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Asadian N, Aprico A, Chen M, Yuen D, Johnston APR, Kilpatrick TJ, Binder MD. The therapeutic effect of GAS6 in remyelination is dependent upon Tyro3. Glia 2024; 72:1392-1401. [PMID: 38572807 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by demyelination, axonal damage and, for the majority of people, a decline in neurological function in the long-term. Remyelination could assist in the protection of axons and their functional recovery, but such therapies are not, as yet, available. The TAM (Tyro3, Axl, and MERTK) receptor ligand GAS6 potentiates myelination in vitro and promotes recovery in pre-clinical models of MS. However, it has remained unclear which TAM receptor is responsible for transducing this effect and whether post-translational modification of GAS6 is required. In this study, we show that the promotion of myelination requires post-translational modification of the GLA domain of GAS6 via vitamin K-dependent γ-carboxylation. We also confirmed that the intracerebroventricular provision of GAS6 for 2 weeks to demyelinated wild-type (WT) mice challenged with cuprizone increased the density of myelinated axons in the corpus callosum by over 2-fold compared with vehicle control. Conversely, the provision of GAS6 to Tyro3 KO mice did not significantly improve the density of myelinated axons. The improvement in remyelination following the provision of GAS6 to WT mice was also accompanied by an increased density of CC1+ve mature oligodendrocytes compared with vehicle control, whereas this improvement was not observed in the absence of Tyro3. This effect occurs independent of any influence on microglial activation. This work therefore establishes that the remyelinative activity of GAS6 is dependent on Tyro3 and includes potentiation of oligodendrocyte numbers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Negar Asadian
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andrea Aprico
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Moore Chen
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Daniel Yuen
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Angus P R Johnston
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Trevor J Kilpatrick
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michele D Binder
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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2
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Liu N, Yu W, Sun M, Li X, Zhang W, Wang M. Dabrafenib mitigates the neuroinflammation caused by ferroptosis in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by up regulating Axl receptor. Eur J Pharmacol 2024; 973:176600. [PMID: 38643834 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.176600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease that causes inflammatory damage to the central nervous system. At present, the pathogenesis of the disease is unknown. There is a lack of few effective therapy medications available. Therefore, it is necessary to further explore the pathogenesis of this illness and develop potential therapeutic drugs. Dabrafenib is potential therapeutic medicine for nervous system disease. In this study, we preliminarily studied the possible mechanism of dabrafenib in the treatment of multiple sclerosis from the perspective of ferroptosis. First, we observed that dabrafenib significantly improved symptoms of gait abnormalities, limb weakness or paralysis, and down-regulated levels of spinal cord inflammation in an experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE) model. Meanwhile, we also observed that dabrafenib could inhibit the proteins of ferroptosis in spinal cord tissue of EAE mice by Western blot. The results of immunohistochemical analysis showed that the effect of dabrafenib on ferroptosis mainly occurred in microglia. Second, dabrafenib was demonstrated to be able to inhibit the S phase of the cell cycle, reduce ROS levels, and reinstate mitochondrial activity in the LPS-induced BV2 inflammatory cell model. Futhermore, we found that dabrafenib inhibits P-JAK2 and P-STAT3 activation by acting Axl receptor, which in turn prevents neurogenic inflammation in microglia. The co-stimulated BV2 cell model with LPS and Erastin also verified these findings. Ultimately, the Axl knockout mice used to construct the EAE model allowed for the confirmation that dabrafenib prevented ferroptosis in microglia by up-regulating Axl receptor, which reduced the inflammatory demyelination associated with EAE. In summary, our research demonstrates the advantages of dabrafenib in multiple sclerosis treatment, which can prevent ferroptosis in microglia in multiple sclerosis through up-regulating Axl receptor, thus halting the progression of multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Liu
- Department of Neurology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, 730030, China.
| | - Wuhan Yu
- Department of general Surgery, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730030, China; The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, 523000, China
| | - Mengjiao Sun
- Department of Neurology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, 730030, China
| | - Xiaoling Li
- Department of Neurology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, 730030, China
| | - Wenjing Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, 730030, China
| | - Manxia Wang
- Department of Neurology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, 730030, China.
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3
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Nomaki K, Fujikawa R, Masuda T, Tsuda M. Spatiotemporal dynamics of the CD11c + microglial population in the mouse brain and spinal cord from developmental to adult stages. Mol Brain 2024; 17:24. [PMID: 38762724 PMCID: PMC11102220 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-024-01098-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024] Open
Abstract
CD11c-positive (CD11c+) microglia have attracted considerable attention because of their potential implications in central nervous system (CNS) development, homeostasis, and disease. However, the spatiotemporal dynamics of the proportion of CD11c+ microglia in individual CNS regions are poorly understood. Here, we investigated the proportion of CD11c+ microglia in six CNS regions (forebrain, olfactory bulb, diencephalon/midbrain, cerebellum, pons/medulla, and spinal cord) from the developmental to adult stages by flow cytometry and immunohistochemical analyses using a CD11c reporter transgenic mouse line, Itgax-Venus. We found that the proportion of CD11c+ microglia in total microglia varied between CNS regions during postnatal development. Specifically, the proportion was high in the olfactory bulb and cerebellum at postnatal day P(4) and P7, respectively, and approximately half of the total microglia were CD11c+. The proportion declined sharply in all regions to P14, and the low percentage persisted over P56. In the spinal cord, the proportion of CD11c+ microglia was also high at P4 and declined to P14, but increased again at P21 and thereafter. Interestingly, the distribution pattern of CD11c+ microglia in the spinal cord markedly changed from gray matter at P4 to white matter at P21. Collectively, our findings reveal the differences in the spatiotemporal dynamics of the proportion of CD11c+ microglia among CNS regions from early development to adult stages in normal mice. These findings improve our understanding of the nature of microglial heterogeneity and its dynamics in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohei Nomaki
- Department of Molecular and System Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
| | - Risako Fujikawa
- Department of Molecular and System Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
| | - Takahiro Masuda
- Division of Molecular Neuroimmunology, Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
| | - Makoto Tsuda
- Department of Molecular and System Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan.
- Kyushu University Institute for Advanced Study, 744 Motooka Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan.
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4
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Wu W, Zhang J, Chen Y, Chen Q, Liu Q, Zhang F, Li S, Wang X. Genes in Axonal Regeneration. Mol Neurobiol 2024:10.1007/s12035-024-04049-z. [PMID: 38388774 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-024-04049-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
This review explores the molecular and genetic underpinnings of axonal regeneration and functional recovery post-nerve injury, emphasizing its significance in reversing neurological deficits. It presents a systematic exploration of the roles of various genes in axonal regrowth across peripheral and central nerve injuries. Initially, it highlights genes and gene families critical for axonal growth and guidance, delving into their roles in regeneration. It then examines the regenerative microenvironment, focusing on the role of glial cells in neural repair through dedifferentiation, proliferation, and migration. The concept of "traumatic microenvironments" within the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) is discussed, noting their impact on regenerative capacities and their importance in therapeutic strategy development. Additionally, the review delves into axonal transport mechanisms essential for accurate growth and reinnervation, integrating insights from proteomics, genome-wide screenings, and gene editing advancements. Conclusively, it synthesizes these insights to offer a comprehensive understanding of axonal regeneration's molecular orchestration, aiming to inform effective nerve injury therapies and contribute to regenerative neuroscience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenshuang Wu
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Yu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Qianqian Chen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases and Institute of Neuroscience, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Qianyan Liu
- School of Acupuncture-Moxibustion, Tuina and Rehabilitation, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, 410208, China
| | - Fuchao Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases and Institute of Neuroscience, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Shiying Li
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China.
| | - Xinghui Wang
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China.
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Tang J, Jin Y, Jia F, Lv T, Manaenko A, Zhang LF, Zhang Z, Qi X, Xue Y, Zhao B, Zhang X, Zhang JH, Lu J, Hu Q. Gas6 Promotes Microglia Efferocytosis and Suppresses Inflammation Through Activating Axl/Rac1 Signaling in Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Mice. Transl Stroke Res 2023; 14:955-969. [PMID: 36324028 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-022-01099-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Early brain injury (EBI) following subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is characterized by rapid development of neuron apoptosis and dysregulated inflammatory response. Microglia efferocytosis plays a critical role in the clearance of apoptotic cells, attenuation of inflammation, and minimizing brain injury in various pathological conditions. Here, using a mouse SAH model, we aim to investigate whether microglia efferocytosis is involved in post-SAH inflammation and to determine the underlying signaling pathway. We hypothesized that TAM receptors and their ligands regulate this process. To prove our hypothesis, the expression and cellular location of TAM (Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk) receptors and their ligands growth arrest-specific 6 (Gas6) and Protein S (ProS1) were examined by PCR, western blots, and fluorescence immunostaining. Thirty minutes after SAH, mice received an intraventricular injection of recombinant Gas6 (rGas6) or recombinant ProS1 (rPros1) and underwent evaluations of inflammatory mediator expression, neurological deficits, and blood-brain barrier integrity at 24 h. Microglia efferocytosis of apoptotic neurons was analyzed in vivo and in vitro. The potential mechanism was determined by inhibiting or knocking down TAM receptors and Rac1 by specific inhibitors or siRNA. SAH induced upregulation of Axl and its ligand Gas6. The administration of rGas6 but not rPros1 promoted microglia efferocytosis, alleviated inflammation, and ameliorated SAH-induced BBB breakdown and neurological deficits. The beneficial effects of rGas6 were arrogated by inhibiting or knocking down Axl and Rac1. We concluded that rGas6 attenuated the development of early brain injury in mice after SAH by facilitating microglia efferocytosis and preventing inflammatory response, which is partly dependent on activation of Axl and Rac1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjia Tang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ren Ji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200127, China
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Yichao Jin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ren Ji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200127, China
| | - Feng Jia
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ren Ji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200127, China
| | - Tao Lv
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ren Ji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200127, China
| | - Anatol Manaenko
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Lin-Feng Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ren Ji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200127, China
| | - Zeyu Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ren Ji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200127, China
| | - Xin Qi
- Discipline of Neuroscience, Department of Physiology and Anatomy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Yajun Xue
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Bin Zhao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ren Ji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200127, China
| | - Xiaohua Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ren Ji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200127, China
| | - John H Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Jianfei Lu
- Discipline of Neuroscience, Department of Physiology and Anatomy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China.
- Songjiang Institute and Songjiang Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 201600, China.
| | - Qin Hu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ren Ji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200127, China.
