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Tate HM, Barone V, Schrankel CS, Hamdoun A, Lyons DC. Localization and origins of juvenile skeletogenic cells in the sea urchin Lytechinuspictus. Dev Biol 2024; 514:12-27. [PMID: 38862087 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2024.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
The development of the sea urchin larval body plan is well understood from extensive studies of embryonic patterning. However, fewer studies have investigated the late larval stages during which the unique pentaradial adult body plan develops. Previous work on late larval development highlights major tissue changes leading up to metamorphosis, but the location of specific cell types during juvenile development is less understood. Here, we improve on technical limitations by applying highly sensitive hybridization chain reaction fluorescent in situ hybridization (HCR-FISH) to the fast-developing and transparent sea urchin Lytechinus pictus, with a focus on skeletogenic cells. First, we show that HCR-FISH can be used in L. pictus to precisely localize skeletogenic cells in the rudiment. In doing so, we provide a detailed staging scheme for the appearance of skeletogenic cells around the rudiment prior to and during biomineralization and show that many skeletogenic cells unassociated with larval rods localize outside of the rudiment prior to localizing inside. Second, we show that downstream biomineralization genes have similar expression patterns during larval and juvenile skeletogenesis, suggesting some conservation of skeletogenic mechanisms during development between stages. Third, we find co-expression of blastocoelar and skeletogenic cell markers around juvenile skeleton located outside of the rudiment, which is consistent with data showing that cells from the non-skeletogenic mesoderm embryonic lineage contribute to the juvenile skeletogenic cell lineage. This work sets the foundation for subsequent studies of other cell types in the late larva of L. pictus to better understand juvenile body plan development, patterning, and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi M Tate
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Vanessa Barone
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Catherine S Schrankel
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA; San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Amro Hamdoun
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Deirdre C Lyons
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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2
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Taylor E, Corsini M, Heyland A. Shared regulatory function of non-genomic thyroid hormone signaling in echinoderm skeletogenesis. EvoDevo 2024; 15:10. [PMID: 39113104 PMCID: PMC11304627 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-024-00226-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormones are crucial regulators of metamorphosis and development in bilaterians, particularly in chordate deuterostomes. Recent evidence suggests a role for thyroid hormone signaling, principally via 3,5,3',5'-Tetraiodo-L-thyronine (T4), in the regulation of metamorphosis, programmed cell death and skeletogenesis in echinoids (sea urchins and sand dollars) and sea stars. Here, we test whether TH signaling in skeletogenesis is a shared trait of Echinozoa (Echinoida and Holothouroida) and Asterozoa (Ophiourida and Asteroida). We demonstrate dramatic acceleration of skeletogenesis after TH treatment in three classes of echinoderms: sea urchins, sea stars, and brittle stars (echinoids, asteroids, and ophiuroids). Fluorescently labeled thyroid hormone analogues reveal thyroid hormone binding to cells proximal to regions of skeletogenesis in the gut and juvenile rudiment. We also identify, for the first time, a potential source of thyroxine during gastrulation in sea urchin embryos. Thyroxine-positive cells are present in tip of the archenteron. In addition, we detect thyroid hormone binding to the cell membrane and nucleus during metamorphic development in echinoderms. Immunohistochemistry of phosphorylated MAPK in the presence and absence of TH-binding inhibitors suggests that THs may act via phosphorylation of MAPK (ERK1/2) to accelerate initiation of skeletogenesis in the three echinoderm groups. Together, these results indicate that TH regulation of mesenchyme cell activity via integrin-mediated MAPK signaling may be a conserved mechanism for the regulation of skeletogenesis in echinoderm development. In addition, TH action via a nuclear thyroid hormone receptor may regulate metamorphic development. Our findings shed light on potentially ancient pathways of thyroid hormone activity in echinoids, ophiuroids, and asteroids, or on a signaling system that has been repeatedly co-opted to coordinate metamorphic development in bilaterians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elias Taylor
- College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Integrative Biology, Guelph, ON, N1G-2W1, Canada.
| | - Megan Corsini
- College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Integrative Biology, Guelph, ON, N1G-2W1, Canada
| | - Andreas Heyland
- College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Integrative Biology, Guelph, ON, N1G-2W1, Canada
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3
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Goloe D, Gildor T, Ben-Tabou de-Leon S. Expression and Transcriptional Targets of TGFβ-RII in Paracentrotus lividus Larval Skeletogenesis. Genesis 2024; 62:e23614. [PMID: 39139086 DOI: 10.1002/dvg.23614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2024] [Revised: 07/23/2024] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
Organisms from the five kingdoms of life use minerals to harden their tissues and make teeth, shells and skeletons, in the process of biomineralization. The sea urchin larval skeleton is an excellent system to study the biological regulation of biomineralization and its evolution. The gene regulatory network (GRN) that controls sea urchin skeletogenesis is known in great details and shows similarity to the GRN that controls vertebrates' vascularization while it is quite distinct from the GRN that drives vertebrates' bone formation. Yet, transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) signaling regulates both sea urchin and vertebrates' skeletogenesis. Here, we study the upstream regulation and identify transcriptional targets of TGF-β in the Mediterranean Sea urchin species, Paracentrotus lividus. TGF-βRII is transiently active in the skeletogenic cells downstream of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling, in P. lividus. Continuous perturbation of TGF-βRII activity significantly impairs skeletal elongation and the expression of key skeletogenic genes. Perturbation of TGF-βRII after skeletal initiation leads to a delay in skeletal elongation and minor changes in gene expression. TGF-β targets are distinct from its transcriptional targets during vertebrates' bone formation, suggesting that the role of TGF-β in biomineralization in these two phyla results from convergent evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Goloe
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Tsvia Gildor
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Smadar Ben-Tabou de-Leon
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
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4
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Song M, Huo D, Pang L, Yu Z, Yang X, Zhang A, Zhao Y, Zhang L, Yuan X. Effects of seawater acidification and warming on morphometrics and biomineralization-related gene expression during embryo-larval development of a lightly-calcified echinoderm. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 248:118248. [PMID: 38278510 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.118248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2023] [Revised: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
CO2-induced ocean acidification and warming pose ecological threats to marine life, especially calcifying species such as echinoderms, who rely on biomineralization for skeleton formation. However, previous studies on echinoderm calcification amid climate change had a strong bias towards heavily calcified echinoderms, with little research on lightly calcified ones, such as sea cucumbers. Here, we analyzed the embryo-larval development and their biomineralization-related gene expression of a lightly calcified echinoderm, the sea cucumber (Apostichopus japonicus), under experimental seawater acidification (OA) and/or warming (OW). Results showed that OA (- 0.37 units) delayed development and decreased body size (8.58-56.25 % and 0.36-19.66 % decreases in stage duration and body length, respectively), whereas OW (+3.1 °C) accelerated development and increased body size (33.99-55.28 % increase in stage duration and 2.44-14.41 % enlargement in body length). OW buffered the negative effects of OA on the development timing and body size of A. japonicus. Additionally, no target genes were expressed in the blastula stage, and only two biomineralization genes (colp3α, cyp2) and five TFs (erg, tgif, foxN2/3, gata1/2/3, and tbr) were expressed throughout the embryo-larval development. Our findings suggest that the low calcification in A. japonicus larvae may be caused by biomineralization genes contraction, and low expression of those genes. Furthermore, this study indicated that seawater acidification and warming affect expression of biomineralization-related genes, and had an effect on body size and development rate during the embryo-larval stage in sea cucumbers. Our study is a first step toward a better understanding of the complexity of high pCO2 on calcification and helpful for revealing the adaptive strategy of less-calcified echinoderms amid climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingshan Song
- Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, China; National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Da Huo
- Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Lei Pang
- Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, China
| | - Zhenglin Yu
- Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, China
| | - Xiaolong Yang
- National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Anguo Zhang
- National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Dalian, 116023, China
| | - Ye Zhao
- School of Ocean, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, China
| | - Libin Zhang
- Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Xiutang Yuan
- Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai, 264003, China; National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Dalian, 116023, China.
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Khor JM, Guerrero-Santoro J, Ettensohn CA. Molecular compartmentalization in a syncytium: restricted mobility of proteins within the sea urchin skeletogenic mesenchyme. Development 2023; 150:dev201804. [PMID: 37902109 DOI: 10.1242/dev.201804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023]
Abstract
Multinucleated cells, or syncytia, are found in diverse taxa. Their biological function is often associated with the compartmentalization of biochemical or cellular activities within the syncytium. How such compartments are generated and maintained is poorly understood. The sea urchin embryonic skeleton is secreted by a syncytium, and local patterns of skeletal growth are associated with distinct sub-domains of gene expression within the syncytium. For such molecular compartments to be maintained and to control local patterns of skeletal growth: (1) the mobility of TFs must be restricted to produce stable differences in the transcriptional states of nuclei within the syncytium; and (2) the mobility of biomineralization proteins must also be restricted to produce regional differences in skeletal growth. To test these predictions, we expressed fluorescently tagged forms of transcription factors and biomineralization proteins in sub-domains of the skeletogenic syncytium. We found that both classes of proteins have restricted mobility within the syncytium and identified motifs that limit their mobility. Our findings have general implications for understanding the functional and molecular compartmentalization of syncytia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Ming Khor
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15218, USA
| | - Jennifer Guerrero-Santoro
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15218, USA
| | - Charles A Ettensohn
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15218, USA
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6
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Lee Y, Tjeerdema E, Kling S, Chang N, Hamdoun A. Solute carrier (SLC) expression reveals skeletogenic cell diversity. Dev Biol 2023; 503:68-82. [PMID: 37611888 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2023.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
Within the developing embryo is a microcosm of cell type diversity. Single cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) is used to reveal cell types, typically by grouping cells according to their gene regulatory states. However, both across and within these regulatory states are additional layers of cellular diversity represented by the differential expression of genes that govern cell function. Here, we analyzed scRNA-seq data representing the late gastrula stage of Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (purple sea urchin) to understand the patterning of transporters belonging to the ABC and SLC families. These transporters handle diverse substrates from amino acids to signaling molecules, nutrients and xenobiotics. Using transporter-based clustering, we identified unique transporter patterns that are both shared across cell lineages, as well as those that were unique to known cell types. We further explored three patterns of transporter expression in mesodermal cells including secondary mesenchyme cells (pigment cells and blastocoelar cells) and skeletogenic cells (primary mesenchyme cells). The results revealed the enrichment of SMTs potentially involved in nutrient absorption (SLC5A9, SLC7A11, SLC35F3, and SLC52A3) and skeletogenesis (SLC9A3, SLC13A2/3/5, and SLC39A13) in pigment cells and blastocoelar cells respectively. The results indicated that the strategy of clustering by cellular activity can be useful for discovering cellular populations that would otherwise remain obscured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoon Lee
- Center for Marine Biology and Biomedicine Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Evan Tjeerdema
- Center for Marine Biology and Biomedicine Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Svenja Kling
- Center for Marine Biology and Biomedicine Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Nathan Chang
- Center for Marine Biology and Biomedicine Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Amro Hamdoun
- Center for Marine Biology and Biomedicine Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA.
