biological properties in a medically oriented exploitable way.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Luis Corchero
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
- Department de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Esther Vázquez
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
- Department de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elena García-Fruitós
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
- Department de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Neus Ferrer-Miralles
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
- Department de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
- Department de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
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