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6
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Terzioglu G, Young-Pearse TL. Microglial function, INPP5D/SHIP1 signaling, and NLRP3 inflammasome activation: implications for Alzheimer's disease. Mol Neurodegener 2023; 18:89. [PMID: 38017562 PMCID: PMC10685641 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-023-00674-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent genetic studies on Alzheimer's disease (AD) have brought microglia under the spotlight, as loci associated with AD risk are enriched in genes expressed in microglia. Several of these genes have been recognized for their central roles in microglial functions. Increasing evidence suggests that SHIP1, the protein encoded by the AD-associated gene INPP5D, is an important regulator of microglial phagocytosis and immune response. A recent study from our group identified SHIP1 as a negative regulator of the NLRP3 inflammasome in human iPSC-derived microglial cells (iMGs). In addition, we found evidence for a connection between SHIP1 activity and inflammasome activation in the AD brain. The NLRP3 inflammasome is a multiprotein complex that induces the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines as part of innate immune responses against pathogens and endogenous damage signals. Previously published studies have suggested that the NLRP3 inflammasome is activated in AD and contributes to AD-related pathology. Here, we provide an overview of the current understanding of the microglial NLRP3 inflammasome in the context of AD-related inflammation. We then review the known intracellular functions of SHIP1, including its role in phosphoinositide signaling, interactions with microglial phagocytic receptors such as TREM2 and evidence for its intersection with NLRP3 inflammasome signaling. Through rigorous examination of the intricate connections between microglial signaling pathways across several experimental systems and postmortem analyses, the field will be better equipped to tailor newly emerging therapeutic strategies targeting microglia in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gizem Terzioglu
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 60 Fenwood Rd, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Tracy L Young-Pearse
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 60 Fenwood Rd, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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7
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Burstyn-Cohen T, Fresia R. TAM receptors in phagocytosis: Beyond the mere internalization of particles. Immunol Rev 2023; 319:7-26. [PMID: 37596991 DOI: 10.1111/imr.13267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023]
Abstract
TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK constitute the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases, activated by their ligands GAS6 and PROS1. TAMs are necessary for adult homeostasis in the immune, nervous, reproductive, skeletal, and vascular systems. Among additional cellular functions employed by TAMs, phagocytosis is central for tissue health. TAM receptors are dominant in providing phagocytes with the molecular machinery necessary to engulf diverse targets, including apoptotic cells, myelin debris, and portions of live cells in a phosphatidylserine-dependent manner. Simultaneously, TAMs drive the release of anti-inflammatory and tissue repair molecules. Disruption of the TAM-driven phagocytic pathway has detrimental consequences, resulting in autoimmunity, male infertility, blindness, and disrupted vascular integrity, and which is thought to contribute to neurodegenerative diseases. Although structurally and functionally redundant, the TAM receptors and ligands underlie complex signaling cascades, of which several key aspects are yet to be elucidated. We discuss similarities and differences between TAMs and other phagocytic pathways, highlight future directions and how TAMs can be harnessed therapeutically to modulate phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tal Burstyn-Cohen
- The Institute for Biomedical and Oral Research, Faculty of Dental Medicine, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Roberta Fresia
- The Institute for Biomedical and Oral Research, Faculty of Dental Medicine, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
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8
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Distéfano-Gagné F, Bitarafan S, Lacroix S, Gosselin D. Roles and regulation of microglia activity in multiple sclerosis: insights from animal models. Nat Rev Neurosci 2023:10.1038/s41583-023-00709-6. [PMID: 37268822 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-023-00709-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
As resident macrophages of the CNS, microglia are critical immune effectors of inflammatory lesions and associated neural dysfunctions. In multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal models, chronic microglial inflammatory activity damages myelin and disrupts axonal and synaptic activity. In contrast to these detrimental effects, the potent phagocytic and tissue-remodelling capabilities of microglia support critical endogenous repair mechanisms. Although these opposing capabilities have long been appreciated, a precise understanding of their underlying molecular effectors is only beginning to emerge. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of the roles of microglia in animal models of MS and demyelinating lesions and the mechanisms that underlie their damaging and repairing activities. We also discuss how the structured organization and regulation of the genome enables complex transcriptional heterogeneity within the microglial cell population at demyelinating lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Distéfano-Gagné
- Axe Neuroscience, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec - Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
- Département de Médecine Moléculaire de la Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - Sara Bitarafan
- Axe Neuroscience, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec - Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
- Département de Médecine Moléculaire de la Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - Steve Lacroix
- Axe Neuroscience, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec - Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
- Département de Médecine Moléculaire de la Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - David Gosselin
- Axe Neuroscience, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec - Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada.
- Département de Médecine Moléculaire de la Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada.
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9
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Lan Z, Li L, Sun Y, Meng X, Shi Z, Du M, Wang H, Sun Z, Cui Q, Wang L, Geng T, Zhou S, Wang Y, Hu F, Duan C, Geng Y, Zhu Y, Dai Y. A procedure for producing an anti-AXL nanobody in E. coli. Protein Expr Purif 2023; 207:106268. [PMID: 37023993 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2023.106268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023]
Abstract
As one of the receptors of the TAM family, AXL plays a vital role in stem cell maintenance, angiogenesis, immune escape of viruses and drug resistance against tumors. In this study, the truncated extracellular segment containing two immunoglobulin-like domains of human AXL (AXL-IG), which has been confirmed to bind growth arrest specific 6 (GAS6) by structural studies [1], was expressed in a prokaryotic expression system and then purified. Immunizing camelid with the purified AXL-IG as antigen could lead to the production of unique nanobodies composed of only variable domain of heavy chain of heavy-chain antibody (VHH), which are around 15 kD and stable. We screened out a nanobody A-LY01 specific binding to AXL-IG. We further determined the affinity of A-LY01 to AXL-IG and revealed that A-LY01 could specifically recognize full-length AXL on the surface of HEK 293T/17 cells. Our study provides appropriate support for the development of diagnostic reagents and antibody therapeutics targeting AXL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongyun Lan
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China; Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Storage and Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai, 201306, China; State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Lingyun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yili Sun
- Drug Discovery Shandong Laboratory, Bohai Rim Advanced Research Institute for Drug Discovery, Yantai, Shandong, 264117, China
| | - Xiangjing Meng
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biopharmaceuticals, Shandong Academy of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jinan, 250101, China
| | - Zhenzhong Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Mengyang Du
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China; State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Hui Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China; State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Zengchao Sun
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China; State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Qianqian Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Lu Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Tengjie Geng
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China; State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Siyu Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yi'ang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Fangzheng Hu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China; State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Chonggang Duan
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biopharmaceuticals, Shandong Academy of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jinan, 250101, China
| | - Yong Geng
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, The CAS Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Yongheng Zhu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China; Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Storage and Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai, 201306, China.
| | - Yuanyuan Dai
- Department of Pharmacy, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China; National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Hebei Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Langfang, 065001, China.
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10
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Xu T, Liu C, Deng S, Gan L, Zhang Z, Yang GY, Tian H, Tang Y. The roles of microglia and astrocytes in myelin phagocytosis in the central nervous system. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2023; 43:325-340. [PMID: 36324281 PMCID: PMC9941857 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x221137762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Myelination is an important process in the central nervous system (CNS). Oligodendrocytes (OLs) extend multiple layers to densely sheath on axons, composing the myelin to achieve efficient electrical signal conduction. The myelination during developmental stage maintains a balanced state. However, numerous CNS diseases including neurodegenerative and cerebrovascular diseases cause demyelination and disrupt the homeostasis, resulting in inflammation and white matter deficits. Effective clearance of myelin debris is needed in the region of demyelination, which is a key step for remyelination and tissue regeneration. Microglia and astrocytes are the major resident phagocytic cells in the brain, which may play different or collaborative roles in myelination. Microglia and astrocytes participate in developmental myelination through engulfing excessive unneeded myelin. They are also involved in the clearance of degenerated myelin debris for accelerating remyelination, or engulfing healthy myelin sheath for inhibiting remyelination. This review focuses on the roles of microglia and astrocytes in phagocytosing myelin in the developmental brain and diseased brain. In addition, the interaction between microglia and astrocytes to mediate myelin engulfment is also summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongtong Xu
- Shanghai Jiao Tong Affiliated Sixth People’s
Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai, China
| | - Chang Liu
- Shanghai Jiao Tong Affiliated Sixth People’s
Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai, China
| | - Shiyu Deng
- Shanghai Jiao Tong Affiliated Sixth People’s
Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai, China
| | - Lin Gan
- Shanghai Jiao Tong Affiliated Sixth People’s
Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai, China
| | - Zhijun Zhang
- Shanghai Jiao Tong Affiliated Sixth People’s
Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai, China
| | - Guo-Yuan Yang
- Shanghai Jiao Tong Affiliated Sixth People’s
Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai, China
| | - Hengli Tian
- Shanghai Jiao Tong Affiliated Sixth People’s
Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai, China
| | - Yaohui Tang
- Shanghai Jiao Tong Affiliated Sixth People’s
Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai, China
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11
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TAM receptor signaling dictates lesion location and clinical phenotype during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol 2023; 375:578016. [PMID: 36708633 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2023.578016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), induced by the adoptive transfer of Th17 cells, typically presents with ascending paralysis and inflammatory demyelination of the spinal cord. Brain white matter is relatively spared. Here we show that treatment of Th17 transfer recipients with a highly selective inhibitor to the TAM family of tyrosine kinase receptors results in ataxia associated with a shift of the inflammatory infiltrate to the hindbrain parenchyma. During homeostasis and preclinical EAE, hindbrain microglia express high levels of the TAM receptor Mer. Our data suggest that constitutive TAM receptor signaling in hindbrain microglia confers region-specific protection against Th17 mediated EAE.
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12
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Phosphatidylserine in the Nervous System: Cytoplasmic Regulator of the AKT and PKC Signaling Pathways and Extracellular "Eat-Me" Signal in Microglial Phagocytosis. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:1050-1066. [PMID: 36401705 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-022-03133-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) is an important anionic phospholipid found in eukaryotic cells and has been proven to serve as a beneficial factor in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. PtdSer resides in the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane, where it is involved in regulating the AKT and PKC signaling pathways; however, it becomes exposed to the extracellular leaflet during neurodevelopmental processes and neurodegenerative diseases, participating in microglia-mediated synaptic and neuronal phagocytosis. In this paper, we review several characteristics of PtdSer, including the synthesis and translocation of PtdSer, the functions of cytoplasmic and exposed PtdSer, and different PtdSer-detection materials used to further understand the role of PtdSer in the nervous system.