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7
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Taylor E, Wynen H, Heyland A. Thyroid hormone membrane receptor binding and transcriptional regulation in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1195733. [PMID: 37305042 PMCID: PMC10250714 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1195733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormones (THs) are small amino acid derived signaling molecules with broad physiological and developmental functions in animals. Specifically, their function in metamorphic development, ion regulation, angiogenesis and many others have been studied in detail in mammals and some other vertebrates. Despite extensive reports showing pharmacological responses of invertebrate species to THs, little is known about TH signaling mechanisms outside of vertebrates. Previous work in sea urchins suggests that non-genomic mechanisms are activated by TH ligands. Here we show that several THs bind to sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) cell membrane extracts and are displaced by ligands of RGD-binding integrins. A transcriptional analysis across sea urchin developmental stages shows activation of genomic and non-genomic pathways in response to TH exposure, suggesting that both pathways are activated by THs in sea urchin embryos and larvae. We also provide evidence associating TH regulation of gene expression with TH response elements in the genome. In ontogeny, we found more differentially expressed genes in older larvae compared to gastrula stages. In contrast to gastrula stages, the acceleration of skeletogenesis by thyroxine in older larvae is not fully inhibited by competitive ligands or inhibitors of the integrin membrane receptor pathway, suggesting that THs likely activate multiple pathways. Our data confirms a signaling function of THs in sea urchin development and suggests that both genomic and non-genomic mechanisms play a role, with genomic signaling being more prominent during later stages of larval development.
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8
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Yamakawa S, Yamazaki A, Morino Y, Wada H. Early expression onset of tissue-specific effector genes during the specification process in sea urchin embryos. EvoDevo 2023; 14:7. [PMID: 37101206 PMCID: PMC10131483 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-023-00210-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/01/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the course of animal developmental processes, various tissues are differentiated through complex interactions within the gene regulatory network. As a general concept, differentiation has been considered to be the endpoint of specification processes. Previous works followed this view and provided a genetic control scheme of differentiation in sea urchin embryos: early specification genes generate distinct regulatory territories in an embryo to express a small set of differentiation driver genes; these genes eventually stimulate the expression of tissue-specific effector genes, which provide biological identity to differentiated cells, in each region. However, some tissue-specific effector genes begin to be expressed in parallel with the expression onset of early specification genes, raising questions about the simplistic regulatory scheme of tissue-specific effector gene expression and the current concept of differentiation itself. RESULTS Here, we examined the dynamics of effector gene expression patterns during sea urchin embryogenesis. Our transcriptome-based analysis indicated that many tissue-specific effector genes begin to be expressed and accumulated along with the advancing specification GRN in the distinct cell lineages of embryos. Moreover, we found that the expression of some of the tissue-specific effector genes commences before cell lineage segregation occurs. CONCLUSIONS Based on this finding, we propose that the expression onset of tissue-specific effector genes is controlled more dynamically than suggested in the previously proposed simplistic regulation scheme. Thus, we suggest that differentiation should be conceptualized as a seamless process of accumulation of effector expression along with the advancing specification GRN. This pattern of effector gene expression may have interesting implications for the evolution of novel cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shumpei Yamakawa
- Institute of Zoology and Evolutionary Research, Friedrich-Shiller University Jena, Erbertstraße 1, 07747, Jena, Germany.
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan.
| | - Atsuko Yamazaki
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Morino
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Wada
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan
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9
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Rodríguez-Sastre N, Shapiro N, Hawkins DY, Lion AT, Peyreau M, Correa AE, Dionne K, Bradham CA. Ethanol exposure perturbs sea urchin development and disrupts developmental timing. Dev Biol 2023; 493:89-102. [PMID: 36368523 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2022.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Ethanol is a known vertebrate teratogen that causes craniofacial defects as a component of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Our results show that sea urchin embryos treated with ethanol similarly show broad skeletal patterning defects, potentially analogous to the defects associated with FAS. The sea urchin larval skeleton is a simple patterning system that involves only two cell types: the primary mesenchymal cells (PMCs) that secrete the calcium carbonate skeleton and the ectodermal cells that provide migratory, positional, and differentiation cues for the PMCs. Perturbations in RA biosynthesis and Hh signaling pathways are thought to be causal for the FAS phenotype in vertebrates. Surprisingly, our results indicate that these pathways are not functionally relevant for the teratogenic effects of ethanol in developing sea urchins. We found that developmental morphology as well as the expression of some ectodermal and PMC genes was delayed by ethanol exposure. Temporal transcriptome analysis revealed significant impacts of ethanol on signaling and metabolic gene expression, and a disruption in the timing of GRN gene expression that includes both delayed and precocious gene expression throughout the specification network. We conclude that the skeletal patterning perturbations in ethanol-treated embryos likely arise from a loss of temporal synchrony within and between the instructive and responsive tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Alexandra T Lion
- Biology Department, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA; MCBB Program, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Andrea E Correa
- Universidad de Puerto Rico-Recinto Aguadilla, Puerto Rico, USA
| | | | - Cynthia A Bradham
- Biology Department, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA; MCBB Program, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA; Biological Design Center, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA.
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10
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Zito F, Bonaventura R, Costa C, Russo R. Carbonic anhydrases in development: morphological observations and gene expression profiling in sea urchin embryos exposed to acetazolamide. Open Biol 2023; 13:220254. [PMID: 36597694 PMCID: PMC9811153 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.220254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Carbonic anhydrases (CANs) are conserved metalloenzymes catalysing the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide into protons and bicarbonate, with important roles in cells physiology. Some CAN-coding genes were found in sea urchin genome, although only one involved in embryonic skeletogenesis was described in Paracentrotus lividus. Here, we investigated gene expression patterns of P. lividus embryos cultured in the presence of acetazolamide (AZ), a CAN inhibitor, to combine morphological defects with their molecular underpinning. CAN inhibition blocked skeletogenesis, affected the spatial/temporal expression of some biomineralization-related genes, inhibited embryos swimming. A comparative analysis on the expression of 127 genes in control and 3 h/24 h AZ-treated embryos, using NanoString technology, showed the differential expression of genes encoding for structural/regulatory proteins, with different embryonic roles: biomineralization, transcriptional regulation, signalling, development and defence response. The study of the differentially expressed genes and the signalling pathways affected, besides in silico analyses and a speculative 'interactomic model', leads to predicting the presence of various CAN isoforms, possibly involved in different physiological processes/activities in sea urchin embryo, and their potential target genes/proteins. Our findings provide new valuable molecular data for further studies in several biological fields: developmental biology (biomineralization, axes patterning), cell differentiation (neural development) and drug toxicology (AZ effects on embryos/tissues).
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Zito
- Istituto per la Ricerca e l'Innovazione Biomedica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, via Ugo La Malfa 153, Palermo 90146, Italy
| | - Rosa Bonaventura
- Istituto per la Ricerca e l'Innovazione Biomedica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, via Ugo La Malfa 153, Palermo 90146, Italy
| | - Caterina Costa
- Istituto per la Ricerca e l'Innovazione Biomedica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, via Ugo La Malfa 153, Palermo 90146, Italy
| | - Roberta Russo
- Istituto per la Ricerca e l'Innovazione Biomedica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, via Ugo La Malfa 153, Palermo 90146, Italy
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11
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Extracellular carbonic anhydrase activity promotes a carbon concentration mechanism in metazoan calcifying cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2203904119. [PMID: 36161891 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2203904119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Many calcifying organisms utilize metabolic CO2 to generate CaCO3 minerals to harden their shells and skeletons. Carbonic anhydrases are evolutionary ancient enzymes that have been proposed to play a key role in the calcification process, with the underlying mechanisms being little understood. Here, we used the calcifying primary mesenchyme cells (PMCs) of sea urchin larva to study the role of cytosolic (iCAs) and extracellular carbonic anhydrases (eCAs) in the cellular carbon concentration mechanism (CCM). Molecular analyses identified iCAs and eCAs in PMCs and highlight the prominent expression of a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored membrane-bound CA (Cara7). Intracellular pH recordings in combination with CO2 pulse experiments demonstrated iCA activity in PMCs. iCA activity measurements, together with pharmacological approaches, revealed an opposing contribution of iCAs and eCAs on the CCM. H+-selective electrodes were used to demonstrate eCA-catalyzed CO2 hydration rates at the cell surface. Knockdown of Cara7 reduced extracellular CO2 hydration rates accompanied by impaired formation of specific skeletal segments. Finally, reduced pHi regulatory capacities during inhibition and knockdown of Cara7 underscore a role of this eCA in cellular HCO3- uptake. This work reveals the function of CAs in the cellular CCM of a marine calcifying animal. Extracellular hydration of metabolic CO2 by Cara7 coupled to HCO3- uptake mechanisms mitigates the loss of carbon and reduces the cellular proton load during the mineralization process. The findings of this work provide insights into the cellular mechanisms of an ancient biological process that is capable of utilizing CO2 to generate a versatile construction material.
