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Klasse PJ, Moore JP. Reappraising the Value of HIV-1 Vaccine Correlates of Protection Analyses. J Virol 2022; 96:e0003422. [PMID: 35384694 PMCID: PMC9044961 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00034-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
With the much-debated exception of the modestly reduced acquisition reported for the RV144 efficacy trial, HIV-1 vaccines have not protected humans against infection, and a vaccine of similar design to that tested in RV144 was not protective in a later trial, HVTN 702. Similar vaccine regimens have also not consistently protected nonhuman primates (NHPs) against viral acquisition. Conversely, experimental vaccines of different designs have protected macaques from viral challenges but then failed to protect humans, while many other HIV-1 vaccine candidates have not protected NHPs. While efficacy varies more in NHPs than humans, vaccines have failed to protect in the most stringent NHP model. Intense investigations have aimed to identify correlates of protection (CoPs), even in the absence of net protection. Unvaccinated animals and humans vary vastly in their susceptibility to infection and in their innate and adaptive responses to the vaccines; hence, merely statistical associations with factors that do not protect are easily found. Systems biological analyses, including artificial intelligence, have identified numerous candidate CoPs but with no clear consistency within or between species. Proposed CoPs sometimes have only tenuous mechanistic connections to immune protection. In contrast, neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) are a central mechanistic CoP for vaccines that succeed against other viruses, including SARS-CoV-2. No HIV-1 vaccine candidate has yet elicited potent and broadly active NAbs in NHPs or humans, but narrow-specificity NAbs against the HIV-1 isolate corresponding to the immunogen do protect against infection by the autologous virus. Here, we analyze why so many HIV-1 vaccines have failed, summarize the outcomes of vaccination in NHPs and humans, and discuss the value and pitfalls of hunting for CoPs other than NAbs. We contrast the failure to find a consistent CoP for HIV-1 vaccines with the identification of NAbs as the principal CoP for SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- P. J. Klasse
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - John P. Moore
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, USA
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Klasse PJ, Nixon DF, Moore JP. Immunogenicity of clinically relevant SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in nonhuman primates and humans. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabe8065. [PMID: 33608249 PMCID: PMC7978427 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abe8065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Multiple preventive vaccines are being developed to counter the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. The leading candidates have now been evaluated in nonhuman primates (NHPs) and human phase 1 and/or phase 2 clinical trials. Several vaccines have already advanced into phase 3 efficacy trials, while others will do so before the end of 2020. Here, we summarize what is known of the antibody and T cell immunogenicity of these vaccines in NHPs and humans. To the extent possible, we compare how the vaccines have performed, taking into account the use of different assays to assess immunogenicity and inconsistencies in how the resulting data are presented. We also review the outcome of challenge experiments with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in immunized macaques, while noting variations in the protocols used, including but not limited to the virus challenge doses. Press releases on the outcomes of vaccine efficacy trials are also summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Klasse
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Douglas F Nixon
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - John P Moore
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA.
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Zolla-Pazner S, Gilbert PB. Revisiting the Correlate of Reduced HIV Infection Risk in the Rv144 Vaccine Trial. J Virol 2019; 93:e00629-19. [PMID: 31189712 PMCID: PMC6694814 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00629-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The RV144 vaccine trial is the only clinical study to have shown a modest but statistically significant decrease in HIV infection risk. RV144 and the subsequent studies identifying the level of V1V2-specific antibodies as a correlate of reduced infection risk are still controversial despite many papers supporting and expanding the initial study. We address these controversies and summarize active-immunization and passive-immunization experiments in nonhuman primates that support the initial finding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Zolla-Pazner
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Peter B Gilbert