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13
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Huang H, Jiang J, Chen R, Lin Y, Chen H, Ling Q. The role of macrophage TAM receptor family in the acute-to-chronic progression of liver disease: From friend to foe? Liver Int 2022; 42:2620-2631. [PMID: 35900248 DOI: 10.1111/liv.15380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Hepatic macrophages, the key cellular components of the liver, emerge as essential players in liver inflammation, tissue repair and subsequent fibrosis, as well as tumorigenesis. Recently, the TAM receptor tyrosine kinase family, consisting of Tyro3, Axl and MerTK, was found to be a pivotal modulator of macrophages. Activation of macrophage TAM receptor signalling promotes the efferocytosis of apoptotic cells and skews the polarization of macrophages. After briefly reviewing the mechanisms of TAM receptor signalling in macrophage polarization, we focus on their role in liver diseases from acute injury to chronic inflammation, fibrosis and then to tumorigenesis. Notably, macrophage TAM receptor signalling seems to be a two-edged sword for liver diseases. On one hand, the activation of TAM receptor signalling inhibits inflammation and facilitates tissue repair during acute liver injury. On the other hand, continuous activation of the signalling contributes to the process of chronic inflammation into fibrosis and tumorigenesis by evoking hepatic stellate cells and inhibiting anti-tumour immunity. Therefore, targeting macrophage TAM receptors and clarifying its downstream pathways will be exciting prospects for the precaution and treatment of liver diseases, particularly at different stages or statuses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Huang
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jingyu Jiang
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ruihan Chen
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yimou Lin
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hui Chen
- NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qi Ling
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China.,Alibaba-Zhejiang University Joint Research Center of Future Digital Healthcare, Hangzhou, China
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14
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Ennerfelt H, Frost EL, Shapiro DA, Holliday C, Zengeler KE, Voithofer G, Bolte AC, Lammert CR, Kulas JA, Ulland TK, Lukens JR. SYK coordinates neuroprotective microglial responses in neurodegenerative disease. Cell 2022; 185:4135-4152.e22. [PMID: 36257314 PMCID: PMC9617784 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have begun to reveal critical roles for the brain's professional phagocytes, microglia, and their receptors in the control of neurotoxic amyloid beta (Aβ) and myelin debris accumulation in neurodegenerative disease. However, the critical intracellular molecules that orchestrate neuroprotective functions of microglia remain poorly understood. In our studies, we find that targeted deletion of SYK in microglia leads to exacerbated Aβ deposition, aggravated neuropathology, and cognitive defects in the 5xFAD mouse model of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Disruption of SYK signaling in this AD model was further shown to impede the development of disease-associated microglia (DAM), alter AKT/GSK3β-signaling, and restrict Aβ phagocytosis by microglia. Conversely, receptor-mediated activation of SYK limits Aβ load. We also found that SYK critically regulates microglial phagocytosis and DAM acquisition in demyelinating disease. Collectively, these results broaden our understanding of the key innate immune signaling molecules that instruct beneficial microglial functions in response to neurotoxic material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Ennerfelt
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (BIG), Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia (UVA), Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, UVA, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Training Program, UVA, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Elizabeth L Frost
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (BIG), Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia (UVA), Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Daniel A Shapiro
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (BIG), Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia (UVA), Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Coco Holliday
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (BIG), Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia (UVA), Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Kristine E Zengeler
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (BIG), Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia (UVA), Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, UVA, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Training Program, UVA, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Gabrielle Voithofer
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (BIG), Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia (UVA), Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Ashley C Bolte
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (BIG), Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia (UVA), Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cancer Biology, UVA, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, UVA, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Catherine R Lammert
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (BIG), Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia (UVA), Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, UVA, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Joshua A Kulas
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (BIG), Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia (UVA), Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Tyler K Ulland
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - John R Lukens
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (BIG), Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia (UVA), Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, UVA, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Training Program, UVA, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cancer Biology, UVA, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, UVA, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.
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15
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Moyse E, Krantic S, Djellouli N, Roger S, Angoulvant D, Debacq C, Leroy V, Fougere B, Aidoud A. Neuroinflammation: A Possible Link Between Chronic Vascular Disorders and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:827263. [PMID: 35663580 PMCID: PMC9161208 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.827263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Various age-related diseases involve systemic inflammation, i.e. a stereotyped series of acute immune system responses, and aging itself is commonly associated with low-grade inflammation or inflamm’aging. Neuroinflammation is defined as inflammation-like processes inside the central nervous system, which this review discusses as a possible link between cardiovascular disease-related chronic inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases. To this aim, neuroinflammation mechanisms are first summarized, encompassing the cellular effectors and the molecular mediators. A comparative survey of the best-known physiological contexts of neuroinflammation (neurodegenerative diseases and transient ischemia) reveals some common features such as microglia activation. The recently published transcriptomic characterizations of microglia have pointed a marker core signature among neurodegenerative diseases, but also unraveled the discrepancies with neuroinflammations related with acute diseases of vascular origin. We next review the links between systemic inflammation and neuroinflammation, beginning with molecular features of respective pro-inflammatory cells, i.e. macrophages and microglia. Finally, we point out a gap of knowledge concerning the atherosclerosis-related neuroinflammation, which is for the most surprising given that atherosclerosis is established as a major risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Moyse
- University of Tours, EA4245, Transplantation, Immunologie, Inflammation, Tours, France
| | - Slavica Krantic
- Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine (CRSA), Immune System and Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, Inserm U938, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Nesrine Djellouli
- University of Tours, EA4245, Transplantation, Immunologie, Inflammation, Tours, France
| | - Sébastien Roger
- University of Tours, EA4245, Transplantation, Immunologie, Inflammation, Tours, France
| | - Denis Angoulvant
- University of Tours, EA4245, Transplantation, Immunologie, Inflammation, Tours, France
- Department of Cardiology, Tours University Hospital, Tours, France
| | - Camille Debacq
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Tours University Hospital, Tours, France
| | - Victoire Leroy
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Tours University Hospital, Tours, France
- University of Tours, EA7505, Education, Ethics, Health, Tours, France
| | - Bertrand Fougere
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Tours University Hospital, Tours, France
- University of Tours, EA7505, Education, Ethics, Health, Tours, France
- *Correspondence: Bertrand Fougere,
| | - Amal Aidoud
- University of Tours, EA4245, Transplantation, Immunologie, Inflammation, Tours, France
- Division of Geriatric Medicine, Tours University Hospital, Tours, France
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16
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Two-Front War on Cancer-Targeting TAM Receptors in Solid Tumour Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14102488. [PMID: 35626092 PMCID: PMC9140196 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14102488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary In recent years, many studies have shown the importance of TAM kinases in both normal and neoplastic cells. In this review, we present and discuss the role of the TAM family (AXL, MERTK, TYRO3) of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) as a dual target in cancer, due to their intrinsic roles in tumour cell survival, migration, chemoresistance, and their immunosuppressive roles in the tumour microenvironment. This review presents the potential of TAMs as emerging therapeutic targets in cancer treatment, focusing on the distinct structures of TAM receptor tyrosine kinases. We analyse and compare different strategies of TAM inhibition, for a full perspective of current and future battlefields in the war with cancer. Abstract Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are transmembrane receptors that bind growth factors and cytokines and contain a regulated kinase activity within their cytoplasmic domain. RTKs play an important role in signal transduction in both normal and malignant cells, and their encoding genes belong to the most frequently affected genes in cancer cells. The TAM family proteins (TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK) are involved in diverse biological processes: immune regulation, clearance of apoptotic cells, platelet aggregation, cell proliferation, survival, and migration. Recent studies show that TAMs share overlapping functions in tumorigenesis and suppression of antitumour immunity. MERTK and AXL operate in innate immune cells to suppress inflammatory responses and promote an immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment, while AXL expression correlates with epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, metastasis, and motility in tumours. Therefore, TAM RTKs represent a dual target in cancer due to their intrinsic roles in tumour cell survival, migration, chemoresistance, and their immunosuppressive roles in the tumour microenvironment (TME). In this review, we discuss the potential of TAMs as emerging therapeutic targets in cancer treatment. We critically assess and compare current approaches to target TAM RTKs in solid tumours and the development of new inhibitors for both extra- and intracellular domains of TAM receptor kinases.
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17
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Engelsen AST, Lotsberg ML, Abou Khouzam R, Thiery JP, Lorens JB, Chouaib S, Terry S. Dissecting the Role of AXL in Cancer Immune Escape and Resistance to Immune Checkpoint Inhibition. Front Immunol 2022; 13:869676. [PMID: 35572601 PMCID: PMC9092944 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.869676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The development and implementation of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors (ICI) in clinical oncology have significantly improved the survival of a subset of cancer patients with metastatic disease previously considered uniformly lethal. However, the low response rates and the low number of patients with durable clinical responses remain major concerns and underscore the limited understanding of mechanisms regulating anti-tumor immunity and tumor immune resistance. There is an urgent unmet need for novel approaches to enhance the efficacy of ICI in the clinic, and for predictive tools that can accurately predict ICI responders based on the composition of their tumor microenvironment. The receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) AXL has been associated with poor prognosis in numerous malignancies and the emergence of therapy resistance. AXL is a member of the TYRO3-AXL-MERTK (TAM) kinase family. Upon binding to its ligand GAS6, AXL regulates cell signaling cascades and cellular communication between various components of the tumor microenvironment, including cancer cells, endothelial cells, and immune cells. Converging evidence points to AXL as an attractive molecular target to overcome therapy resistance and immunosuppression, supported by the potential of AXL inhibitors to improve ICI efficacy. Here, we review the current literature on the prominent role of AXL in regulating cancer progression, with particular attention to its effects on anti-tumor immune response and resistance to ICI. We discuss future directions with the aim to understand better the complex role of AXL and TAM receptors in cancer and the potential value of this knowledge and targeted inhibition for the benefit of cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnete S. T. Engelsen
- Centre for Cancer Biomarkers and Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Maria L. Lotsberg
- Centre for Cancer Biomarkers and Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Raefa Abou Khouzam
- Thumbay Research Institute for Precision Medicine, Gulf Medical University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates
| | - Jean-Paul Thiery
- Centre for Cancer Biomarkers and Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Guangzhou Laboratory, Guangzhou, China
- Inserm, UMR 1186, Integrative Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Villejuif, France
| | - James B. Lorens
- Centre for Cancer Biomarkers and Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Salem Chouaib
- Thumbay Research Institute for Precision Medicine, Gulf Medical University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates
- Inserm, UMR 1186, Integrative Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Villejuif, France
- Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
- Faculty of Medicine, University Paris Sud, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | - Stéphane Terry
- Inserm, UMR 1186, Integrative Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Villejuif, France
- Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
- Faculty of Medicine, University Paris Sud, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
- Research Department, Inovarion, Paris, France
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18
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Kohno K, Shirasaka R, Yoshihara K, Mikuriya S, Tanaka K, Takanami K, Inoue K, Sakamoto H, Ohkawa Y, Masuda T, Tsuda M. A spinal microglia population involved in remitting and relapsing neuropathic pain. Science 2022; 376:86-90. [PMID: 35357926 DOI: 10.1126/science.abf6805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is often caused by injury and diseases that affect the somatosensory system. Although pain development has been well studied, pain recovery mechanisms remain largely unknown. Here, we found that CD11c-expressing spinal microglia appear after the development of behavioral pain hypersensitivity following nerve injury. Nerve-injured mice with spinal CD11c+ microglial depletion failed to recover spontaneously from this hypersensitivity. CD11c+ microglia expressed insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1), and interference with IGF1 signaling recapitulated the impairment in pain recovery. In pain-recovered mice, the depletion of CD11c+ microglia or the interruption of IGF1 signaling resulted in a relapse in pain hypersensitivity. Our findings reveal a mechanism for the remission and recurrence of neuropathic pain, providing potential targets for therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keita Kohno
- Department of Life Innovation, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.,Department of Molecular and System Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Ryoji Shirasaka
- Department of Molecular and System Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kohei Yoshihara
- Department of Molecular and System Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Satsuki Mikuriya
- Department of Life Innovation, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kaori Tanaka