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12
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Shimizu K, Takeuchi T, Negishi L, Kurumizaka H, Kuriyama I, Endo K, Suzuki M. Evolution of EGF-like and Zona pellucida domains containing shell matrix proteins in mollusks. Mol Biol Evol 2022; 39:6633355. [PMID: 35796746 PMCID: PMC9290575 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msac148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Several types of shell matrix proteins (SMPs) have been identified in molluskan shells. Their diversity is the consequence of various molecular processes, including domain shuffling and gene duplication. However, the evolutionary origin of most SMPs remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the evolutionary process EGF-like and zona pellucida (ZP) domains containing SMPs. Two types of the proteins (EGF-like protein (EGFL) and EGF-like and ZP domains containing protein (EGFZP)) were found in the pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata. In contrast, only EGFZP was identified in the gastropods. Phylogenetic analysis and genomic arrangement studies showed that EGFL and EGFZP formed a clade in bivalves, and their encoding genes were localized in tandem repeats on the same scaffold. In P. fucata, EGFL genes were expressed in the outer part of mantle epithelial cells are related to the calcitic shell formation. However, in both P. fucata and the limpet Nipponacmea fuscoviridis, EGFZP genes were expressed in the inner part of the mantle epithelial cells are related to aragonitic shell formation. Furthermore, our analysis showed that in P. fucata, the ZP domain interacts with eight SMPs that have various functions in the nacreous shell mineralization. The data suggest that the ZP domain can interact with other SMPs, and EGFL evolution in pterimorph bivalves represents an example of neo-functionalization that involves the acquisition of a novel protein through gene duplication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Shimizu
- Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
| | - Takeshi Takeuchi
- Marine Genomics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Lumi Negishi
- Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Kurumizaka
- Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
| | - Isao Kuriyama
- Mie Prefecture Fisheries Research Institute, 3564-3 Hamajima, Hamajima-cho, Shima-city, Mie 517-0404, Japan
| | - Kazuyoshi Endo
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Michio Suzuki
- Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
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13
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Salamanca-Díaz DA, Ritschard EA, Schmidbaur H, Wanninger A. Comparative Single-Cell Transcriptomics Reveals Novel Genes Involved in Bivalve Embryonic Shell Formation and Questions Ontogenetic Homology of Molluscan Shell Types. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:883755. [PMID: 35813198 PMCID: PMC9261976 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.883755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mollusks are known for their highly diverse repertoire of body plans that often includes external armor in form of mineralized hardparts. Representatives of the Conchifera, one of the two major lineages that comprises taxa which originated from a uni-shelled ancestor (Monoplacophora, Gastropoda, Cephalopoda, Scaphopoda, Bivalvia), are particularly relevant regarding the evolution of mollusk shells. Previous studies have found that the shell matrix of the adult shell (teleoconch) is rapidly evolving and that the gene set involved in shell formation is highly taxon-specific. However, detailed annotation of genes expressed in tissues involved in the formation of the embryonic shell (protoconch I) or the larval shell (protoconch II) are currently lacking. Here, we analyzed the genetic toolbox involved in embryonic and larval shell formation in the quagga mussel Dreissena rostriformis using single cell RNA sequencing. We found significant differences in genes expressed during embryonic and larval shell secretion, calling into question ontogenetic homology of these transitory bivalve shell types. Further ortholog comparisons throughout Metazoa indicates that a common genetic biomineralization toolbox, that was secondarily co-opted into molluscan shell formation, was already present in the last common metazoan ancestor. Genes included are engrailed, carbonic anhydrase, and tyrosinase homologs. However, we found that 25% of the genes expressed in the embryonic shell field of D. rostriformis lack an ortholog match with any other metazoan. This indicates that not only adult but also embryonic mollusk shells may be fast-evolving structures. We raise the question as to what degree, and on which taxonomic level, the gene complement involved in conchiferan protoconch formation may be lineage-specific or conserved across taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Salamanca-Díaz
- Unit for Integrative Zoology, Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Elena A. Ritschard
- Division of Molecular Evolution and Development, Department of Neuroscience and Developmental Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Hannah Schmidbaur
- Division of Molecular Evolution and Development, Department of Neuroscience and Developmental Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Andreas Wanninger
- Unit for Integrative Zoology, Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- *Correspondence: Andreas Wanninger,
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Khor JM, Ettensohn CA. Architecture and evolution of the cis-regulatory system of the echinoderm kirrelL gene. eLife 2022; 11:72834. [PMID: 35212624 PMCID: PMC8903837 DOI: 10.7554/elife.72834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The gene regulatory network (GRN) that underlies echinoderm skeletogenesis is a prominent model of GRN architecture and evolution. KirrelL is an essential downstream effector gene in this network and encodes an Ig-superfamily protein required for the fusion of skeletogenic cells and the formation of the skeleton. In this study, we dissected the transcriptional control region of the kirrelL gene of the purple sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Using plasmid- and bacterial artificial chromosome-based transgenic reporter assays, we identified key cis-regulatory elements (CREs) and transcription factor inputs that regulate Sp-kirrelL, including direct, positive inputs from two key transcription factors in the skeletogenic GRN, Alx1 and Ets1. We next identified kirrelL cis-regulatory regions from seven other echinoderm species that together represent all classes within the phylum. By introducing these heterologous regulatory regions into developing sea urchin embryos we provide evidence of their remarkable conservation across ~500 million years of evolution. We dissected in detail the kirrelL regulatory region of the sea star, Patiria miniata, and demonstrated that it also receives direct inputs from Alx1 and Ets1. Our findings identify kirrelL as a component of the ancestral echinoderm skeletogenic GRN. They support the view that GRN subcircuits, including specific transcription factor–CRE interactions, can remain stable over vast periods of evolutionary history. Lastly, our analysis of kirrelL establishes direct linkages between a developmental GRN and an effector gene that controls a key morphogenetic cell behavior, cell–cell fusion, providing a paradigm for extending the explanatory power of GRNs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Ming Khor
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, United States
| | - Charles A Ettensohn
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, United States
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15
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Ettensohn CA, Guerrero-Santoro J, Khor JM. Lessons from a transcription factor: Alx1 provides insights into gene regulatory networks, cellular reprogramming, and cell type evolution. Curr Top Dev Biol 2022; 146:113-148. [PMID: 35152981 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2021.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The skeleton-forming cells of sea urchins and other echinoderms have been studied by developmental biologists as models of cell specification and morphogenesis for many decades. The gene regulatory network (GRN) deployed in the embryonic skeletogenic cells of euechinoid sea urchins is one of the best understood in any developing animal. Recent comparative studies have leveraged the information contained in this GRN, bringing renewed attention to the diverse patterns of skeletogenesis within the phylum and the evolutionary basis for this diversity. The homeodomain-containing transcription factor, Alx1, was originally shown to be a core component of the skeletogenic GRN of the sea urchin embryo. Alx1 has since been found to be key regulator of skeletal cell identity throughout the phylum. As such, Alx1 is currently serving as a lens through which multiple developmental processes are being investigated. These include not only GRN organization and evolution, but also cell reprogramming, cell type evolution, and the gene regulatory control of morphogenesis. This review summarizes our current state of knowledge concerning Alx1 and highlights the insights it is yielding into these important developmental and evolutionary processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles A Ettensohn
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States.
| | | | - Jian Ming Khor
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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16
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The Evolution of Biomineralization through the Co-Option of Organic Scaffold Forming Networks. Cells 2022; 11:cells11040595. [PMID: 35203246 PMCID: PMC8870065 DOI: 10.3390/cells11040595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Biomineralization is the process in which organisms use minerals to generate hard structures like teeth, skeletons and shells. Biomineralization is proposed to have evolved independently in different phyla through the co-option of pre-existing developmental programs. Comparing the gene regulatory networks (GRNs) that drive biomineralization in different species could illuminate the molecular evolution of biomineralization. Skeletogenesis in the sea urchin embryo was extensively studied and the underlying GRN shows high conservation within echinoderms, larval and adult skeletogenesis. The organic scaffold in which the calcite skeletal elements form in echinoderms is a tubular compartment generated by the syncytial skeletogenic cells. This is strictly different than the organic cartilaginous scaffold that vertebrates mineralize with hydroxyapatite to make their bones. Here I compare the GRNs that drive biomineralization and tubulogenesis in echinoderms and in vertebrates. The GRN that drives skeletogenesis in the sea urchin embryo shows little similarity to the GRN that drives bone formation and high resemblance to the GRN that drives vertebrates’ vascular tubulogenesis. On the other hand, vertebrates’ bone-GRNs show high similarity to the GRNs that operate in the cells that generate the cartilage-like tissues of basal chordate and invertebrates that do not produce mineralized tissue. These comparisons suggest that biomineralization in deuterostomes evolved through the phylum specific co-option of GRNs that control distinct organic scaffolds to mineralization.
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17
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Matrix Metalloproteinases and Tissue Inhibitors of Metalloproteinases in Echinoderms: Structure and Possible Functions. Cells 2021; 10:cells10092331. [PMID: 34571980 PMCID: PMC8467561 DOI: 10.3390/cells10092331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Echinoderms are one of the most ancient groups of invertebrates. The study of their genomes has made it possible to conclude that these animals have a wide variety of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). The phylogenetic analysis shows that the MMPs and TIMPs underwent repeated duplication and active divergence after the separation of Ambulacraria (Echinodermata+Hemichordata) from the Chordata. In this regard the homology of the proteinases and their inhibitors between these groups of animals cannot be established. However, the MMPs of echinoderms and vertebrates have a similar domain structure. Echinoderm proteinases can be structurally divided into three groups-archetypal MMPs, matrilysins, and furin-activatable MMPs. Gelatinases homologous to those of vertebrates were not found in genomes of studied species and are probably absent in echinoderms. The MMPs of echinoderms possess lytic activity toward collagen type I and gelatin and play an important role in the mechanisms of development, asexual reproduction and regeneration. Echinoderms have a large number of genes encoding TIMPs and TIMP-like proteins. TIMPs of these animals, with a few exceptions, have a structure typical for this class of proteins. They contain an NTR domain and 10-12 conservatively located cysteine residues. Repeated duplication and divergence of TIMP genes of echinoderms was probably associated with an increase in the functional importance of the proteins encoded by them in the physiology of the animals.
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18
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Czarkwiani A, Dylus DV, Carballo L, Oliveri P. FGF signalling plays similar roles in development and regeneration of the skeleton in the brittle star Amphiura filiformis. Development 2021; 148:dev180760. [PMID: 34042967 PMCID: PMC8180256 DOI: 10.1242/dev.180760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Regeneration as an adult developmental process is in many aspects similar to embryonic development. Although many studies point out similarities and differences, no large-scale, direct and functional comparative analyses between development and regeneration of a specific cell type or structure in one animal exist. Here, we use the brittle star Amphiura filiformis to characterise the role of the FGF signalling pathway during skeletal development in embryos and arm regeneration. In both processes, we find ligands expressed in ectodermal cells that flank underlying skeletal mesenchymal cells, which express the receptors. Perturbation of FGF signalling showed inhibited skeleton formation in both embryogenesis and regeneration, without affecting other key developmental processes. Differential transcriptome analysis finds mostly differentiation genes rather than transcription factors to be downregulated in both contexts. Moreover, comparative gene analysis allowed us to discover brittle star-specific differentiation genes. In conclusion, our results show that the FGF pathway is crucial for skeletogenesis in the brittle star, as in other deuterostomes, and provide evidence for the re-deployment of a developmental gene regulatory module during regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Czarkwiani
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - David V. Dylus
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Centre for Mathematics, Physics and Engineering in the Life Sciences and Experimental Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Luisana Carballo
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Paola Oliveri
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Centre for Life's Origin and Evolution (CLOE), University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
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19
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Thompson JR, Paganos P, Benvenuto G, Arnone MI, Oliveri P. Post-metamorphic skeletal growth in the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus and implications for body plan evolution. EvoDevo 2021; 12:3. [PMID: 33726833 PMCID: PMC7968366 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-021-00174-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Understanding the molecular and cellular processes that underpin animal development are crucial for understanding the diversity of body plans found on the planet today. Because of their abundance in the fossil record, and tractability as a model system in the lab, skeletons provide an ideal experimental model to understand the origins of animal diversity. We herein use molecular and cellular markers to understand the growth and development of the juvenile sea urchin (echinoid) skeleton. Results We developed a detailed staging scheme based off of the first ~ 4 weeks of post-metamorphic life of the regular echinoid Paracentrotus lividus. We paired this scheme with immunohistochemical staining for neuronal, muscular, and skeletal tissues, and fluorescent assays of skeletal growth and cell proliferation to understand the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying skeletal growth and development of the sea urchin body plan. Conclusions Our experiments highlight the role of skeletogenic proteins in accretionary skeletal growth and cell proliferation in the addition of new metameric tissues. Furthermore, this work provides a framework for understanding the developmental evolution of sea urchin body plans on macroevolutionary timescales. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13227-021-00174-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey R Thompson
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, Darwin Building, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK. .,UCL Center for Life's Origins and Evolution, London, UK.
| | - Periklis Paganos
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Maria Ina Arnone
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121, Naples, Italy
| | - Paola Oliveri
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, Darwin Building, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK. .,UCL Center for Life's Origins and Evolution, London, UK.
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20
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Liu C, Zhang R. Biomineral proteomics: A tool for multiple disciplinary studies. J Proteomics 2021; 238:104171. [PMID: 33652138 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2021.104171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The hard tissues of animals, such as skeletons and teeth, are constructed by a biologically controlled process called biomineralization. In invertebrate animals, biominerals are considered important for their evolutionary success. These biominerals are hieratical biocomposites with excellent mechanical properties, and their formation has intrigued researchers for decades. Although proteins account for ~5 wt% of biominerals, they are critical players in biomineralization. With the development of high-throughput analysis methods, such as proteomics, biomineral protein data are rapidly accumulating, thus necessitating a refined model for biomineralization. This review focuses on biomineral proteomics in invertebrate animals to highlight the diversity of biomineral proteins (generally 40-80 proteins), and the results indicate that biomineralization includes thermodynamic crystal growth as well as intense extracellular matrix activity and/or vesicle transport. Biominerals have multiple functions linked to biological immunity and antipathogen activity. A comparison of proteomes across species and biomineral types showed that von Willebrand factor type A and epidermal growth factor, which frequently couple with other extracellular domains, are the most common domains. Combined with species-specific repetitive low complexity domains, shell matrix proteins can be employed to predict biomineral types. Furthermore, this review discusses the applications of biomineral proteomics in diverse fields, such as tissue regeneration, developmental biology, archeology, environmental science, and material science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuang Liu
- College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Xikang Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210098, China.
| | - Rongqing Zhang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Enzymology, Yangtze Delta Region Institute of Tsinghua University, 705 Yatai Road, Jiaxing 314006, PR China; College of Biological, Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, China.