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center and Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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Katsinelos T, Tuck BJ, Mukadam AS, McEwan WA. The Role of Antibodies and Their Receptors in Protection Against Ordered Protein Assembly in Neurodegeneration. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1139. [PMID: 31214163 PMCID: PMC6554282 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Ordered assemblies of proteins are found in the postmortem brains of sufferers of several neurodegenerative diseases. The cytoplasmic microtubule associated protein tau and alpha-synuclein (αS) are found in an assembled state in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, respectively. An accumulating body of evidence suggests a "prion-like" mechanism of spread of these assemblies through the diseased brain. Under this hypothesis, assembled variants of these proteins promote the conversion of native proteins to the assembled state. This likely inflicts pathology on cells of the brain through a toxic gain-of-function mechanism. Experiments in animal models of tau and αS pathology have demonstrated that the passive transfer of anti-tau or anti-αS antibodies induces a reduction in the levels of assembled proteins. This is further accompanied by improvements in neurological function and preservation of brain volume. Immunotherapy is therefore considered one of the brightest hopes as a therapeutic avenue in an area currently without disease-modifying therapy. Following a series of disappointing clinical trials targeting beta-amyloid, a peptide that accumulates in the extracellular spaces of the AD brain, attention is turning to active and passive immunotherapies that target tau and αS. However, there are several remaining uncertainties concerning the mechanism by which antibodies afford protection against self-propagating protein conformations. This review will discuss current understanding of how antibodies and their receptors can be brought to bear on proteins involved in neurodegeneration. Parallels will be made to antibody-mediated protection against classical viral infections. Common mechanisms that may contribute to protection against self-propagating protein conformations include blocking the entry of protein "seeds" to cells, clearance of immune complexes by microglia, and the intracellular protein degradation pathway initiated by cytoplasmic antibodies via the Fc receptor TRIM21. As with anti-viral immunity, protective mechanisms may be accompanied by the activation of immune signaling pathways and we will discuss the suitability of such activation in the neurological setting.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - William A. McEwan
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Kulkarni PS, Hurwitz JL, Simões EAF, Piedra PA. Establishing Correlates of Protection for Vaccine Development: Considerations for the Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccine Field. Viral Immunol 2018; 31:195-203. [PMID: 29336703 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2017.0147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Correlates of protection (CoPs) can play a significant role in vaccine development by assisting the selection of vaccine candidates for clinical trials, supporting clinical trial design and implementation, and simplifying tests of vaccine modifications. Because of this important role in vaccine development, it is essential that CoPs be defined by well-designed immunogenicity and efficacy studies, with attention paid to benefits and limitations. The respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) field is unique in that a great deal of information about the humoral response is available from basic research and clinical studies. Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies have been used routinely in the clinic to protect vulnerable infants from infection, providing a wealth of information about correlations between neutralizing antibodies and disease prevention. Considerations for the establishment of future CoPs to support RSV vaccine development in different populations are therefore discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julia L Hurwitz
- 2 Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital , Memphis, Tennessee.,3 Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Biochemistry, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, Tennessee
| | - Eric A F Simões
- 4 Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine , Aurora, Colorado.,5 Department of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public Health , Section of Infectious Diseases, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Pedro A Piedra
- 6 Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine , Houston, Texas
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McEwan WA. Surveillance for Intracellular Antibody by Cytosolic Fc Receptor TRIM21. Antibodies (Basel) 2016; 5:antib5040021. [PMID: 31558002 PMCID: PMC6698813 DOI: 10.3390/antib5040021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2016] [Revised: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
TRIM21 has emerged as an atypical Fc receptor that is broadly conserved and widely expressed in the cytoplasm of mammalian cells. Viruses that traffic surface-bound antibodies into the cell during infection recruit TRIM21 via a high affinity interaction between Fc and TRIM21 PRYSPRY domain. Following binding of intracellular antibody, TRIM21 acts as both antiviral effector and sensor for innate immune signalling. These activities serve to reduce viral replication by orders of magnitude in vitro and contribute to host survival during in vivo infection. Neutralization occurs rapidly after detection and requires the activity of the ubiquitin-proteasome system. The microbial targets of this arm of intracellular immunity are still being identified: TRIM21 activity has been reported following infection by several non-enveloped viruses and intracellular bacteria. These findings extend the sphere of influence of antibodies to the intracellular domain and have broad implications for immunity. TRIM21 has been implicated in the chronic auto-immune condition systemic lupus erythematosus and is itself an auto-antigen in Sjögren’s syndrome. This review summarises our current understanding of TRIM21’s role as a cytosolic Fc receptor and briefly discusses pathological circumstances where intracellular antibodies have been described, or are hypothesized to occur, and may benefit from further investigations of the role of TRIM21.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A McEwan
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK.