- Division of Transcriptomics, Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Keiko Takanami
- Ushimado Marine Institute, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, Setouchi, Japan.,Mouse Genomics Resources Laboratory, National Institute of Genetics, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Kazuhide Inoue
- Kyushu University Institute for Advanced Study, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Sakamoto
- Ushimado Marine Institute, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, Setouchi, Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Ohkawa
- Division of Transcriptomics, Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Takahiro Masuda
- Department of Life Innovation, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.,Department of Molecular and System Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Makoto Tsuda
- Department of Life Innovation, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.,Department of Molecular and System Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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19
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Schulz M, Sevenich L. TAMs in Brain Metastasis: Molecular Signatures in Mouse and Man. Front Immunol 2021; 12:716504. [PMID: 34539650 PMCID: PMC8447936 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.716504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages not only represent an integral part of innate immunity but also critically contribute to tissue and organ homeostasis. Moreover, disease progression is accompanied by macrophage accumulation in many cancer types and is often associated with poor prognosis and therapy resistance. Given their critical role in modulating tumor immunity in primary and metastatic brain cancers, macrophages are emerging as promising therapeutic targets. Different types of macrophages infiltrate brain cancers, including (i) CNS resident macrophages that comprise microglia (TAM-MG) as well as border-associated macrophages and (ii) monocyte-derived macrophages (TAM-MDM) that are recruited from the periphery. Controversy remained about their disease-associated functions since classical approaches did not reliably distinguish between macrophage subpopulations. Recent conceptual and technological advances, such as large-scale omic approaches, provided new insight into molecular profiles of TAMs based on their cellular origin. In this review, we summarize insight from recent studies highlighting similarities and differences of TAM-MG and TAM-MDM at the molecular level. We will focus on data obtained from RNA sequencing and mass cytometry approaches. Together, this knowledge significantly contributes to our understanding of transcriptional and translational programs that define disease-associated TAM functions. Cross-species meta-analyses will further help to evaluate the translational significance of preclinical findings as part of the effort to identify candidates for macrophage-targeted therapy against brain metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Schulz
- Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, Georg-Speyer-Haus, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Biological Sciences, Faculty 15, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Lisa Sevenich
- Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, Georg-Speyer-Haus, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Frankfurt/Mainz, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Frankfurt Cancer Institute (FCI), Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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20
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Abstract
Tyro3, Axl and Mertk are members of the TAM family of tyrosine kinase receptors. TAMs are activated by two structurally homologous ligands GAS6 and PROS1. TAM receptors and ligands are widely distributed and often co-expressed in the same cells allowing diverse functions across many systems including the immune, reproductive, vascular, and the developing as well as adult nervous systems. This review will focus specifically on TAM signaling in the nervous system, highlighting the essential roles this pathway fulfills in maintaining cell survival and homeostasis, cellular functions such as phagocytosis, immunity and tissue repair. Dysfunctional TAM signaling can cause complications in development, disruptions in homeostasis which can rouse autoimmunity, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. The development of therapeutics modulating TAM activities in the nervous system has great prospects, however, foremost we need a complete understanding of TAM signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tal Burstyn-Cohen
- Institute for Dental Sciences, Faculty of Dental Medicine, The Hebrew University-Hadassah, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Arielle Hochberg
- Institute for Dental Sciences, Faculty of Dental Medicine, The Hebrew University-Hadassah, Jerusalem, Israel
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21
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Facci L, Barbierato M, Fusco M, Giusti P, Zusso M. Co-Ultramicronized Palmitoylethanolamide/Luteolin-Induced Oligodendrocyte Precursor Cell Differentiation is Associated With Tyro3 Receptor Upregulation. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:698133. [PMID: 34276381 PMCID: PMC8277943 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.698133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Remyelination in patients with multiple sclerosis frequently fails, especially in the chronic phase of the disease promoting axonal and neuronal degeneration and progressive disease disability. Drug-based therapies able to promote endogenous remyelination capability of oligodendrocytes are thus emerging as primary approaches to multiple sclerosis. We have recently reported that the co-ultramicronized composite of palmitoylethanolamide and the flavonoid luteolin (PEALut) promotes oligodendrocyte precursor cell (OPC) maturation without affecting proliferation. Since TAM receptor signaling has been reported to be important modulator of oligodendrocyte survival, we here evaluated the eventual involvement of TAM receptors in PEALut-induced OPC maturation. The mRNAs related to TAM receptors -Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk- were all present at day 2 in vitro. However, while Tyro3 gene expression significantly increased upon cell differentiation, Axl and Mertk did not change during the first week in vitro. Tyro3 gene expression developmental pattern resembled that of MBP myelin protein. In OPCs treated with PEALut the developmental increase of Tyro3 mRNA was significantly higher as compared to vehicle while was reduced gene expression related to Axl and Mertk. Rapamycin, an inhibitor of mTOR, prevented oligodendrocyte growth differentiation and myelination. PEALut, administered to the cultures 30 min after rapamycin, prevented the alteration of mRNA basal expression of the TAM receptors as well as the expression of myelin proteins MBP and CNPase. Altogether, data obtained confirm that PEALut promotes oligodendrocyte differentiation as shown by the increase of MBP and CNPase and Tyro3 mRNAs as well as CNPase and Tyro3 immunostainings. The finding that these effects are reduced when OPCs are exposed to rapamycin suggests an involvement of mTOR signaling in PEALut effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Facci
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Massimo Barbierato
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Mariella Fusco
- Scientific Information and Documentation Center, Epitech Group SpA, Padua, Italy
| | - Pietro Giusti
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Morena Zusso
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.,IRCCS San Camillo Hospital, Venice, Italy
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22
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Wanke F, Gutbier S, Rümmelin A, Steinberg M, Hughes LD, Koenen M, Komuczki J, Regan-Komito D, Wagage S, Hesselmann J, Thoma R, Brugger D, Christopeit T, Wang H, Point F, Hallet R, Ghosh S, Rothlin CV, Patsch C, Geering B. Ligand-dependent kinase activity of MERTK drives efferocytosis in human iPSC-derived macrophages. Cell Death Dis 2021; 12:538. [PMID: 34035216 PMCID: PMC8149813 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-021-03770-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Removal of apoptotic cells by phagocytes (also called efferocytosis) is a crucial process for tissue homeostasis. Professional phagocytes express a plethora of surface receptors enabling them to sense and engulf apoptotic cells, thus avoiding persistence of dead cells and cellular debris and their consequent effects. Dysregulation of efferocytosis is thought to lead to secondary necrosis and associated inflammation and immune activation. Efferocytosis in primarily murine macrophages and dendritic cells has been shown to require TAM RTKs, with MERTK and AXL being critical for clearance of apoptotic cells. The functional role of human orthologs, especially the exact contribution of each individual receptor is less well studied. Here we show that human macrophages differentiated in vitro from iPSC-derived precursor cells express both AXL and MERTK and engulf apoptotic cells. TAM RTK agonism by the natural ligand growth-arrest specific 6 (GAS6) significantly enhanced such efferocytosis. Using a newly-developed mouse model of kinase-dead MERTK, we demonstrate that MERTK kinase activity is essential for efferocytosis in peritoneal macrophages in vivo. Moreover, human iPSC-derived macrophages treated in vitro with blocking antibodies or small molecule inhibitors recapitulated this observation. Hence, our results highlight a conserved MERTK function between mice and humans, and the critical role of its kinase activity in homeostatic efferocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Wanke
- Immunology, Infectious Diseases and Ophthalmology (I2O) Discovery and Translational Area, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Simon Gutbier
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Anna Rümmelin
- Immunology, Infectious Diseases and Ophthalmology (I2O) Discovery and Translational Area, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland.,Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Malte Steinberg
- Immunology, Infectious Diseases and Ophthalmology (I2O) Discovery and Translational Area, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Lindsey D Hughes
- Yale School of Medicine, Department for Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Mascha Koenen
- Yale School of Medicine, Department for Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Laboratory of Molecular Metabolism, Rockefeller University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Juliana Komuczki
- Immunology, Infectious Diseases and Ophthalmology (I2O) Discovery and Translational Area, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Regan-Komito
- Immunology, Infectious Diseases and Ophthalmology (I2O) Discovery and Translational Area, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sagie Wagage
- Yale School of Medicine, Department for Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Julia Hesselmann
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ralf Thoma
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Doris Brugger
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Tony Christopeit
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center München, Penzberg, Germany
| | - Hayian Wang
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Floriane Point
- Immunology, Infectious Diseases and Ophthalmology (I2O) Discovery and Translational Area, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Remy Hallet
- Immunology, Infectious Diseases and Ophthalmology (I2O) Discovery and Translational Area, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sourav Ghosh
- Yale School of Medicine, Department for Neurology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Yale School of Medicine, Department for Pharmacology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Carla V Rothlin
- Yale School of Medicine, Department for Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Yale School of Medicine, Department for Pharmacology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Christoph Patsch
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland.,BlueRock Therapeutics, New York, New York, USA
| | - Barbara Geering
- Immunology, Infectious Diseases and Ophthalmology (I2O) Discovery and Translational Area, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland
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23
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Qi LFR, Liu S, Liu YC, Li P, Xu X. Ganoderic Acid A Promotes Amyloid-β Clearance (In Vitro) and Ameliorates Cognitive Deficiency in Alzheimer's Disease (Mouse Model) through Autophagy Induced by Activating Axl. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22115559. [PMID: 34074054 PMCID: PMC8197357 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is thought to be caused by amyloid-β (Aβ) accumulation in the central nervous system due to deficient clearance. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of ganoderic acid A (GAA) on Aβ clearance in microglia and its anti-AD activity. Aβ degradation in BV2 microglial cells was determined using an intracellular Aβ clearance assay. GAA stimulated autophagosome formation via the Axl receptor tyrosine kinase (Axl)/RAC/CDC42-activated kinase 1 (Pak1) pathway was determined by Western blot analyses, and fluorescence-labeled Aβ42 was localized in lysosomes in confocal laser microscopy images. The in vivo anti-AD activity of GAA was evaluated by object recognition and Morris water maze (MWM) tests in an AD mouse model following intracerebroventricular injection of aggregated Aβ42. The autophagy level in the hippocampus was assayed by immunohistochemical assessment against microtubule-associated proteins 1A/1B light-chain 3B (LC3B). Intracellular Aβ42 levels were significantly reduced by GAA treatment in microglial cells. Additionally, GAA activated autophagy according to increased LC3B-II levels, with this increased autophagy stimulated by upregulating Axl and Pak1 phosphorylation. The effect of eliminating Aβ by GAA through autophagy was reversed by R428, an Axl inhibitor, or IPA-3, a Pak1 inhibitor. Consistent with the cell-based assay, GAA ameliorated cognitive deficiency and reduced Aβ42 levels in an AD mouse model. Furthermore, LC3B expression in the hippocampus was up-regulated by GAA treatment, with these GAA-specific effects abolished by R428. GAA promoted Aβ clearance by enhancing autophagy via the Axl/Pak1 signaling pathway in microglial cells and ameliorated cognitive deficiency in an AD mouse model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Feng-Rong Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; (L.-F.-R.Q.); (S.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (P.L.)
| | - Shuai Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; (L.-F.-R.Q.); (S.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (P.L.)
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Discovery for Metabolic Diseases, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Yu-Ci Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; (L.-F.-R.Q.); (S.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (P.L.)
| | - Ping Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; (L.-F.-R.Q.); (S.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (P.L.)
| | - Xiaojun Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; (L.-F.-R.Q.); (S.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (P.L.)
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Discovery for Metabolic Diseases, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-2583271203
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24
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Zhou L, Matsushima GK. Tyro3, Axl, Mertk receptor-mediated efferocytosis and immune regulation in the tumor environment. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 361:165-210. [PMID: 34074493 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2021.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Three structurally related tyrosine receptor cell surface kinases, Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk (TAM) have been recognized to modulate immune function, tissue homeostasis, cardiovasculature, and cancer. The TAM receptor family appears to operate in adult mammals across multiple cell types, suggesting both widespread and specific regulation of cell functions and immune niches. TAM family members regulate tissue homeostasis by monitoring the presence of phosphatidylserine expressed on stressed or apoptotic cells. The detection of phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cells requires intermediary molecules that opsonize the dying cells and tether them to TAM receptors on phagocytes. This complex promotes the engulfment of apoptotic cells, also known as efferocytosis, that leads to the resolution of inflammation and tissue healing. The immune mechanisms dictating these processes appear to fall upon specific family members or may involve a complex of different receptors acting cooperatively to resolve and repair damaged tissues. Here, we focus on the role of TAM receptors in triggering efferocytosis and its consequences in the regulation of immune responses in the context of inflammation and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liwen Zhou
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Glenn K Matsushima
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States; UNC Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States; UNC Integrative Program for Biological & Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States.