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21
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Conci N, Vargas S, Wörheide G. The Biology and Evolution of Calcite and Aragonite Mineralization in Octocorallia. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.623774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Octocorallia (class Anthozoa, phylum Cnidaria) is a group of calcifying corals displaying a wide diversity of mineral skeletons. This includes skeletal structures composed of different calcium carbonate polymorphs (aragonite and calcite). This represents a unique feature among anthozoans, as scleractinian corals (subclass Hexacorallia), main reef builders and focus of biomineralization research, are all characterized by an aragonite exoskeleton. From an evolutionary perspective, the presence of aragonitic skeletons in Octocorallia is puzzling as it is observed in very few species and has apparently originated during a Calcite sea (i.e., time interval characterized by calcite-inducing seawater conditions). Despite this, octocorals have been systematically overlooked in biomineralization studies. Here we review what is known about octocoral biomineralization, focusing on the evolutionary and biological processes that underlie calcite and aragonite formation. Although differences in research focus between octocorals and scleractinians are often mentioned, we highlight how strong variability also exists between different octocoral groups. Different main aspects of octocoral biomineralization have been in fact studied in a small set of species, including the (calcitic) gorgonian Leptogorgia virgulata and/or the precious coral Corallium rubrum. These include descriptions of calcifying cells (scleroblasts), calcium transport and chemistry of the calcification fluids. With the exception of few histological observations, no information on these features is available for aragonitic octocorals. Availability of sequencing data is also heterogeneous between groups, with no transcriptome or genome available, for instance, for the clade Calcaxonia. Although calcite represents by far the most common polymorph deposited by octocorals, we argue that studying aragonite-forming could provide insight on octocoral, and more generally anthozoan, biomineralization. First and foremost it would allow to compare calcification processes between octocoral groups, highlighting homologies and differences. Secondly, similarities (exoskeleton) between Heliopora and scleractinian skeletons, would provide further insight on which biomineralization features are driven by skeleton characteristics (shared by scleractinians and aragonitic octocorals) and those driven by taxonomy (shared by octocorals regardless of skeleton polymorph). Including the diversity of anthozoan mineralization strategies into biomineralization studies remains thus essential to comprehensively study how skeletons form and evolved within this ecologically important group of marine animals.
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22
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Morgulis M, Winter MR, Shternhell L, Gildor T, Ben-Tabou de-Leon S. VEGF signaling activates the matrix metalloproteinases, MmpL7 and MmpL5 at the sites of active skeletal growth and MmpL7 regulates skeletal elongation. Dev Biol 2021; 473:80-89. [PMID: 33577829 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2021.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Organisms can uptake minerals, shape them in different forms and generate teeth, skeletons or shells that support and protect them. Mineral uptake, trafficking and nucleation are tightly regulated by the biomineralizing cells through networks of specialized proteins. Specifically, matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) digest various extracellular substrates and allow for mineralization in the vertebrates' teeth and bones, but little is known about their role in invertebrates' systems. The sea urchin embryo provides an excellent invertebrate model for genetic and molecular studies of biomineralization. MMP inhibition prevents the growth of the calcite spicules of the sea urchin larval skeleton, however, the molecular mechanisms and genes that underlie this response are not well understood. Here we study the spatial expression and regulation of two membrane type MMPs that were found to be occluded in the sea urchin spicules, Pl-MmpL7 and Pl-MmpL5, and investigate the function of Pl-MmpL7 in skeletogenesis. The inhibition of MMPs does not change the volume of the calcium vesicles in the skeletogenic cells. The expression of Pl-MmpL7 and Pl-MmpL5 is regulated by the Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) signaling, from the time of skeleton initiation and on. The expression of these genes is localized to the subsets of skeletogenic cells where active spicule growth occurs throughout skeletogenesis. Downregulation of Pl-MmpL7 expression delays the growth of the skeletal rods and in some cases, strongly perturbs skeletal shape. The localized expression of Pl-MmpL7 and Pl-MmpL5 to the active growth zone and the effect of Pl-MmpL7 perturbations on skeletal growth, suggest that these genes are essential for normal spicule elongation in the sea urchin embryo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miri Morgulis
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel
| | - Mark R Winter
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel
| | - Ligal Shternhell
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel
| | - Tsvia Gildor
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel
| | - Smadar Ben-Tabou de-Leon
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel.
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23
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Piovani L, Czarkwiani A, Ferrario C, Sugni M, Oliveri P. Ultrastructural and molecular analysis of the origin and differentiation of cells mediating brittle star skeletal regeneration. BMC Biol 2021; 19:9. [PMID: 33461552 PMCID: PMC7814545 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-020-00937-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Regeneration is the ability to re-grow body parts or tissues after trauma, and it is widespread across metazoans. Cells involved in regeneration can arise from a pool of undifferentiated proliferative cells or be recruited from pre-existing differentiated tissues. Both mechanisms have been described in different phyla; however, the cellular and molecular mechanisms employed by different animals to restore lost tissues as well as the source of cells involved in regeneration remain largely unknown. Echinoderms are a clade of deuterostome invertebrates that show striking larval and adult regenerative abilities in all extant classes. Here, we use the brittle star Amphiura filiformis to investigate the origin and differentiation of cells involved in skeletal regeneration using a combination of microscopy techniques and molecular markers. RESULTS Our ultrastructural analyses at different regenerative stages identify a population of morphologically undifferentiated cells which appear in close contact with the proliferating epithelium of the regenerating aboral coelomic cavity. These cells express skeletogenic marker genes, such as the transcription factor alx1 and the differentiation genes c-lectin and msp130L, and display a gradient of morphological differentiation from the aboral coelomic cavity towards the epidermis. Cells closer to the epidermis, which are in contact with developing spicules, have the morphology of mature skeletal cells (sclerocytes), and express several skeletogenic transcription factors and differentiation genes. Moreover, as regeneration progresses, sclerocytes show a different combinatorial expression of genes in various skeletal elements. CONCLUSIONS We hypothesize that sclerocyte precursors originate from the epithelium of the proliferating aboral coelomic cavity. As these cells migrate towards the epidermis, they differentiate and start secreting spicules. Moreover, our study shows that molecular and cellular processes involved in skeletal regeneration resemble those used during skeletal development, hinting at a possible conservation of developmental programmes during adult regeneration. Finally, we highlight that many genes involved in echinoderm skeletogenesis also play a role in vertebrate skeleton formation, suggesting a possible common origin of the deuterostome endoskeleton pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Piovani
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of Milan, Via Celoria, 2, 20133, Milan, Italy
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK
- Center for Life Origins and Evolution, University College London, London, UK
| | - Anna Czarkwiani
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK
- Present Address: DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Technische Universität Dresden (CRTD), Dresden, Germany
| | - Cinzia Ferrario
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of Milan, Via Celoria, 2, 20133, Milan, Italy
- Center for Complexity and Biosystems, Department of Physics, University of Milan, Via Celoria, 16, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Michela Sugni
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of Milan, Via Celoria, 2, 20133, Milan, Italy.
- Center for Complexity and Biosystems, Department of Physics, University of Milan, Via Celoria, 16, 20133, Milan, Italy.
- GAIA 2050 Center, Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of Milan, Via Celoria, 2, 20133, Milan, Italy.
| | - Paola Oliveri
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK.
- Center for Life Origins and Evolution, University College London, London, UK.
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24
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Le Roy N, Ganot P, Aranda M, Allemand D, Tambutté S. The skeletome of the red coral Corallium rubrum indicates an independent evolution of biomineralization process in octocorals. BMC Ecol Evol 2021; 21:1. [PMID: 33514311 PMCID: PMC7853314 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-020-01734-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The process of calcium carbonate biomineralization has arisen multiple times during metazoan evolution. In the phylum Cnidaria, biomineralization has mostly been studied in the subclass Hexacorallia (i.e. stony corals) in comparison to the subclass Octocorallia (i.e. red corals); the two diverged approximately 600 million years ago. The precious Mediterranean red coral, Corallium rubrum, is an octocorallian species, which produces two distinct high-magnesium calcite biominerals, the axial skeleton and the sclerites. In order to gain insight into the red coral biomineralization process and cnidarian biomineralization evolution, we studied the protein repertoire forming the organic matrix (OM) of its two biominerals. Results We combined High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry and transcriptome analysis to study the OM composition of the axial skeleton and the sclerites. We identified a total of 102 OM proteins, 52 are found in the two red coral biominerals with scleritin being the most abundant protein in each fraction. Contrary to reef building corals, the red coral organic matrix possesses a large number of collagen-like proteins. Agrin-like glycoproteins and proteins with sugar-binding domains are also predominant. Twenty-seven and 23 proteins were uniquely assigned to the axial skeleton and the sclerites, respectively. The inferred regulatory function of these OM proteins suggests that the difference between the two biominerals is due to the modeling of the matrix network, rather than the presence of specific structural components. At least one OM component could have been horizontally transferred from prokaryotes early during Octocorallia evolution. Conclusion Our results suggest that calcification of the red coral axial skeleton likely represents a secondary calcification of an ancestral gorgonian horny axis. In addition, the comparison with stony coral skeletomes highlighted the low proportion of similar proteins between the biomineral OMs of hexacorallian and octocorallian corals, suggesting an independent acquisition of calcification in anthozoans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Le Roy
- Centre Scientifique de Monaco, 8 Quai Antoine 1er, Monaco, MC, 98000, Monaco. .,BOA UMR83, INRAe Centre Val de Loire, 37380, Nouzilly, France.