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25
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Nazareth L, St John J, Murtaza M, Ekberg J. Phagocytosis by Peripheral Glia: Importance for Nervous System Functions and Implications in Injury and Disease. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:660259. [PMID: 33898462 PMCID: PMC8060502 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.660259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) has very limited capacity to regenerate after traumatic injury or disease. In contrast, the peripheral nervous system (PNS) has far greater capacity for regeneration. This difference can be partly attributed to variances in glial-mediated functions, such as axon guidance, structural support, secretion of growth factors and phagocytic activity. Due to their growth-promoting characteristic, transplantation of PNS glia has been trialed for neural repair. After peripheral nerve injuries, Schwann cells (SCs, the main PNS glia) phagocytose myelin debris and attract macrophages to the injury site to aid in debris clearance. One peripheral nerve, the olfactory nerve, is unique in that it continuously regenerates throughout life. The olfactory nerve glia, olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), are the primary phagocytes within this nerve, continuously clearing axonal debris arising from the normal regeneration of the nerve and after injury. In contrast to SCs, OECs do not appear to attract macrophages. SCs and OECs also respond to and phagocytose bacteria, a function likely critical for tackling microbial invasion of the CNS via peripheral nerves. However, phagocytosis is not always effective; inflammation, aging and/or genetic factors may contribute to compromised phagocytic activity. Here, we highlight the diverse roles of SCs and OECs with the focus on their phagocytic activity under physiological and pathological conditions. We also explore why understanding the contribution of peripheral glia phagocytosis may provide us with translational strategies for achieving axonal regeneration of the injured nervous system and potentially for the treatment of certain neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynn Nazareth
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia.,Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - James St John
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia.,Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.,Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Mariyam Murtaza
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia.,Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.,Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Jenny Ekberg
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia.,Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.,Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
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26
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Wei S, Chang S, Dong Y, Xu L, Yuan X, Jia H, Zhang J, Liang L. Electro-acupuncture Suppresses AXL Expression in Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons and Enhances Analgesic Effect of AXL Inhibitor in Spinal Nerve Ligation Induced-Neuropathic Pain Rats. Neurochem Res 2021; 46:504-512. [PMID: 33387191 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-020-03185-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 11/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Electro-acupuncture (EA) has been used for clinic analgesia for many years. However, its mechanisms are not fully understood. We recently reported that AXL, a tyrosine kinase receptor, contributes to the peripheral mechanism of neuropathic pain. We here aim to figure out the significance of EA on neuropathic pain mediated by AXL in dorsal root ganglion (DRG). Spinal nerve ligation (SNL) was used as a neuropathic pain model. EA was applied at ''Huantiao'' (GB-30) and ''Yanglingquan'' (GB-34) acupoints for 30 min daily from day 7 to day 10 after SNL. EA not only gradually attenuated SNL-induced mechanical allodynia, but also suppressed the expression of phosphorylated AXL (p-AXL) and AXL in injured DRGs of SNL rats examined by western blotting and immunofluorescence. Moreover, intrathecal injection of the subthreshold dose of AXL inhibitor TP0903, significantly prolonged the analgesic time of single EA treatment and enhanced the analgesic effect of repeated EA treatments, suggesting a synergic effect of EA and AXL inhibitor. These results indicate that AXL signaling underlies EA analgesia and combination of AXL inhibitor and EA might be a new strategy for clinic analgesia on neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siqi Wei
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Shaanxi Province for Craniofacial Precision Medicine Research, Research Center of Stomatology, Xi'an Jiaotong University College of Stomatology, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuyang Chang
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue Dong
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Linping Xu
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaocui Yuan
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong Jia
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Zhang
- Department of Pain Medicine, Tianjin Union Medical Center, Nankai University, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Lingli Liang
- Institute of Neuroscience, Translational Medicine Institute, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China.
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China.
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi'an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education, Beijing, People's Republic of China.
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27
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Axl Alleviates Neuroinflammation and Delays Japanese Encephalitis Progression in Mice. Virol Sin 2021; 36:667-677. [PMID: 33534086 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-020-00342-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus, which causes the most commonly diagnosed viral encephalitis named Japanese encephalitis (JE) in the world with an unclear pathogenesis. Axl, a receptor tyrosine kinase from TAM family, plays crucial role in many inflammatory diseases. We have previously discovered that Axl deficiency resulted in more severe body weight loss in mice during JEV infection, which we speculate is due to the anti-inflammatory effect of Axl during JE. Currently, the role of Axl in regulating the neuroinflammation and brain damage during JE has not been investigated yet. In this study, by using Axl deficient and heterozygous control mice, we discovered that Axl deficient mice displayed accelerated JE progression and exacerbated brain damage characterized by increased neural cell death, extended infiltration of inflammatory cells, and enhanced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, in comparison to control mice. Additionally, consistent with our previous report, Axl deficiency had no impact on the infection and target cell tropism of JEV in brain. Taken together, our results suggest that Axl plays an anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective role during the pathogenesis of JE.
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28
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Li XL, Zhang B, Liu W, Sun MJ, Zhang YL, Liu H, Wang MX. Rapamycin Alleviates the Symptoms of Multiple Sclerosis in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE) Through Mediating the TAM-TLRs-SOCS Pathway. Front Neurol 2020; 11:590884. [PMID: 33329339 PMCID: PMC7728797 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.590884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Our research aimed to find an immunomodulatory therapy for MS. An experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mouse model of MS was established induced with the syntheticmyelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide 35-55 (MOG35-55). Fifty C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into the Normal group, EAE group, and Rapamycin group (EAE mice treated with three different doses of rapamycin). Hematoxylin and eosin staining and Weil myelin staining were performed on the brain tissues of mice after 21 days post-immunization. The protein expression of Gas6, Tyro3, Axl, Mer in paraventricular tissues were analyzed by immunohistochemistry. The mRNA and protein expression of Gas6, Tyro3, Axl, Mer, SOCS1, SOCS3, Toll-like receptor (TLR) 3, and TLR4 were detected by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and Western blot, respectively. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to detect the secretion of the inflammatory factors IFN-γ and IL-17. Rapamycin treatment could ameliorate the behavior impairment in EAE mice induced by MOG35-55. The expression of Gas6, Tyro3, Axl, Mer, SOCS1, and SOCS3 were decreased in EAE mice at 21 days post-immunization, while the expression of Gas6, Tyro3, Axl, and Mer in rapamycin group was higher than that in EAE group. It was accompanied by an increase in anti-inflammatory proteins SOCS1 and SOCS3, a decrease in the inflammatory proteins TLR-3, TLR-4 and in the amount of IFN-γ, and IL-17. Rapamycin injection relieved the nerve function of and the loss of myelin sheath in the EAE mice, mainly through mediating the TAM-TLRs-SOCS signaling pathway to regulate natural immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Ling Li
- Department of Neurology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, China
| | - Bo Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Wei Liu
- Department of Neurology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, China
| | - Meng-Jiao Sun
- Department of Neurology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, China
| | - Ya-Lan Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, China
| | - Hui Liu
- Department of Neurology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, China
| | - Man-Xia Wang
- Department of Neurology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, China
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29
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Fernández‐Zapata C, Leman JKH, Priller J, Böttcher C. The use and limitations of single-cell mass cytometry for studying human microglia function. Brain Pathol 2020; 30:1178-1191. [PMID: 33058349 PMCID: PMC8018011 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 08/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia, the resident innate immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), play an important role in brain development and homoeostasis, as well as in neuroinflammatory, neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases. Studies in animal models have been used to determine the origin and development of microglia, and how these cells alter their transcriptional and phenotypic signatures during CNS pathology. However, little is known about their human counterparts. Recent studies in human brain samples have harnessed the power of multiplexed single-cell technologies such as single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) and mass cytometry (cytometry by time-of-flight [CyTOF]) to provide a comprehensive molecular view of human microglia in healthy and diseased brains. CyTOF is a powerful tool to study high-dimensional protein expression of human microglia (huMG) at the single-cell level. This technology widens the possibilities of high-throughput quantification (of over 60 targeted molecules) at a single-cell resolution. CyTOF can be combined with scRNA-seq for comprehensive analysis, as it allows single-cell analysis of post-translational modifications of proteins, which provides insights into cell signalling dynamics in targeted cells. In addition, imaging mass cytometry (IMC) has recently become commercially available, and will be useful for analysing multiple cell types in human brain sections. IMC leverages mass spectrometry to acquire spatial data of cell-cell interactions on tissue sections, using (theoretically) over 40 markers at the same time. In this review, we summarise recent studies of huMG using CyTOF and IMC analyses. The uses and limitations as well as future directions of these technologies are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila Fernández‐Zapata
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular PsychiatryCharité – Universitätsmedizin BerlinBerlinGermany
| | - Julia K. H. Leman
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular PsychiatryCharité – Universitätsmedizin BerlinBerlinGermany
| | - Josef Priller
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular PsychiatryCharité – Universitätsmedizin BerlinBerlinGermany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE)BerlinGermany
- UK Dementia Research Institute (DRI)University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Chotima Böttcher
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular PsychiatryCharité – Universitätsmedizin BerlinBerlinGermany
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30
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DuBois JC, Ray AK, Davies P, Shafit-Zagardo B. Anti-Axl antibody treatment reduces the severity of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:324. [PMID: 33121494 PMCID: PMC7599105 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01982-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple sclerosis is an immune-mediated disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by inflammation, oligodendrocytes loss, demyelination, and damaged axons. Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK belong to a family of receptor tyrosine kinases that regulate innate immune responses and CNS homeostasis. During experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the mRNA expression of MerTK, Gas6, and Axl significantly increase, whereas Tyro3 and ProS1 remain unchanged. We have shown that Gas6 is neuroprotective during EAE, and since Gas6 activation of Axl may be necessary for conferring neuroprotection, we sought to determine whether α-Axl or α-MerTK antibodies, shown by others to activate their respective receptors in vivo, could effectively reduce inflammation and neurodegeneration. METHODS Mice received either α-Axl, α-MerTK, IgG isotype control, or PBS before the onset of EAE symptoms. EAE clinical course, axonal damage, demyelination, cytokine production, and immune cell activation in the CNS were used to determine the severity of EAE. RESULTS α-Axl antibody treatment significantly decreased the EAE clinical indices of female mice during chronic EAE and of male mice during both acute and chronic phases. The number of days mice were severely paralyzed also significantly decreased with α-Axl treatment. Inflammatory macrophages/microglia and the extent of demyelination significantly decreased in the spinal cords of α-Axl-treated mice during chronic EAE, with no differences in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. α-MerTK antibody did not influence EAE induction or progression. CONCLUSION Our data suggests that the beneficial effect of Gas6/Axl signaling observed in mice administered with Gas6 can be partially preserved by administering an activating α-Axl antibody, but not α-MerTK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juwen C. DuBois
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave., Bronx, NY 10461 USA
| | - Alex K. Ray
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY USA
| | - Peter Davies
- North Shore-LIJ Health System, Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY USA
| | - Bridget Shafit-Zagardo
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave., Bronx, NY 10461 USA
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31
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Sariol A, Mackin S, Allred MG, Ma C, Zhou Y, Zhang Q, Zou X, Abrahante JE, Meyerholz DK, Perlman S. Microglia depletion exacerbates demyelination and impairs remyelination in a neurotropic coronavirus infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:24464-24474. [PMID: 32929007 PMCID: PMC7533697 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2007814117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are considered both pathogenic and protective during recovery from demyelination, but their precise role remains ill defined. Here, using an inhibitor of colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R), PLX5622, and mice infected with a neurotropic coronavirus (mouse hepatitis virus [MHV], strain JHMV), we show that depletion of microglia during the time of JHMV clearance resulted in impaired myelin repair and prolonged clinical disease without affecting the kinetics of virus clearance. Microglia were required only during the early stages of remyelination. Notably, large deposits of extracellular vesiculated myelin and cellular debris were detected in the spinal cords of PLX5622-treated and not control mice, which correlated with decreased numbers of oligodendrocytes in demyelinating lesions in drug-treated mice. Furthermore, gene expression analyses demonstrated differential expression of genes involved in myelin debris clearance, lipid and cholesterol recycling, and promotion of oligodendrocyte function. The results also demonstrate that microglial functions affected by depletion could not be compensated by infiltrating macrophages. Together, these results demonstrate that microglia play key roles in debris clearance and in the initiation of remyelination following infection with a neurotropic coronavirus but are not necessary during later stages of remyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan Sariol
- Interdisciplinary Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
| | - Samantha Mackin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
| | - Merri-Grace Allred
- Interdisciplinary Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
| | - Chen Ma
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, Wuhan University, 430072 Wuhan, China
| | - Yu Zhou
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, Wuhan University, 430072 Wuhan, China
| | - Qinran Zhang
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, Wuhan University, 430072 Wuhan, China
| | - Xiufen Zou
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, Wuhan University, 430072 Wuhan, China
| | - Juan E Abrahante
- University of Minnesota Informatics Institute (UMII), Minneapolis, MN 55455
| | | | - Stanley Perlman
- Interdisciplinary Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242;
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
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Di Stasi R, De Rosa L, D'Andrea LD. Therapeutic aspects of the Axl/Gas6 molecular system. Drug Discov Today 2020; 25:2130-2148. [PMID: 33002607 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2020.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Axl receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) and its ligand, growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6), are involved in several biological functions and participate in the development and progression of a range of malignancies and autoimmune disorders. In this review, we present this molecular system from a drug discovery perspective, highlighting its therapeutic implications and challenges that need to be addressed. We provide an update on Axl/Gas6 axis biology, exploring its role in fields ranging from angiogenesis, cancer development and metastasis, immune response and inflammation to viral infection. Finally, we summarize the molecules that have been developed to date to target the Axl/Gas6 molecular system for therapeutic and diagnostic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossella Di Stasi
- Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy
| | - Lucia De Rosa
- Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy
| | - Luca D D'Andrea
- Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, Via Nizza 52, 10126 Torino, Italy.
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33
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Plastini MJ, Desu HL, Brambilla R. Dynamic Responses of Microglia in Animal Models of Multiple Sclerosis. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:269. [PMID: 32973458 PMCID: PMC7468479 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia play an essential role in maintaining central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis, as well as responding to injury and disease. Most neurological disorders feature microglial activation, a process whereby microglia undergo profound morphological and transcriptional changes aimed at containing CNS damage and promoting repair, but often resulting in overt inflammation that sustains and propagates the neurodegenerative process. This is especially evident in multiple sclerosis (MS), were microglial activation and microglia-driven neuroinflammation are considered key events in the onset, progression, and resolution of the disease. Our understanding of microglial functions in MS has widened exponentially in the last decade by way of new tools and markers to discriminate microglia from other myeloid populations. Consequently, the complex functional and phenotypical diversity of microglia can now be appreciated. This, in combination with a variety of animal models that mimic specific features and processes of MS, has contributed to filling the gap of knowledge in the cascade of events underlying MS pathophysiology. The purpose of this review is to present the most up to date knowledge of the dynamic responses of microglia in the commonly used animal models of MS, specifically the immune-mediated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model, and the chemically-induced cuprizone and lysolecithin models. Elucidating the spectrum of microglial functions in these models, from detrimental to protective, is essential to identify emerging targets for therapy and guide drug discovery efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie J Plastini
- The Miami Project To Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,The Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Haritha L Desu
- The Miami Project To Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,The Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Roberta Brambilla
- The Miami Project To Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,The Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,BRIDGE-Brain Research Inter-Disciplinary Guided Excellence, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
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Böttcher C, van der Poel M, Fernández-Zapata C, Schlickeiser S, Leman JKH, Hsiao CC, Mizee MR, Adelia, Vincenten MCJ, Kunkel D, Huitinga I, Hamann J, Priller J. Single-cell mass cytometry reveals complex myeloid cell composition in active lesions of progressive multiple sclerosis. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2020; 8:136. [PMID: 32811567 PMCID: PMC7437178 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-020-01010-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Myeloid cells contribute to inflammation and demyelination in the early stages of multiple sclerosis (MS), but it is still unclear to what extent these cells are involved in active lesion formation in progressive MS (PMS). Here, we have harnessed the power of single-cell mass cytometry (CyTOF) to compare myeloid cell phenotypes in active lesions of PMS donors with those in normal-appearing white matter from the same donors and control white matter from non-MS donors. CyTOF measurements of a total of 74 targeted proteins revealed a decreased abundance of homeostatic and TNFhi microglia, and an increase in highly phagocytic and activated microglia states in active lesions of PMS donors. Interestingly, in contrast to results obtained from studies of the inflammatory early disease stages of MS, infiltrating monocyte-derived macrophages were scarce in active lesions of PMS, suggesting fundamental differences of myeloid cell composition in advanced stages of PMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chotima Böttcher
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Marlijn van der Poel
- Neuroimmunology Research Group, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Camila Fernández-Zapata
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stephan Schlickeiser
- BIH Center for Regenerative Therapies (BCRT), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Julia K H Leman
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Cheng-Chih Hsiao
- Neuroimmunology Research Group, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Mark R Mizee
- Neuroimmunology Research Group, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Adelia
- Netherlands Brain Bank, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maria C J Vincenten
- Neuroimmunology Research Group, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Desiree Kunkel
- Flow & Mass Cytometry Core Facility, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health (BIH), Berlin, Germany
| | - Inge Huitinga
- Neuroimmunology Research Group, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Center for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jörg Hamann
- Neuroimmunology Research Group, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Josef Priller
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Berlin, Germany.
- University of Edinburgh and UK Dementia Research Institute (DRI), Edinburgh, UK.
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Chausse B, Kakimoto PA, Kann O. Microglia and lipids: how metabolism controls brain innate immunity. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2020; 112:137-144. [PMID: 32807643 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are universal sensors of alterations in CNS physiology. These cells integrate complex molecular signals and undergo comprehensive phenotypical remodeling to adapt inflammatory responses. In the last years, single-cell analyses have revealed that microglia exhibit diverse phenotypes during development, growth and disease. Emerging evidence suggests that such phenotype transitions are mediated by reprogramming of cell metabolism. Indeed, metabolic pathways are distinctively altered in activated microglia and are central nodes controlling microglial responses. Microglial lipid metabolism has been specifically involved in the control of microglial activation and effector functions, such as migration, phagocytosis and inflammatory signaling, and minor disturbances in microglial lipid handling associates with altered brain function in disorders featuring neuroinflammation. In this review, we explore new and relevant aspects of microglial metabolism in health and disease. We give special focus on how different branches of lipid metabolism, such as lipid sensing, synthesis and oxidation, integrate and control essential aspects of microglial biology, and how disturbances in these processes associate with aging and the pathogenesis of, for instance, multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. Finally, challenges and advances in microglial lipid research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Chausse
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Heidelberg, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Pamela A Kakimoto
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, 05508-000, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Oliver Kann
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Heidelberg, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, University of Heidelberg, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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The Multifaceted Roles of TAM Receptors during Viral Infection. Virol Sin 2020; 36:1-12. [PMID: 32720213 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-020-00264-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk (TAM) receptors play multiple roles in a myriad of physiological and pathological processes, varying from promoting the phagocytic clearance of apoptotic cells, sustaining the immune and inflammatory homeostasis, maintaining the blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity and central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis, to mediating cancer malignancy and chemoresistance. Growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6) and protein S (Pros1) are the two ligands that activate TAM receptors. Recently, TAM receptors have been reported to mediate cell entry and infection of multitudinous enveloped viruses in a manner called apoptotic mimicry. Moreover, TAM receptors are revitalized during viral entry and infection, which sequesters innate immune and inflammatory responses, facilitating viral replication and immune evasion. However, accumulating evidence have now proposed that TAM receptors are not required for the infection of these viruses in vivo. In addition, TAM receptors protect mice against the CNS infection of neuroinvasive viruses and relieve the brain lesions during encephalitis. These protective effects are achieved through maintaining BBB integrity, attenuating proinflammatory cytokine production, and promoting neural cell survival. TAM receptors also regulate the programmed cell death modes of virus-infected cells, which have profound impacts on the pathogenesis and outcome of infection. Here, we systematically review the functionalities and underlying mechanisms of TAM receptors and propose the potential application of TAM agonists to prevent severe viral encephalitis.
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Tyrosine Kinase Receptors Axl and MerTK Mediate the Beneficial Effect of Electroacupuncture in a Cuprizone-Induced Demyelinating Model. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2020; 2020:3205176. [PMID: 32714402 PMCID: PMC7355344 DOI: 10.1155/2020/3205176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Revised: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Electroacupuncture has been shown to promote remyelination in a demyelinating model of multiple sclerosis (MS) through enhanced microglial clearance of degraded myelin debris. However, the mechanisms involved in this process are yet to be clearly elucidated. It has been revealed that TAM receptor tyrosine kinases (Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK) play pivotal roles in regulating multiple features of microglia, including the phagocytic function and myelin clearance. Therefore, the aim of this study is to further confirm whether electroacupuncture improves functional recovery in this model and to characterise the involvement of the TAM receptor during this process. In addition to naive control mice, a cuprizone-induced demyelinating model was established, and long-term electroacupuncture treatment was administrated. To evaluate the efficiency of functional recovery following demyelination, we performed beam-walking test and rotarod performance test; to objectify the degree of remyelination, we performed transmission electron microscopy and protein quantification of mature oligodendrocyte markers. Oil Red O staining was used to evaluate the deposit of myelin debris. We confirmed that, in cuprizone-treated mice, electroacupuncture significantly ameliorates motor-coordinative dysfunction and counteracts demyelinating processes, with less deposit of myelin debris accumulating in the corpus callosum. Surprisingly, mRNA expression of TAM receptors was significantly upregulated after electroacupuncture treatment, and we further confirmed an increased protein expression of Axl and MerTK after electroacupuncture treatment, indicating their involvement during electroacupuncture treatment. Finally, LDC1267, a selective TAM kinase inhibitor, abolished the therapeutic effect of electroacupuncture on motor-coordinative dysfunction. Overall, our data demonstrate that electroacupuncture could mitigate the progression of demyelination by enhancing the TAM receptor expression to facilitate the clearance of myelin debris. Our results also suggest that electroacupuncture may be a potential curative treatment for MS patients.