| | - Philippe Ganot
- Centre Scientifique de Monaco, 8 Quai Antoine 1er, Monaco, MC, 98000, Monaco
| | - Manuel Aranda
- Red Sea Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Denis Allemand
- Centre Scientifique de Monaco, 8 Quai Antoine 1er, Monaco, MC, 98000, Monaco
| | - Sylvie Tambutté
- Centre Scientifique de Monaco, 8 Quai Antoine 1er, Monaco, MC, 98000, Monaco
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25
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Peled Y, Drake JL, Malik A, Almuly R, Lalzar M, Morgenstern D, Mass T. Optimization of skeletal protein preparation for LC-MS/MS sequencing yields additional coral skeletal proteins in Stylophora pistillata. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 2:8. [PMID: 32724895 PMCID: PMC7115838 DOI: 10.1186/s42833-020-00014-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Stony corals generate their calcium carbonate exoskeleton in a highly controlled biomineralization process mediated by a variety of macromolecules including proteins. Fully identifying and classifying these proteins is crucial to understanding their role in exoskeleton formation, yet no optimal method to purify and characterize the full suite of extracted coral skeletal proteins has been established and hence their complete composition remains obscure. Here, we tested four skeletal protein purification protocols using acetone precipitation and ultrafiltration dialysis filters to present a comprehensive scleractinian coral skeletal proteome. We identified a total of 60 proteins in the coral skeleton, 44 of which were not present in previously published stony coral skeletal proteomes. Extracted protein purification protocols carried out in this study revealed that no one method captures all proteins and each protocol revealed a unique set of method-exclusive proteins. To better understand the general mechanism of skeletal protein transportation, we further examined the proteins’ gene ontology, transmembrane domains, and signal peptides. We found that transmembrane domain proteins and signal peptide secretion pathways, by themselves, could not explain the transportation of proteins to the skeleton. We therefore propose that some proteins are transported to the skeleton via non-traditional secretion pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanai Peled
- Marine Biology Department, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Jeana L Drake
- Marine Biology Department, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Assaf Malik
- Marine Biology Department, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ricardo Almuly
- Marine Biology Department, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Maya Lalzar
- Bioinformatics Core Unit, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - David Morgenstern
- De Botton Protein Profiling Institute of the Nancy and Stephen Grand Israel National Center for Personalized Medicine, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Tali Mass
- Marine Biology Department, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
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26
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Li Y, Omori A, Flores RL, Satterfield S, Nguyen C, Ota T, Tsurugaya T, Ikuta T, Ikeo K, Kikuchi M, Leong JCK, Reich A, Hao M, Wan W, Dong Y, Ren Y, Zhang S, Zeng T, Uesaka M, Uchida Y, Li X, Shibata TF, Bino T, Ogawa K, Shigenobu S, Kondo M, Wang F, Chen L, Wessel G, Saiga H, Cameron RA, Livingston B, Bradham C, Wang W, Irie N. Genomic insights of body plan transitions from bilateral to pentameral symmetry in Echinoderms. Commun Biol 2020; 3:371. [PMID: 32651448 PMCID: PMC7351957 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-020-1091-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Echinoderms are an exceptional group of bilaterians that develop pentameral adult symmetry from a bilaterally symmetric larva. However, the genetic basis in evolution and development of this unique transformation remains to be clarified. Here we report newly sequenced genomes, developmental transcriptomes, and proteomes of diverse echinoderms including the green sea urchin (L. variegatus), a sea cucumber (A. japonicus), and with particular emphasis on a sister group of the earliest-diverged echinoderms, the feather star (A. japonica). We learned that the last common ancestor of echinoderms retained a well-organized Hox cluster reminiscent of the hemichordate, and had gene sets involved in endoskeleton development. Further, unlike in other animal groups, the most conserved developmental stages were not at the body plan establishing phase, and genes normally involved in bilaterality appear to function in pentameric axis development. These results enhance our understanding of the divergence of protostomes and deuterostomes almost 500 Mya. Li et al. investigate the evolution and genetic basis of the adult pentameral body plan in echinoderms using genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic data. They determine that the last common ancestor of echinoderms contained an organized Hox cluster and endoskeleton genes, and suggest that cooption of bilateral development genes was involved in evolution of the pentameric body plan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongxin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Akihito Omori
- Sado Island Center for Ecological Sustainability, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Rachel L Flores
- Dept. of Biological Sciences, California State Univesity, Long Beach, CA, USA
| | - Sheri Satterfield
- Dept. of Biological Sciences, California State Univesity, Long Beach, CA, USA
| | - Christine Nguyen
- Dept. of Biological Sciences, California State Univesity, Long Beach, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Tetsuro Ikuta
- Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), Kanagawa, Japan.,Tokyo Metropolitan University, Yokosuka, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | | | - Jason C K Leong
- Dept. of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Adrian Reich
- Providence Institute of Molecular Oogenesis, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Meng Hao
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Wenting Wan
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Yang Dong
- Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Yaondong Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Si Zhang
- Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Tao Zeng
- Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Masahiro Uesaka
- RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research (BDR), Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Yui Uchida
- Dept. of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,Universal Biology Institute, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Xueyan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Tomoko F Shibata
- Dept. of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takahiro Bino
- NIBB Core Research Facilities, National Institute of Basic Biology, Okazaki, Aichi, Japan
| | - Kota Ogawa
- Faculty of Social and Cultural Studies, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Shuji Shigenobu
- NIBB Core Research Facilities, National Institute of Basic Biology, Okazaki, Aichi, Japan
| | - Mariko Kondo
- Dept. of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Fayou Wang
- Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Luonan Chen
- Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Systems Biology, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Gary Wessel
- Providence Institute of Molecular Oogenesis, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Hidetoshi Saiga
- Tokyo Metropolitan University, Yokosuka, Tokyo, Japan.,Dept. of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,Chuo University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - R Andrew Cameron
- Beckman Institute, Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Brian Livingston
- Dept. of Biological Sciences, California State Univesity, Long Beach, CA, USA
| | | | - Wen Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China. .,School of Ecology and Environment, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, China.
| | - Naoki Irie
- Dept. of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan. .,Universal Biology Institute, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
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27
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Finney AR, Innocenti Malini R, Freeman CL, Harding JH. Amino Acid and Oligopeptide Effects on Calcium Carbonate Solutions. CRYSTAL GROWTH & DESIGN 2020; 20:3077-3092. [PMID: 32581657 PMCID: PMC7304842 DOI: 10.1021/acs.cgd.9b01693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Biological organisms display sophisticated control of nucleation and crystallization of minerals. In order to mimic living systems, deciphering the mechanisms by which organic molecules control the formation of mineral phases from solution is a key step. We have used computer simulations to investigate the effects of the amino acids arginine, aspartic acid, and glycine on species that form in solutions of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) at lower and higher levels of supersaturation. This provides net positive, negative, and neutral additives. In addition, we have prepared simulations containing hexapeptides of the amino acids to consider the effect of additive size on the solution species. We find that additives have limited impact on the formation of extended, liquid-like CaCO3 networks in supersaturated solutions. Additives control the amount of (bi)carbonate in solution, but more importantly, they are able to stabilize these networks on the time scales of the simulations. This is achieved by coordinating the networks and assembled additive clusters in solutions. The association leads to subtle changes in the coordination of CaCO3 and reduced mobility of the cations. We find that the number of solute association sites and the size and topology of the additives are more important than their net charge. Our results help to understand why polymer additives are so effective at stabilizing dense liquid CaCO3 phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron R. Finney
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University
of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, United Kingdom
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University College
London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
- E-mail:
| | - Riccardo Innocenti Malini
- Laboratory
for Biomimetic Membranes and Textiles, EMPA,
Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, St. Gallen 9014, Switzerland
| | - Colin L. Freeman
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University
of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, United Kingdom
| | - John H. Harding
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University
of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, United Kingdom
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28
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Skeletal development in the sea urchin relies upon protein families that contain intrinsic disorder, aggregation-prone, and conserved globular interactive domains. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0222068. [PMID: 31574084 PMCID: PMC6771980 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0222068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The formation of the sea urchin spicule skeleton requires the participation of hydrogel-forming protein families that regulate mineral nucleation and nanoparticle assembly processes that give rise to the spicule. However, the structure and molecular behavior of these proteins is not well established, and thus our ability to understand this process is hampered. We embarked on a study of sea urchin spicule proteins using a combination of biophysical and bioinformatics techniques. Our biophysical findings indicate that recombinant variants of the two most studied spicule matrix proteins, SpSM50 and SpSM30B/C (S. purpuratus) have a conformational landscape that include a C-terminal random coil/intrinsically disordered MAPQG sequence coupled to a conserved, folded N-terminal C-type lectin-like (CTLL) domain, with SpSM50 > SpSM30B/C with regard to intrinsic disorder. Both proteins possess solvent-accessible unfolded MAQPG sequence regions where Asn, Gln, and Arg residues may be accessible for protein hydrogel interactions with water molecules. Our bioinformatics study included seven other spicule matrix proteins where we note similarities between these proteins and rare, unusual proteins that possess folded and unfolded traits. Moreover, spicule matrix proteins possess three types of sequences: intrinsically disordered, amyloid-like, and folded protein-protein interactive. Collectively these reactive domains would be capable of driving protein assembly and hydrogel formation. Interestingly, three types of global conformations are predicted for the nine member protein set, wherein we note variations in the arrangement of intrinsically disordered and interactive globular domains. These variations may reflect species-specific requirements for spiculogenesis. We conclude that the molecular landscape of spicule matrix protein families enables them to function as hydrogelators, nucleators, and assemblers of mineral nanoparticles.
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29
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PI3K inhibition highlights new molecular interactions involved in the skeletogenesis of Paracentrotus lividus embryos. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2019; 1867:118558. [PMID: 31525406 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2019.118558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Revised: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The sea urchin embryo develops a well-defined biomineralized endoskeleton, synthesized exclusively by the skeletogenic cells, supported by ectodermal cues for the correct skeleton patterning. The biomineralization process is tightly regulated via a hierarchical order of gene expression, including transcription and growth factors, biomineralization proteins. Recently, the role of kinases and intracellular signaling pathways in sea urchin skeletogenesis has been addressed, although the downstream components still remain unknown. In this study, we investigated the role of phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-mediated signaling pathway in Paracentrotus lividus, to identify its genes/proteins targets. The effects of LY294002 (LY), a PI3K-specific inhibitor, were evaluated at morphological and molecular levels. Treatment with 40 μM LY from the blastula stage completely blocked skeleton deposition, which was reversed by wash out experiments. Besides, LY caused a slight delay in the tripartite gut development. Despite the skeleton absence, a few skeleton-specific proteins/mRNAs were regularly expressed and localized in LY-treated embryos, as shown for MSP130 and SM50 by immunofluorescence and in situ hybridization experiments. QPCR analyses showed that LY differently affected the expression of genes coding for other biomineralization proteins, transcription and growth factors. SM30 and carbonic anhydrase expression was severely downregulated, while almost all the transcription factors analyzed were upregulated. Based on the present results and in silico analyses, we propose an "interactomic" model simulating PI3K connections in P. lividus embryos. Our findings define a novel regulatory step in the embryonic skeletogenesis, and provide valuable molecular data for further studies on the role of PI3K signaling in invertebrate biomineralization.
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30
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Evans JS. The Biomineralization Proteome: Protein Complexity for a Complex Bioceramic Assembly Process. Proteomics 2019; 19:e1900036. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201900036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John Spencer Evans
- Laboratory for Chemical PhysicsDepartment of Skeletal and Craniofacial BiologyNew York University College of Dentistry New York NY 10010 USA
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31
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Rao A, Roncal-Herrero T, Schmid E, Drechsler M, Scheffner M, Gebauer D, Kröger R, Cölfen H. On Biomineralization: Enzymes Switch on Mesocrystal Assembly. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2019; 5:357-364. [PMID: 30834324 PMCID: PMC6396387 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.8b00853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Cellular machineries guide the bottom-up pathways toward crystal superstructures based on the transport of inorganic precursors and their precise integration with organic frameworks. The biosynthesis of mesocrystalline spines entails concerted interactions between biomolecules and inorganic precursors; however, the bioinorganic interactions and interfaces that regulate material form and growth as well as the selective emergence of structural complexity in the form of nanostructured crystals are not clear. By investigating mineral nucleation under the regulation of recombinant proteins, we show that SpSM50, a matrix protein of the sea urchin spine, stabilizes mineral precursors via vesicle-confinement, a function conferred by a low-complexity, disordered region. Site-specific proteolysis of this domain by a collagenase initiates phase transformation of the confined mineral phase. The residual C-type lectin domain molds the fluidic mineral precursor into hierarchical mesocrystals identical to structural crystal modules constituting the biogenic mineral. Thus, the regulatory functions of proteolytic enzymes can guide biomacromolecular domain constitutions and interfaces, in turn determining inorganic phase transformations toward hybrid materials as well as integrating organic and inorganic components across hierarchical length scales. Bearing striking resemblance to biogenic mineralization, these hybrid materials recruit bioinorganic interactions which elegantly intertwine nucleation and crystallization phenomena with biomolecular structural dynamics, hence elucidating a long-sought key of how nature can orchestrate complex biomineralization processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashit Rao
- Physical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University
of Konstanz, Universitätsstr. 10, Konstanz 78464, Germany
- Faculty
of Science and Technology, Physics of Complex Fluids, University of Twente, PO Box 217, Enschede 7500 AE, The
Netherlands
| | - Teresa Roncal-Herrero
- Department
of Physics, University of York, Heslington YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
- School
of Chemical and Process Engineering, University
of Leeds, 211 Clarendon
Road, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Elina Schmid
- Physical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University
of Konstanz, Universitätsstr. 10, Konstanz 78464, Germany
| | - Markus Drechsler
- Bavarian
Polymer Institute, Keylab Electron and Optical Microscopy, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstr. 30, Bayreuth 95440, Germany
| | - Martin Scheffner
- Cellular
Biochemistry, Department of Biology, University
of Konstanz, Universitätsstr. 10, Konstanz 78464, Germany
| | - Denis Gebauer
- Physical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University
of Konstanz, Universitätsstr. 10, Konstanz 78464, Germany
| | - Roland Kröger
- Department
of Physics, University of York, Heslington YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Helmut Cölfen
- Physical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University
of Konstanz, Universitätsstr. 10, Konstanz 78464, Germany
- E-mail:
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32
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Evans JS. Composite Materials Design: Biomineralization Proteins and the Guided Assembly and Organization of Biomineral Nanoparticles. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 12:E581. [PMID: 30781347 PMCID: PMC6416723 DOI: 10.3390/ma12040581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2019] [Revised: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
There has been much discussion of the role of proteins in the calcium carbonate biomineralization process, particularly with regard to nucleation, amorphous stabilization/transformation, and polymorph selection. However, there has been little if any discussion of the potential role that proteins might play in another important process: the guided assembly and organization of mineral nanoparticles into higher-ordered structures such as mesocrystals. This review discusses particle attachment theory and recent evidence of mineral-associated proteins forming hydrogels that assemble and organize mineral clusters into crystalline phase. From this discussion we postulate a mechanism by which biomineralization protein hydrogel aggregation assists in mineral nanoparticle assembly and organization within calcium carbonate skeletal elements and discuss potentials ways for harnessing this process in materials design.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Spencer Evans
- Laboratory for Chemical Physics, Center for Skeletal and Craniofacial Biology, New York University, 345 E. 24th Street, New York, NY 10010, USA.
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33
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Moreno B, DiCorato A, Park A, Mobilia K, Knapp R, Bleher R, Wilke C, Alvares K, Joester D. Culture of and experiments with sea urchin embryo primary mesenchyme cells. Methods Cell Biol 2019; 150:293-330. [PMID: 30777181 PMCID: PMC8273911 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mcb.2019.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Skeletogenesis in the sea urchin embryo gives rise to a pair of intricate endoskeletal spicules. Deposition of these skeletal elements in the early larva is the outcome of a morphogenetic program that begins with maternal inputs in the early zygote and results in the specification of the large micromere-primary mesenchyme cell (PMC) lineage. PMCs are of considerable interest as a model system, not only to dissect the mechanism of specific developmental processes, but also to investigate their evolution and the unrivaled level of control over the formation of a graded, mechanically robust, yet single crystalline biomineral. The ability to study gene regulatory circuits, cellular behavior, signaling pathways, and molecular players involved in biomineralization is significantly boosted by the high level of autonomy of PMCs. In fact, in the presence of horse serum, micromeres differentiate into PMCs and produce spicules in vitro, separated from the embryonic milieu. PMC culture eliminates indirect effects that can complicate the interpretation of experiments in vivo, offers superior spatiotemporal control, enables PMC-specific readouts, and is compatible with most imaging and characterization techniques. In this chapter, we provide an updated protocol, based on the pioneering work by Okazaki and Wilt, for the isolation of micromeres and subsequent culture of PMCs, as well as protocols for fixation and staining for fluorescent microscopy, preparation of cell cultures for electron microscopy, and the isolation of RNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley Moreno
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
| | - Allessandra DiCorato
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
| | - Alexander Park
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
| | - Kellen Mobilia
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
| | - Regina Knapp
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
| | - Reiner Bleher
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
| | - Charlene Wilke
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
| | - Keith Alvares
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
| | - Derk Joester
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States.
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34
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Shimizu K, Kimura K, Isowa Y, Oshima K, Ishikawa M, Kagi H, Kito K, Hattori M, Chiba S, Endo K. Insights into the Evolution of Shells and Love Darts of Land Snails Revealed from Their Matrix Proteins. Genome Biol Evol 2019; 11:380-397. [PMID: 30388206 PMCID: PMC6368272 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evy242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past decade, many skeletal matrix proteins that are possibly related to calcification have been reported in various calcifying animals. Molluscs are among the most diverse calcifying animals and some gastropods have adapted to terrestrial ecological niches. Although many shell matrix proteins (SMPs) have already been reported in molluscs, most reports have focused on marine molluscs, and the SMPs of terrestrial snails remain unclear. In addition, some terrestrial stylommatophoran snails have evolved an additional unique calcified character, called a "love dart," used for mating behavior. We identified 54 SMPs in the terrestrial snail Euhadra quaesita, and found that they contain specific domains that are widely conserved in molluscan SMPs. However, our results also suggest that some of them possibly have evolved independently by domain shuffling, domain recruitment, or gene co-option. We then identified four dart matrix proteins, and found that two of them are the same proteins as those identified as SMPs. Our results suggest that some dart matrix proteins possibly have evolved by independent gene co-option from SMPs during dart evolution events. These results provide a new perspective on the evolution of SMPs and "love darts" in land snails.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Shimizu
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, The University of Tokyo, Hongo, Japan
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Kazuki Kimura
- Department of Environmental Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
- Research Institute for Ulleungdo and Dokdo Islands, Kyungpook National University, Bukgu, Daegu, Korea
| | - Yukinobu Isowa
- Organization for the Strategic Coordination of Research and Intellectual Properties, Meiji University, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Kenshiro Oshima
- Center for Omics and Bioinformatics, Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan
| | - Makiko Ishikawa
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, The University of Tokyo, Hongo, Japan
- Faculty of Animal Health Technology, Yamazaki University of Animal Health Technology, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Kagi
- Geochemical Research Center, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Hongo, Japan
| | - Keiji Kito
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Agriculture, Meiji University, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Masahira Hattori
- Center for Omics and Bioinformatics, Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan
- Cooperative Major of Advanced Health Science, Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Japan
| | - Satoshi Chiba
- Department of Environmental Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Kazuyoshi Endo
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, The University of Tokyo, Hongo, Japan
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35
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Shashikant T, Khor JM, Ettensohn CA. From genome to anatomy: The architecture and evolution of the skeletogenic gene regulatory network of sea urchins and other echinoderms. Genesis 2018; 56:e23253. [PMID: 30264451 PMCID: PMC6294693 DOI: 10.1002/dvg.23253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Revised: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 09/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The skeletogenic gene regulatory network (GRN) of sea urchins and other echinoderms is one of the most intensively studied transcriptional networks in any developing organism. As such, it serves as a preeminent model of GRN architecture and evolution. This review summarizes our current understanding of this developmental network. We describe in detail the most comprehensive model of the skeletogenic GRN, one developed for the euechinoid sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, including its initial deployment by maternal inputs, its elaboration and stabilization through regulatory gene interactions, and its control of downstream effector genes that directly drive skeletal morphogenesis. We highlight recent comparative studies that have leveraged the euechinoid GRN model to examine the evolution of skeletogenic programs in diverse echinoderms, studies that have revealed both conserved and divergent features of skeletogenesis within the phylum. Last, we summarize the major insights that have emerged from analysis of the structure and evolution of the echinoderm skeletogenic GRN and identify key, unresolved questions as a guide for future work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanvi Shashikant
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Jian Ming Khor
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Charles A Ettensohn
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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36
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Pendola M, Jain G, Huang YC, Gebauer D, Evans JS. Secrets of the Sea Urchin Spicule Revealed: Protein Cooperativity Is Responsible for ACC Transformation, Intracrystalline Incorporation, and Guided Mineral Particle Assembly in Biocomposite Material Formation. ACS OMEGA 2018; 3:11823-11830. [PMID: 30320276 PMCID: PMC6173553 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b01697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The formation of the sea urchin spicule involves the stabilization and transformation of amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC) and assembly of ACC nanoparticle precursors into a mesoscale single crystal of fracture-resistant calcite. This process of particle assembly or attachment is under the control of a family of proteins known as the spicule matrix [Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (SpSM)] proteome. Recently, two members of this proteome, SpSM50 and the glycoprotein SpSM30B/C-G (in recombinant forms), were found to interact together via SpSM30B/C-G oligosaccharide-SpSM50 protein interactions to form hybrid protein hydrogels with unique physical properties. In this study, we investigate the mineralization properties of this hybrid hydrogel alongside the hydrogels formed by SpSM50 and SpSM30B/C-G individually. We find that the SpSM50 + SpSM30B/C-G hybrid hydrogel is synergistic with regard to surface modifications and intracrystalline inclusions of existing calcite crystals, the inhibition of ACC formation, and the kinetic destabilization of ACC to form a crystalline phase. Most importantly, the hybrid hydrogel phase assembles and organizes mineral particles into discrete clusters or domains within in vitro mineralization environments. Thus, the interactions of SpSM50 and SpSM30B/C-G, mediated by carbohydrate-protein binding, reflect the need for protein cooperativity for the ACC-to-crystalline transformation, intracrystalline void formation, and guided mineral particle assembly processes that are instrumental in spicule formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Pendola
- Laboratory
for Chemical Physics, Center for Skeletal and Craniofacial Biology, New York University, 345 E. 24th Street, New
York, New York 10010, United States
| | - Gaurav Jain
- Laboratory
for Chemical Physics, Center for Skeletal and Craniofacial Biology, New York University, 345 E. 24th Street, New
York, New York 10010, United States
| | - Yu-Chieh Huang
- Department
of Chemistry, Physical Chemistry, Universität
Konstanz, Universitätstrasse 10, Konstanz D-78457, Germany
| | - Denis Gebauer
- Department
of Chemistry, Physical Chemistry, Universität
Konstanz, Universitätstrasse 10, Konstanz D-78457, Germany
| | - John Spencer Evans
- Laboratory
for Chemical Physics, Center for Skeletal and Craniofacial Biology, New York University, 345 E. 24th Street, New
York, New York 10010, United States
- E-mail: (J.S.E.)