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Zhou Y, Yao Y, Deng Y, Shao A. Regulation of efferocytosis as a novel cancer therapy. Cell Commun Signal 2020; 18:71. [PMID: 32370748 PMCID: PMC7199874 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-020-00542-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Efferocytosis is a physiologic phagocytic clearance of apoptotic cells, which modulates inflammatory responses and the immune environment and subsequently facilitates immune escape of cancer cells, thus promoting tumor development and progression. Efferocytosis is an equilibrium formed by perfect coordination among “find-me”, “eat-me” and “don’t-eat-me” signals. These signaling pathways not only affect the proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and angiogenesis of tumor cells but also regulate adaptive responses and drug resistance to antitumor therapies. Therefore, efferocytosis-related molecules and pathways are potential targets for antitumor therapy. Besides, supplementing conventional chemotherapy, radiotherapy and other immunotherapies with efferocytosis-targeted therapy could enhance the therapeutic efficacy, reduce off-target toxicity, and promote patient outcome. Video abstract
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunxiang Zhou
- Department of Surgical Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yihan Yao
- Department of Surgical Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yongchuan Deng
- Department of Surgical Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Anwen Shao
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
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Li Y, Fan H, Sun J, Ni M, Zhang L, Chen C, Hong X, Fang F, Zhang W, Ma P. Circular RNA expression profile of Alzheimer's disease and its clinical significance as biomarkers for the disease risk and progression. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2020; 123:105747. [PMID: 32315771 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2020.105747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate circular RNA (circRNA) expression profile via microarray, and further assess the potential of candidate circRNAs as biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease (AD). METHODS CircRNA expression profile in cerebrospinal fluid from 8 AD patients and 8 control (Ctrl) subjects was assessed by microarray. Subsequently, 10 candidate circRNAs from microarray were validated by reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) in cerebrospinal fluid from 80 AD patients and 40 Ctrl subjects. RESULTS By microarray, 112 circRNAs were upregulated and 51 circRNAs were downregulated in AD patients compared with Ctrl subjects, and these circRNAs were enriched in AD related pathways such as neurotrophin signaling pathway, natural killer cell mediated cytotoxicity and cholinergic synapse. By RT-qPCR, circ-LPAR1, circ-AXL and circ-GPHN were increased, whereas circ-PCCA, circ-HAUS4, circ-KIF18B and circ-TTC39C were decreased in AD patients compared with Ctrl subjects, and these circRNAs were disclosed to predict AD risk by receiver operating characteristics curve analysis. Further forward-stepwise multivariate logistic regression revealed that circ-AXL, circ-GPHN, circ-ITPR3, circ-PCCA and cic-TTC39C were independent predictive factors for AD risk. Besides, in AD patients, circ-AXL and circ-GPHN negatively correlated, while circ-PCCA and circ-HAUS4 positively correlated with mini-mental state examination score; Circ-AXL negatively correlated, while circ-PCCA, circ-HAUS4 and circ-KIF18B positively correlated with Aβ42; Circ-AXL and circ-GPHN positively correlated, whereas circ-HAUS4 negatively correlated with t-tau; Circ-AXL positively correlated with p-tau. CONCLUSION Our study provides an overview of circRNA expression profile in AD, and identifies that circ-AXL, circ-GPHN and circ-PCCA hold clinical implications for guiding disease management in AD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanlong Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Henan University, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Hua Fan
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Science and Technology, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Jun Sun
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Henan University, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Ming Ni
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Fuwai Central China Cardiovascular Hospital, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Henan University, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Ci Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Henan University, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xuejiao Hong
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Henan University, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Fengqin Fang
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Henan University, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Henan University, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Peizhi Ma
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, People's Hospital of Henan University, School of Clinical Medicine, Henan University, Zhengzhou, China.
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Wang SS, Bi HZ, Chu SF, Dong YX, He WB, Tian YJ, Zang YD, Zhang DM, Zhang Z, Chen NH. CZ-7, a new derivative of Claulansine F, promotes remyelination induced by cuprizone by enhancing myelin debris clearance. Brain Res Bull 2020; 159:67-78. [PMID: 32289743 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2020.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The mechanism of demyelinating diseases is controversial, while demyelination and remyeliantion disorder is the acknowledged etiology and therapeutic target. Untill now, there is no efficient therapy for these diseases. CZ-7, a new derivative of Claulansine F, which has been reported before, were investigated its pro-remyelination effect and its associated mechanism in cuprizone (CPZ)-induced demyelination model. In this study, male C57BL/6 mice were subjected to CPZ (300 mg/kg) through intragastric gavage and were orally administered CZ-7 (20 mg/kg) meanwhile. The results of weight monitoring and behavioral testing showed that CZ-7 can significantly improve behavior dysfunction in the demyelinating mice. Luxol-fast blue (LFB) staining, myelin basic protein (MBP) immunostaining, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and QPCR results indicated the therapeutic effect of CZ-7 on CPZ mice model. Furthermore, degraded myelin basic protein (dMBP) immunofluorescent staining and oil red O staining showed that CZ-7 contributed to the clearance of degraded myelin debris. More microglia displayed phagocytic shape assembled in corpus callosum (CC) and there was an active process of phagocytosis in microglia after CZ-7 treatment. Immunofluorescent staining and QPCR analysis revealed the M2-polarized phenotype switch of microglia in the process of myelin debris removel, which demostrated the microenvironment improvement of CZ-7. Moreover, immunofluorescent staining of NG2 and O4 demonstated that more oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) existed in CC after CZ-7 treatment. In conclusion, our results demonstrated CZ-7 has a potential therapeutic effect for MS and other demyelinating diseases through enhancing myelin debris clearance to improve the microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sha-Sha Wang
- Institute of Pharmaceutical & Food Engineering, Shanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, 030619, China; State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functions of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica & Neuroscience Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Hao-Zhi Bi
- Institute of Pharmaceutical & Food Engineering, Shanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, 030619, China
| | - Shi-Feng Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functions of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica & Neuroscience Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Yi-Xiao Dong
- Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 300193, China
| | - Wen-Bin He
- Institute of Pharmaceutical & Food Engineering, Shanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, 030619, China
| | - Ya-Juan Tian
- Institute of Pharmaceutical & Food Engineering, Shanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, 030619, China
| | - Ying-Da Zang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functions of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica & Neuroscience Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Dong-Ming Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functions of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica & Neuroscience Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Zhao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functions of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica & Neuroscience Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China.
| | - Nai-Hong Chen
- Institute of Pharmaceutical & Food Engineering, Shanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, 030619, China; State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functions of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica & Neuroscience Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China; Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 300193, China.
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Brioschi S, Zhou Y, Colonna M. Brain Parenchymal and Extraparenchymal Macrophages in Development, Homeostasis, and Disease. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2020; 204:294-305. [PMID: 31907272 PMCID: PMC7034672 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are parenchymal macrophages of the CNS; as professional phagocytes they are important for maintenance of the brain's physiology. These cells are generated through primitive hematopoiesis in the yolk sac and migrate into the brain rudiment after establishment of embryonic circulation. Thereafter, microglia develop in a stepwise fashion, reaching complete maturity after birth. In the CNS, microglia self-renew without input from blood monocytes. Recent RNA-sequencing studies have defined a molecular signature for microglia under homeostasis. However, during disease, microglia undergo remarkable phenotypic changes, which reflect the acquisition of specialized functions tailored to the pathological context. In addition to microglia, the brain-border regions host populations of extraparenchymal macrophages with disparate origins and phenotypes that have recently been delineated. In this review we outline recent findings that provide a deeper understanding of both parenchymal microglia and extraparenchymal brain macrophages in homeostasis and during disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Brioschi
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Yingyue Zhou
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Marco Colonna
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110
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AXL receptor tyrosine kinase as a promising anti-cancer approach: functions, molecular mechanisms and clinical applications. Mol Cancer 2019; 18:153. [PMID: 31684958 PMCID: PMC6827209 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-019-1090-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 277] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Molecular targeted therapy for cancer has been a research hotspot for decades. AXL is a member of the TAM family with the high-affinity ligand growth arrest-specific protein 6 (GAS6). The Gas6/AXL signalling pathway is associated with tumour cell growth, metastasis, invasion, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), angiogenesis, drug resistance, immune regulation and stem cell maintenance. Different therapeutic agents targeting AXL have been developed, typically including small molecule inhibitors, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), nucleotide aptamers, soluble receptors, and several natural compounds. In this review, we first provide a comprehensive discussion of the structure, function, regulation, and signalling pathways of AXL. Then, we highlight recent strategies for targeting AXL in the treatment of cancer.AXL-targeted drugs, either as single agents or in combination with conventional chemotherapy or other small molecule inhibitors, are likely to improve the survival of many patients. However, future investigations into AXL molecular signalling networks and robust predictive biomarkers are warranted to select patients who could receive clinical benefit and to avoid potential toxicities.
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43
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Living on the Edge: Efferocytosis at the Interface of Homeostasis and Pathology. Immunity 2019; 50:1149-1162. [PMID: 31117011 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2019.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2019] [Revised: 04/13/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Nearly every tissue in the body undergoes routine turnover of cells as part of normal healthy living. The majority of these cells undergoing turnover die via apoptosis, and then are rapidly removed by phagocytes by the process of efferocytosis that is anti-inflammatory. However, a number of pathologies have recently been linked to defective clearance of apoptotic cells. Perturbed clearance arises for many reasons, including overwhelming of the clearance machinery, disruptions at different stages of efferocytosis, and responses of phagocytes during efferocytosis, all of which can alter the homeostatic tissue environment. This review covers linkages of molecules involved in the different phases of efferocytosis to disease pathologies that can arise due to their loss or altered function.
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TAM Receptor Pathways at the Crossroads of Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration. DISEASE MARKERS 2019; 2019:2387614. [PMID: 31636733 PMCID: PMC6766163 DOI: 10.1155/2019/2387614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that pathogenic mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration are strongly linked with neuroinflammatory responses. Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk (TAM receptors) constitute a subgroup of the receptor tyrosine kinase family, cell surface receptors which transmit signals from the extracellular space to the cytoplasm and nucleus. TAM receptors and the corresponding ligands, Growth Arrest Specific 6 and Protein S, are expressed in different tissues, including the nervous system, playing complex roles in tissue repair, inflammation and cell survival, proliferation, and migration. In the nervous system, TAM receptor signalling modulates neurogenesis and neuronal migration, synaptic plasticity, microglial activation, phagocytosis, myelination, and peripheral nerve repair, resulting in potential interest in neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Multiple Sclerosis. In Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases, a role of TAM receptors in neuronal survival and pathological protein aggregate clearance has been suggested, while in Multiple Sclerosis TAM receptors are involved in myelination and demyelination processes. To better clarify roles and pathways involving TAM receptors may have important therapeutic implications, given the fine modulation of multiple molecular processes which could be reached. In this review, we summarise the roles of TAM receptors in the central nervous system, focusing on the regulation of immune responses and microglial activities and analysing in vitro and in vivo studies regarding TAM signalling involvement in neurodegeneration.