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Mann K, Cerveau N, Gummich M, Fritz M, Mann M, Jackson DJ. In-depth proteomic analyses of Haliotis laevigata (greenlip abalone) nacre and prismatic organic shell matrix. Proteome Sci 2018; 16:11. [PMID: 29983641 PMCID: PMC6003135 DOI: 10.1186/s12953-018-0139-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The shells of various Haliotis species have served as models of invertebrate biomineralization and physical shell properties for more than 20 years. A focus of this research has been the nacreous inner layer of the shell with its conspicuous arrangement of aragonite platelets, resembling in cross-section a brick-and-mortar wall. In comparison, the outer, less stable, calcitic prismatic layer has received much less attention. One of the first molluscan shell proteins to be characterized at the molecular level was Lustrin A, a component of the nacreous organic matrix of Haliotis rufescens. This was soon followed by the C-type lectin perlucin and the growth factor-binding perlustrin, both isolated from H. laevigata nacre, and the crystal growth-modulating AP7 and AP24, isolated from H. rufescens nacre. Mass spectrometry-based proteomics was subsequently applied to to Haliotis biomineralization research with the analysis of the H. asinina shell matrix and yielded 14 different shell-associated proteins. That study was the most comprehensive for a Haliotis species to date. Methods The shell proteomes of nacre and prismatic layer of the marine gastropod Haliotis laevigata were analyzed combining mass spectrometry-based proteomics and next generation sequencing. Results We identified 297 proteins from the nacreous shell layer and 350 proteins from the prismatic shell layer from the green lip abalone H. laevigata. Considering the overlap between the two sets we identified a total of 448 proteins. Fifty-one nacre proteins and 43 prismatic layer proteins were defined as major proteins based on their abundance at more than 0.2% of the total. The remaining proteins occurred at low abundance and may not play any significant role in shell fabrication. The overlap of major proteins between the two shell layers was 17, amounting to a total of 77 major proteins. Conclusions The H. laevigata shell proteome shares moderate sequence similarity at the protein level with other gastropod, bivalve and more distantly related invertebrate biomineralising proteomes. Features conserved in H. laevigata and other molluscan shell proteomes include short repetitive sequences of low complexity predicted to lack intrinsic three-dimensional structure, and domains such as tyrosinase, chitin-binding, and carbonic anhydrase. This catalogue of H. laevigata shell proteins represents the most comprehensive for a haliotid and should support future efforts to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of shell assembly. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12953-018-0139-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karlheinz Mann
- 1Abteilung Proteomics und Signaltransduktion, Max-Planck-Institut für Biochemie, Am Klopferspitz 18, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany
| | - Nicolas Cerveau
- 2Department of Geobiology, Georg-August University of Göttingen, Goldschmidstr. 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Meike Gummich
- 3Universität Bremen, Institut für Biophysik, Otto Hahn Allee NW1, D-28334 Bremen, Germany
| | - Monika Fritz
- 3Universität Bremen, Institut für Biophysik, Otto Hahn Allee NW1, D-28334 Bremen, Germany
| | - Matthias Mann
- 1Abteilung Proteomics und Signaltransduktion, Max-Planck-Institut für Biochemie, Am Klopferspitz 18, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany
| | - Daniel J Jackson
- 2Department of Geobiology, Georg-August University of Göttingen, Goldschmidstr. 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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Jain G, Pendola M, Koutsoumpeli E, Johnson S, Evans JS. Glycosylation Fosters Interactions between Model Sea Urchin Spicule Matrix Proteins. Implications for Embryonic Spiculogenesis and Biomineralization. Biochemistry 2018; 57:3032-3035. [PMID: 29757633 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.8b00207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The formation of embryonic mineralized skeletal elements (spicules) in the sea urchin requires the participation of proteins, many of which may interact with one another and assist in the creation of an extracellular matrix wherein mineral formation takes place. To probe this, we created a sea urchin spicule recombinant model protein pair system wherein we tested the interactions between two major spicule proteins, SpSM50 and the glycoprotein, SpSM30B/C. Both proteins are strong hydrogelators that manipulate early and later events in mineral formation. We discovered that the anionic glycan moieties of SpSM30B/C are required for interaction with the SpSM50 protein and that these interactions are Ca(II)-independent. In addition, when these proteins form a complex, they create hybrid hydrogel particles that are physically distinct from their individual counterparts. Thus, glycan-mediated interactions play an important role in in vitro spicule protein assembly and most likely within the spicule itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaurav Jain
- Laboratory for Chemical Physics, Center for Skeletal and Craniofacial Biology , New York University , 345 East 24th Street , New York , New York 10010 , United States
| | - Martin Pendola
- Laboratory for Chemical Physics, Center for Skeletal and Craniofacial Biology , New York University , 345 East 24th Street , New York , New York 10010 , United States
| | - Eleni Koutsoumpeli
- Department of Electronic Engineering , University of York , Heslington, York YO105DD , United Kingdom
| | - Steven Johnson
- Department of Electronic Engineering , University of York , Heslington, York YO105DD , United Kingdom
| | - John Spencer Evans
- Laboratory for Chemical Physics, Center for Skeletal and Craniofacial Biology , New York University , 345 East 24th Street , New York , New York 10010 , United States
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Dylus DV, Czarkwiani A, Blowes LM, Elphick MR, Oliveri P. Developmental transcriptomics of the brittle star Amphiura filiformis reveals gene regulatory network rewiring in echinoderm larval skeleton evolution. Genome Biol 2018; 19:26. [PMID: 29490679 PMCID: PMC5831733 DOI: 10.1186/s13059-018-1402-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Amongst the echinoderms the class Ophiuroidea is of particular interest for its phylogenetic position, ecological importance and developmental and regenerative biology. However, compared to other echinoderms, notably echinoids (sea urchins), relatively little is known about developmental changes in gene expression in ophiuroids. To address this issue, we have generated and assembled a large RNAseq data set of four key stages of development in the brittle star Amphiura filiformis and a de novo reference transcriptome of comparable quality to that of a model echinoderm—the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Furthermore, we provide access to the new data via a web interface: http://www.echinonet.eu/shiny/Amphiura_filiformis/. Results We have identified highly conserved genes associated with the development of a biomineralised skeleton. We also identify important class-specific characters, including the independent duplication of the msp130 class of genes in different echinoderm classes and the unique occurrence of spicule matrix (sm) genes in echinoids. Using a new quantification pipeline for our de novo transcriptome, validated with other methodologies, we find major differences between brittle stars and sea urchins in the temporal expression of many transcription factor genes. This divergence in developmental regulatory states is more evident in early stages of development when cell specification begins, rather than when cells initiate differentiation. Conclusions Our findings indicate that there has been a high degree of gene regulatory network rewiring and clade-specific gene duplication, supporting the hypothesis of a convergent evolution of larval skeleton development in echinoderms. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13059-018-1402-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- David V Dylus
- Research Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, Darwin Building, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.,CoMPLEX/SysBio, UCL, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.,Present address: Department of Computational Biology, UNIL, Genopode, 1005, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Anna Czarkwiani
- Research Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, Darwin Building, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Liisa M Blowes
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London, E1 4NS, UK.,Present address: Centre for Cell Biology & Cutaneous Research, Blizard Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 2AT, UK
| | - Maurice R Elphick
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London, E1 4NS, UK
| | - Paola Oliveri
- Research Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, Darwin Building, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK. .,Centre for Life's Origins and Evolution (CLOE), UCL, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.
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40
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Taylor E, Heyland A. Thyroid Hormones Accelerate Initiation of Skeletogenesis via MAPK (ERK1/2) in Larval Sea Urchins ( Strongylocentrotus purpuratus). Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2018; 9:439. [PMID: 30127765 PMCID: PMC6087762 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormones are important regulators of development and metabolism in animals. Their function via genomic and non-genomic actions is well-established in vertebrate species but remains largely elusive among invertebrates. Previous work suggests that thyroid hormones, principally 3,5,3',5'-Tetraiodo-L-thyronine (T4), regulate development to metamorphosis in sea urchins. Here we show that thyroid hormones, including T4, 3,5,3'-triiodo-l-thyronine (T3), and 3,5-Diiodothyronine (T2) accelerate initiation of skeletogenesis in sea urchin gastrulae and pluteus larvae of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, as measured by skeletal spicule formation. Fluorescently conjugated hormones show T4 binding to primary mesenchyme cells in sea urchin gastrulae. Furthermore, our investigation of TH mediated skeletogenesis shows that Ets1, a transcription factor controlling initiation of skeletogenesis, is a target of activated (phosphorylated) mitogen-activated protein kinase [MAPK; extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2)]. As well, we show that PD98059, an inhibitor of ERK1/2 MAPK signaling, prevents the T4 mediated acceleration of skeletogenesis and upregulation of Ets1. In contrast, SB203580, an inhibitor of p38 MAPK signaling, did not inhibit the effect of T4. Immunohistochemistry revealed that T4 causes phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in presumptive primary mesenchyme cells and the basal membrane of epithelial cells in the gastrula. Pre-incubation of sea urchin gastrulae with RGD peptide, a competitive inhibitor of TH binding to integrins, inhibited the effect of T4 on skeletogenesis. Together, these experiments provide evidence that T4 acts via a MAPK- (ERK1/2) mediated integrin membrane receptor to accelerate skeletogenesis in sea urchin mesenchyme cells. These findings shed light, for the first time, on a putative non-genomic pathway of TH action in a non-chordate deuterostome and help elucidate the evolutionary history of TH signaling in animals.
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Marie B, Arivalagan J, Mathéron L, Bolbach G, Berland S, Marie A, Marin F. Deep conservation of bivalve nacre proteins highlighted by shell matrix proteomics of the Unionoida Elliptio complanata and Villosa lienosa. J R Soc Interface 2017; 14:rsif.2016.0846. [PMID: 28123096 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2016.0846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The formation of the molluscan shell nacre is regulated to a large extent by a matrix of extracellular macromolecules that are secreted by the shell-forming tissue, the mantle. This so-called 'calcifying matrix' is a complex mixture of proteins, glycoproteins and polysaccharides that is assembled and occluded within the mineral phase during the calcification process. Better molecular-level characterization of the substances that regulate nacre formation is still required. Notable advances in expressed tag sequencing of freshwater mussels, such as Elliptio complanata and Villosa lienosa, provide a pre-requisite to further characterize bivalve nacre proteins by a proteomic approach. In this study, we have identified a total of 48 different proteins from the insoluble matrices of the nacre, 31 of which are common to both E. complanata and V. lienosa A few of these proteins, such as PIF, MSI60, CA, shematrin-like, Kunitz-like, LamG, chitin-binding-containing proteins, together with A-, D-, G-, M- and Q-rich proteins, appear to be analogues, if not true homologues, of proteins previously described from the pearl oyster or the edible mussel nacre matrices, thus forming a remarkable list of deeply conserved nacre proteins. This work constitutes a comprehensive nacre proteomic study of non-pteriomorphid bivalves that has enabled us to describe the molecular basis of a deeply conserved biomineralization toolkit among nacreous shell-bearing bivalves, with regard to proteins associated with other shell microstructures, with those of other mollusc classes (gastropods, cephalopods) and, finally, with other lophotrochozoans (brachiopods).