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45
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Gruchot J, Weyers V, Göttle P, Förster M, Hartung HP, Küry P, Kremer D. The Molecular Basis for Remyelination Failure in Multiple Sclerosis. Cells 2019; 8:cells8080825. [PMID: 31382620 PMCID: PMC6721708 DOI: 10.3390/cells8080825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Revised: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Myelin sheaths in the central nervous system (CNS) insulate axons and thereby allow saltatory nerve conduction, which is a prerequisite for complex brain function. Multiple sclerosis (MS), the most common inflammatory autoimmune disease of the CNS, leads to the destruction of myelin sheaths and the myelin-producing oligodendrocytes, thus leaving behind demyelinated axons prone to injury and degeneration. Clinically, this process manifests itself in significant neurological symptoms and disability. Resident oligodendroglial precursor cells (OPCs) and neural stem cells (NSCs) are present in the adult brain, and can differentiate into mature oligodendrocytes which then remyelinate the demyelinated axons. However, for multiple reasons, in MS the regenerative capacity of these cell populations diminishes significantly over time, ultimately leading to neurodegeneration, which currently remains untreatable. In addition, microglial cells, the resident innate immune cells of the CNS, can contribute further to inflammatory and degenerative axonal damage. Here, we review the molecular factors contributing to remyelination failure in MS by inhibiting OPC and NSC differentiation or modulating microglial behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Gruchot
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Vivien Weyers
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Peter Göttle
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Moritz Förster
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Hans-Peter Hartung
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Patrick Küry
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - David Kremer
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
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46
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Mechanism of gut microbiota and Axl/SOCS3 in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Biosci Rep 2019; 39:BSR20190228. [PMID: 31221818 PMCID: PMC6603274 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20190228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2019] [Revised: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated disease of the central nervous system (CNS). The present study explored the role of intestinal microbiota in the initiation and propagation of mice induced by experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis. 48 C57BL/6 were randomly divided into control group and EAE group. The changes of body weight and the scores of neurological function were recorded. The mRNA expression of the receptor tyrosine kinase subfamily (AXL) was detected by real-time quantitative PCR. The levels of IL-17 and IFN-γ in blood samples were examined by ELISA. The intestinal microbial composition of mice at different time points during the EAE induction was analyzed by 16S rRNA gene-based sequencing. In EAE group, the body weight began to reduce at day 3 and neurological symptoms began to appear at day 7 after EAE induction. The levels of IL-17 and IFN-γ in EAE group reached the peak at day 21 and then decreased gradually. However, the expression of Axl and SOCS3 reached the lowest level at day 21 and then increased gradually. The microbiome analyses revealed that the abundances of Alistipes, Blautia, and Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group were significantly changed at day 14, whereas the abundances of Allobaculum, Eubacterium and Helicobacter were significantly changed at day 30 of EAE induction. The prevotellaceae_NK3B31_group may be key bacteria that contribute to the development of MS. Regulation of intestinal microbiota composition can become a new therapeutic target for the treatment of MS.
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Meyer PF, Savard M, Poirier J, Labonté A, Rosa-Neto P, Weitz TM, Town T, Breitner J. Bi-directional Association of Cerebrospinal Fluid Immune Markers with Stage of Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 63:577-590. [PMID: 29660934 PMCID: PMC5929310 DOI: 10.3233/jad-170887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Immune mechanisms may be important in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Yet, studies comparing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma immune marker levels of healthy and demented individuals have yielded conflicting results. We analyzed CSF from 101 members of the parental history-positive PREVENT-AD cohort of healthy aging adults, and 237 participants without dementia from the initial cohort of the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI-1). Following recent practice, we used the biomarkers total-tau and amyloid-β1-42 to allocate participants from each study into four stages of AD pathogenesis: Stage 0 (no abnormality), Stage 1 (reduced amyloid-β1-42), Stage 2 (reduced amyloid-β1-42 and increased total-tau), or “Suspected Non-Alzheimer Pathology” (elevated total-tau only). Investigating the PREVENT-AD participants’ CSF assay results for 19 immune/inflammatory markers, we found six that showed a distinct bi-directional relationship with pathogenetic stage. Relative to Stage 0, these were diminished at Stage 1 but strongly increased at Stage 2. Among the ADNI participants (90 healthy controls and 147 with mild cognitive impairment), we found that 23 of 83 available CSF markers also showed this distinct pattern. These results support recent observations that immune activation may become apparent only after the onset of both amyloid and tau pathologies. Unexpectedly, they also suggest that immune marker activity may diminish along with earliest appearance of amyloid-β plaque pathology. These findings may explain discordant results from past studies, and suggest the importance of characterizing the extent of AD pathology when comparing clinical groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-François Meyer
- Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Center for Studies on the Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease (StoP-AD), Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Melissa Savard
- Center for Studies on the Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease (StoP-AD), Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada.,McGill Centre for Studies in Aging and Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Judes Poirier
- Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Center for Studies on the Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease (StoP-AD), Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Douglas Mental Health University Institute Research Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Anne Labonté
- Center for Studies on the Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease (StoP-AD), Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Douglas Mental Health University Institute Research Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Pedro Rosa-Neto
- Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Center for Studies on the Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease (StoP-AD), Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Douglas Mental Health University Institute Research Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada.,McGill Centre for Studies in Aging and Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Tara M Weitz
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Terrence Town
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - John Breitner
- Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Center for Studies on the Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease (StoP-AD), Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Douglas Mental Health University Institute Research Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada.,McGill Centre for Studies in Aging and Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
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48
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Galloway DA, Phillips AEM, Owen DRJ, Moore CS. Phagocytosis in the Brain: Homeostasis and Disease. Front Immunol 2019; 10:790. [PMID: 31040847 PMCID: PMC6477030 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are resident macrophages of the central nervous system and significantly contribute to overall brain function by participating in phagocytosis during development, homeostasis, and diseased states. Phagocytosis is a highly complex process that is specialized for the uptake and removal of opsonized and non-opsonized targets, such as pathogens, apoptotic cells, and cellular debris. While the role of phagocytosis in mediating classical innate and adaptive immune responses has been known for decades, it is now appreciated that phagocytosis is also critical throughout early neural development, homeostasis, and initiating repair mechanisms. As such, modulating phagocytic processes has provided unexplored avenues with the intent of developing novel therapeutics that promote repair and regeneration in the CNS. Here, we review the functional consequences that phagocytosis plays in both the healthy and diseased CNS, and summarize how phagocytosis contributes to overall pathophysiological mechanisms involved in brain injury and repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan A Galloway
- Division of BioMedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, Canada
| | - Alexandra E M Phillips
- Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - David R J Owen
- Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Craig S Moore
- Division of BioMedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, Canada
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Mao L, Yang T, Li X, Lei X, Sun Y, Zhao Y, Zhang W, Gao Y, Sun B, Zhang F. Protective effects of sulforaphane in experimental vascular cognitive impairment: Contribution of the Nrf2 pathway. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2019; 39. [PMID: 29533123 PMCID: PMC6365596 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x18764083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The major pathophysiological process of vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) is chronic cerebral ischemia, which causes disintegration of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), neuronal death, and white matter injury. This study aims to test whether sulforaphane (Sfn), a natural activator of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), reduces the chronic ischemic injury and cognitive dysfunction after VCI. Experimental VCI was induced in rats by permanent occlusion of both common carotid arteries for six weeks. This procedure caused notable neuronal death in the cortex and hippocampal CA1, myelin loss in the corpus callosum and hippocampal fimbria, accumulation of myelin debris in the corpus callosum, and remarkable cognitive impairment. Sfn treatment alleviated these ischemic injuries and the cognitive dysfunction. Sfn-mediated neuroprotection was associated with enhanced activation of Nrf2 and upregulation of heme oxygenase 1. Sfn also reduced neuronal and endothelial death and maintained the integrity of BBB after oxygen-glucose deprivation in vitro in an Nrf2 dependent manner. Furthermore, Nrf2 knockdown in endothelial cells decreased claudin-5 protein expression with downregulated claudin-5 promoter activity, suggesting that claudin-5 might be a target gene of Nrf2. Our results demonstrate that Sfn provides robust neuroprotection against chronic brain ischemic injury and may be a promising agent for VCI treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leilei Mao
- 1 Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders and Recovery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,2 Key Laboratory of Cerebral Microcirculation, Taishan Medical University, Tai'an, Shandong, China
| | - Tuo Yang
- 1 Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders and Recovery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Xin Li
- 2 Key Laboratory of Cerebral Microcirculation, Taishan Medical University, Tai'an, Shandong, China
| | - Xia Lei
- 2 Key Laboratory of Cerebral Microcirculation, Taishan Medical University, Tai'an, Shandong, China
| | - Yang Sun
- 1 Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders and Recovery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Yongfang Zhao
- 3 State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Institute of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenting Zhang
- 3 State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Institute of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanqin Gao
- 1 Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders and Recovery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,3 State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Institute of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Baoliang Sun
- 2 Key Laboratory of Cerebral Microcirculation, Taishan Medical University, Tai'an, Shandong, China
| | - Feng Zhang
- 1 Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders and Recovery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,2 Key Laboratory of Cerebral Microcirculation, Taishan Medical University, Tai'an, Shandong, China
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50
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Lee J, Park B, Moon B, Park J, Moon H, Kim K, Lee SA, Kim D, Min C, Lee DH, Lee G, Park D. A scaffold for signaling of Tim-4-mediated efferocytosis is formed by fibronectin. Cell Death Differ 2018; 26:1646-1655. [PMID: 30451988 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-018-0238-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Revised: 10/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
An essential step during clearance of apoptotic cells is the recognition of phosphatidylserine (PS) exposed on apoptotic cells by its receptors on phagocytes. Tim-4 directly binding to PS and functioning as a tethering receptor for phagocytosis of apoptotic cells has been extensively studied over the past decade. However, the molecular mechanisms by which Tim-4 collaborates with other engulfment receptors during efferocytosis remain elusive. By comparing efferocytosis induced by Tim-4 with that by Anxa5-GPI, an artificial tethering receptor, we found that Tim-4 possesses auxiliary machinery to induce a higher level of efferocytosis than Anxa5-GPI. To search for that, we performed a yeast two-hybrid screen and identified Fibronectin (Fn1) as a novel Tim-4-associating protein. Tim-4 directly associated with Fn1 and formed a complex with integrins via the association of Fn1. Through Tim-4-/- mice and cell-based assays, we found that modulation of the Fn1 level affected efferocytosis induced by Tim-4 and disruption of the interaction between Tim-4 and Fn1 abrogated Tim-4-mediated efferocytosis. In addition, Tim-4 depletion attenuated integrin signaling activation and perturbation of integrin signaling suppressed Tim-4-promoted efferocytosis. Taken together, the data suggest that Fn1 locates Tim-4 and integrins in close proximity by acting as a scaffold, resulting in synergistic cooperation of Tim-4 with integrins for efficient efferocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juyeon Lee
- School of Life Sciences and Aging Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Korea.,Research Center for Cellular Homeostasis, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Korea
| | - Boyeon Park
- School of Life Sciences and Aging Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Korea.,Microbiology and Functionality Research Group, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju, 61755, Korea
| | - Byeongjin Moon
- School of Life Sciences and Aging Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Korea
| | - Jeongjun Park
- School of Life Sciences and Aging Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Korea
| | - Hyunji Moon
- School of Life Sciences and Aging Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Korea.,Research Center for Cellular Homeostasis, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Korea
| | - Kwanhyeong Kim
- School of Life Sciences and Aging Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Korea.,Research Center for Cellular Homeostasis, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Korea
| | - Sang-Ah Lee
- School of Life Sciences and Aging Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Korea
| | - Deokhwan Kim
- School of Life Sciences and Aging Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Korea.,Research Center for Cellular Homeostasis, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Korea
| | - Chanhyuk Min
- School of Life Sciences and Aging Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Korea
| | - Dae-Hee Lee
- Department of Oncology, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, 08308, Korea
| | - Gwangrog Lee
- School of Life Sciences and Aging Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Korea
| | - Daeho Park
- School of Life Sciences and Aging Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Korea. .,Research Center for Cellular Homeostasis, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Korea.
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