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Marie
- UMR 7245 CNRS/MNHN Molécules de Communications et Adaptations des Micro-organismes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
| | - Jaison Arivalagan
- UMR 7245 CNRS/MNHN Molécules de Communications et Adaptations des Micro-organismes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
| | - Lucrèce Mathéron
- UMR 7203 CNRS/UPMC/ENS/INSERM Laboratoire des Biomolécules, Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
| | - Gérard Bolbach
- UMR 7203 CNRS/UPMC/ENS/INSERM Laboratoire des Biomolécules, Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
| | - Sophie Berland
- UMR 7208 CNRS/MNHN/UPMC/IRD Biologie des Organismes Aquatiques et Ecosystèmes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
| | - Arul Marie
- UMR 7245 CNRS/MNHN Molécules de Communications et Adaptations des Micro-organismes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
| | - Frédéric Marin
- UMR 6282 CNRS/uB Biogéosciences, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté (UB-FC), Dijon, France
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Pendola M, Davidyants A, Jung YS, Evans JS. Sea Urchin Spicule Matrix Proteins Form Mesoscale "Smart" Hydrogels That Exhibit Selective Ion Interactions. ACS OMEGA 2017; 2:6151-6158. [PMID: 31457861 PMCID: PMC6644494 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.7b00719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 09/13/2017] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
In the sea urchin embryo spicule, there exists a proteome of >200 proteins that are responsible for controlling the mineralization of the spicule and the formation of a fracture-resistant composite. In this report, using recombinant proteins, we identify that two protein components of the spicule, SM30B/C and SM50, are hydrogelators. Because of the presence of intrinsic disorder and aggregation-prone regions, these proteins assemble to form porous mesoscale hydrogel particles in solution. These hydrogel particles change their size, organization, and internal structure in response to pH and ions, particularly Ca(II), which indicates that these behave as ion-responsive or "smart" hydrogels. Using diffusion-ordered spectroscopy NMR, we find that both hydrogels affect the diffusion of water, but only SM50 affects the diffusion of an anionic solute. Thus, the extracellular matrix of the spicule consists of several hydrogelator proteins which are responsive to solution conditions and can control the diffusion of water and solutes, and these proteins will serve as a model system for designing ion-responsive, composite, and smart hydrogels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Pendola
- Center for Skeletal Biology and Craniofacial
Medicine, Laboratory for Chemical Physics, New York University College of Dentistry, 345 East 24th Street, New
York, New York 10010, United States
| | - Anastasia Davidyants
- Center for Skeletal Biology and Craniofacial
Medicine, Laboratory for Chemical Physics, New York University College of Dentistry, 345 East 24th Street, New
York, New York 10010, United States
| | - Yong Seob Jung
- Center for Skeletal Biology and Craniofacial
Medicine, Laboratory for Chemical Physics, New York University College of Dentistry, 345 East 24th Street, New
York, New York 10010, United States
| | - John Spencer Evans
- Center for Skeletal Biology and Craniofacial
Medicine, Laboratory for Chemical Physics, New York University College of Dentistry, 345 East 24th Street, New
York, New York 10010, United States
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43
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Endocytosis in primary mesenchyme cells during sea urchin larval skeletogenesis. Exp Cell Res 2017; 359:205-214. [PMID: 28782554 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2017.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Revised: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 07/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The sea urchin larval embryo elaborates two calcitic endoskeletal elements called spicules. Spicules are synthesized by the primary mesenchyme cells (PMCs) and begin to form at early gastrula stage. It is known that the calcium comprising the spicules comes from the seawater and we wish to further consider the mode of calcium transport from the extracellular seawater to the PMCs and then onto the forming spicules. We used PMC in vitro cultures, calcein, fluorescently labeled dextran, and fluorescently labeled Wheat Germ Agglutinin (WGA) to track calcium transport from the seawater into PMCs and spicules and to determine how molecules from the surface of PMCs interact with the incoming calcium. Labeling of PMC endocytic vesicles and forming spicules by both calcein and fluorescently tagged dextran indicate that calcium is taken up from the seawater by endocytosis and directly incorporated into spicules. Calcein labeling studies also indicate that calcium from the extracellular seawater begins to be incorporated into spicules within 30min of uptake. In addition, we demonstrate that fluorescently labeled WGA and calcein are taken up by many of the same endocytic vesicles and are incorporated into growing spicules. These findings suggest that PMC specific surface molecules accompany calcium ions as they enter PMCs via endocytosis and are incorporated together in the growing spicule. Using anti-spicule matrix protein antibodies, we pinpoint a subset of spicule matrix proteins that may accompany calcium ions from the surface of the PMCs until they are incorporated into spicules. Msp130 is identified as one of these spicule matrix proteins.
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44
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Flores RL, Livingston BT. The skeletal proteome of the sea star Patiria miniata and evolution of biomineralization in echinoderms. BMC Evol Biol 2017; 17:125. [PMID: 28583083 PMCID: PMC5460417 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-017-0978-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Proteomic studies of skeletal proteins have revealed large, complex mixtures of proteins occluded within the mineral. Many skeletal proteomes contain rapidly evolving proteins with repetitive domains, further complicating our understanding. In echinoderms, proteomic analysis of the skeletal proteomes of mineralized tissues of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus prominently featured spicule matrix proteins with repetitive sequences linked to a C-type lectin domain. A comparative study of the brittle star Ophiocoma wendtii skeletal proteome revealed an order of magnitude fewer proteins containing C-type lectin domains. A number of other proteins conserved in the skeletons of the two groups were identified. Here we report the complete skeletal proteome of the sea star Patiria miniata and compare it to that of the other echinoderm groups. RESULTS We have identified eighty-five proteins in the P. miniata skeletal proteome. Forty-two percent of the proteins were determined to be homologous to proteins found in the S. purpuratus skeletal proteomes. An additional 34 % were from similar functional classes as proteins in the urchin proteomes. Thirteen percent of the P. miniata proteins had homologues in the O. wendtii skeletal proteome with an additional 29% showing similarity to brittle star skeletal proteins. The P. miniata skeletal proteome did not contain any proteins with C-lectin domains or with acidic repetitive regions similar to the sea urchin or brittle star spicule matrix proteins. MSP130 proteins were also not found. We did identify a number of proteins homologous between the three groups. Some of the highly conserved proteins found in echinoderm skeletons have also been identified in vertebrate skeletons. CONCLUSIONS The presence of proteins conserved in the skeleton in three different echinoderm groups indicates these proteins are important in skeleton formation. That a number of these proteins are involved in skeleton formation in vertebrates suggests a common origin for some of the fundamental processes co-opted for skeleton formation in deuterostomes. The proteins we identify suggest transport of proteins and calcium via endosomes was co-opted to this function in a convergent fashion. Our data also indicate that modifications to the process of skeleton formation can occur through independent co-option of proteins following species divergence as well as through domain shuffling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel L. Flores
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, 1250 Bellflower Blvd, Long Beach, CA 90840 USA
| | - Brian T. Livingston
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, 1250 Bellflower Blvd, Long Beach, CA 90840 USA
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45
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Jain G, Pendola M, Huang YC, Gebauer D, Evans JS. A Model Sea Urchin Spicule Matrix Protein, rSpSM50, Is a Hydrogelator That Modifies and Organizes the Mineralization Process. Biochemistry 2017; 56:2663-2675. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b00083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gaurav Jain
- Laboratory
for Chemical Physics, Center for Skeletal and Craniofacial Biology, New York University, 345 East 24th Street, New York, New York 10010, United States
| | - Martin Pendola
- Laboratory
for Chemical Physics, Center for Skeletal and Craniofacial Biology, New York University, 345 East 24th Street, New York, New York 10010, United States
| | - Yu-Chieh Huang
- Physical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Universität Konstanz, Universitätstrasse
10, D-78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Denis Gebauer
- Physical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Universität Konstanz, Universitätstrasse
10, D-78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - John Spencer Evans
- Laboratory
for Chemical Physics, Center for Skeletal and Craniofacial Biology, New York University, 345 East 24th Street, New York, New York 10010, United States
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47
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Aguilera F, McDougall C, Degnan BM. Co-Option and De Novo Gene Evolution Underlie Molluscan Shell Diversity. Mol Biol Evol 2017; 34:779-792. [PMID: 28053006 PMCID: PMC5400390 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msw294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Molluscs fabricate shells of incredible diversity and complexity by localized secretions from the dorsal epithelium of the mantle. Although distantly related molluscs express remarkably different secreted gene products, it remains unclear if the evolution of shell structure and pattern is underpinned by the differential co-option of conserved genes or the integration of lineage-specific genes into the mantle regulatory program. To address this, we compare the mantle transcriptomes of 11 bivalves and gastropods of varying relatedness. We find that each species, including four Pinctada (pearl oyster) species that diverged within the last 20 Ma, expresses a unique mantle secretome. Lineage- or species-specific genes comprise a large proportion of each species' mantle secretome. A majority of these secreted proteins have unique domain architectures that include repetitive, low complexity domains (RLCDs), which evolve rapidly, and have a proclivity to expand, contract and rearrange in the genome. There are also a large number of secretome genes expressed in the mantle that arose before the origin of gastropods and bivalves. Each species expresses a unique set of these more ancient genes consistent with their independent co-option into these mantle gene regulatory networks. From this analysis, we infer lineage-specific secretomes underlie shell diversity, and include both rapidly evolving RLCD-containing proteins, and the continual recruitment and loss of both ancient and recently evolved genes into the periphery of the regulatory network controlling gene expression in the mantle epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Aguilera
- Centre for Marine Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Carmel McDougall
- Centre for Marine Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Bernard M. Degnan
- Centre for Marine Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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Rao A, Cölfen H. Mineralization and non-ideality: on nature's foundry. Biophys Rev 2016; 8:309-329. [PMID: 28510024 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-016-0228-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how ions, ion-clusters and particles behave in non-ideal environments is a fundamental question concerning planetary to atomic scales. For biomineralization phenomena wherein diverse inorganic and organic ingredients are present in biological media, attributing biomaterial composition and structure to the chemistry of singular additives may not provide a holistic view of the underlying mechanisms. Therefore, in this review, we specifically address the consequences of physico-chemical non-ideality on mineral formation. Influences of different forms of non-ideality such as macromolecular crowding, confinement and liquid-like organic phases on mineral nucleation and crystallization in biological environments are presented. Novel prospects for the additive-controlled nucleation and crystallization are accessible from this biophysical view. In this manner, we show that non-ideal conditions significantly affect the form, structure and composition of biogenic and biomimetic minerals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashit Rao
- Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies, Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg, 79104, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany.
| | - Helmut Cölfen
- Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Konstanz, D-78457, Konstanz, Germany.
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Zhan Y, Hu W, Zhang W, Liu M, Duan L, Huang X, Chang Y, Li C. The impact of CO 2-driven ocean acidification on early development and calcification in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2016; 112:291-302. [PMID: 27522173 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Revised: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The impact of CO2-driven ocean acidification(OA) on early development and calcification in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius cultured in northern Yellow Sea was investigated by comparing fertilization success, early cleavage rate, hatching rate of blastulae, larvae survival rate at 70h post-fertilization, larval morphology and calcification under present natural seawater condition (pH=8.00±0.03) and three laboratory-controlled acidified conditions (OA1, △pH=-0.3units; OA2, △pH=-0.4units; OA3, △pH=-0.5units) projected by IPCC for 2100. Results showed that pH decline had no effect on the overall fertilization, however, with decreased pH, delayed early embryonic cleavage, reduced hatching rate of blastulae and four-armed larvae survival rate at 70h post-fertilization, impaired larval symmetry, shortened larval spicules, and corrosion spicule structure were observed in all OA-treated groups as compared to control, which indicated that CO2-driven OA affected early development and calcification in S. intermedius negatively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaoyao Zhan
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, China
| | - Wanbin Hu
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, China
| | - Weijie Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, China
| | - Minbo Liu
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, China
| | - Lizhu Duan
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, China
| | - Xianya Huang
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, China
| | - Yaqing Chang
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture & Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, China.
| | - Cong Li
- College of Basic Medical Science, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116044, China
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50
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Organic matrices in metazoan calcium carbonate skeletons: Composition, functions, evolution. J Struct Biol 2016; 196:98-106. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2016.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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