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Klasse PJ. How to assess the binding strength of antibodies elicited by vaccination against HIV and other viruses. Expert Rev Vaccines 2016; 15:295-311. [PMID: 26641943 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2016.1128831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Vaccines that protect against viral infections generally induce neutralizing antibodies. When vaccines are evaluated, the need arises to assess the affinity maturation of the antibody responses. Binding titers of polyclonal sera depend not only on the affinities of the constituent antibodies but also on their individual concentrations, which are difficult to ascertain. Therefore an assay based on chaotrope disruption of antibody-antigen complexes was designed for measuring binding strength. This assay works well with many viral antigens but gives differential results depending on the conformational dependence of epitopes on complex antigens such as the envelope glycoprotein of HIV-1. Kinetic binding assays might offer alternatives, since they can measure average off-rate constants for polyclonal antibodies in a serum. Here, potentials and fallacies of these techniques are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Klasse
- a Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College , Cornell University , New York , NY , USA
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Alexander MR, Sanders RW, Moore JP, Klasse PJ. Short Communication: Virion Aggregation by Neutralizing and Nonneutralizing Antibodies to the HIV-1 Envelope Glycoprotein. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2015; 31:1160-5. [PMID: 26086186 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2015.0050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
We used dynamic light scattering to detect aggregation of HIV-1 virions by antibodies (IgG) to the viral envelope glycoprotein (Env). Virions of different strains were inactivated by 2,2'-dithiodipyridine (AT-2), a procedure that abrogates infectivity but preserves the native antigenic structure of Env. Neutralizing antibodies directed to a V3-base- and glycan-dependent epitope on gp120 and to the apex of the Env trimer, as well as nonneutralizing antibodies to the epitope cluster I on the gp41-ectodomain, aggregated virions, but in markedly narrow concentration ranges. In contrast, the neutralizing antibody 2G12, which is specific for a composite glycan-dependent epitope on gp120 and functionally monovalent because of its unusual domain-swap structure, was nonaggregating. These results have potentially complex implications for vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina R. Alexander
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York
| | - Rogier W. Sanders
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - John P. Moore
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York
| | - Per Johan Klasse
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York
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Neutralization of Virus Infectivity by Antibodies: Old Problems in New Perspectives. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 2014. [PMID: 27099867 DOI: 10.1155/2014/157895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) can be both sufficient and necessary for protection against viral infections, although they sometimes act in concert with cellular immunity. Successful vaccines against viruses induce NAbs but vaccine candidates against some major viral pathogens, including HIV-1, have failed to induce potent and effective such responses. Theories of how antibodies neutralize virus infectivity have been formulated and experimentally tested since the 1930s; and controversies about the mechanistic and quantitative bases for neutralization have continually arisen. Soluble versions of native oligomeric viral proteins that mimic the functional targets of neutralizing antibodies now allow the measurement of the relevant affinities of NAbs. Thereby the neutralizing occupancies on virions can be estimated and related to the potency of the NAbs. Furthermore, the kinetics and stoichiometry of NAb binding can be compared with neutralizing efficacy. Recently, the fundamental discovery that the intracellular factor TRIM21 determines the degree of neutralization of adenovirus has provided new mechanistic and quantitative insights. Since TRIM21 resides in the cytoplasm, it would not affect the neutralization of enveloped viruses, but its range of activity against naked viruses will be important to uncover. These developments bring together the old problems of virus neutralization-mechanism, stoichiometry, kinetics, and efficacy-from surprising new angles.
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Ronen K, McCoy CO, Matsen FA, Boyd DF, Emery S, Odem-Davis K, Jaoko W, Mandaliya K, McClelland RS, Richardson BA, Overbaugh J. HIV-1 superinfection occurs less frequently than initial infection in a cohort of high-risk Kenyan women. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003593. [PMID: 24009513 PMCID: PMC3757054 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV superinfection (reinfection) has been reported in several settings, but no study has been designed and powered to rigorously compare its incidence to that of initial infection. Determining whether HIV infection reduces the risk of superinfection is critical to understanding whether an immune response to natural HIV infection is protective. This study compares the incidence of initial infection and superinfection in a prospective seroincident cohort of high-risk women in Mombasa, Kenya. A next-generation sequencing-based pipeline was developed to screen 129 women for superinfection. Longitudinal plasma samples at <6 months, >2 years and one intervening time after initial HIV infection were analyzed. Amplicons in three genome regions were sequenced and a median of 901 sequences obtained per gene per timepoint. Phylogenetic evidence of polyphyly, confirmed by pairwise distance analysis, defined superinfection. Superinfection timing was determined by sequencing virus from intervening timepoints. These data were combined with published data from 17 additional women in the same cohort, totaling 146 women screened. Twenty-one cases of superinfection were identified for an estimated incidence rate of 2.61 per 100 person-years (pys). The incidence rate of initial infection among 1910 women in the same cohort was 5.75 per 100 pys. Andersen-Gill proportional hazards models were used to compare incidences, adjusting for covariates known to influence HIV susceptibility in this cohort. Superinfection incidence was significantly lower than initial infection incidence, with a hazard ratio of 0.47 (CI 0.29-0.75, p = 0.0019). This lower incidence of superinfection was only observed >6 months after initial infection. This is the first adequately powered study to report that HIV infection reduces the risk of reinfection, raising the possibility that immune responses to natural infection are partially protective. The observation that superinfection risk changes with time implies a window of protection that coincides with the maturation of HIV-specific immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keshet Ronen
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Connor O. McCoy
- Public Health Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Frederick A. Matsen
- Public Health Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - David F. Boyd
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Sandra Emery
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Katherine Odem-Davis
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Walter Jaoko
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Nairobi, Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Kishor Mandaliya
- Coast Provincial General Hospital, Women's Health Project, Mombasa, Kenya
| | - R. Scott McClelland
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Nairobi, Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Barbra A. Richardson
- Public Health Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Julie Overbaugh
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Public Health Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Schiffner T, Sattentau QJ, Dorrell L. Development of prophylactic vaccines against HIV-1. Retrovirology 2013; 10:72. [PMID: 23866844 PMCID: PMC3722125 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-10-72] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The focus of most current HIV-1 vaccine development is on antibody-based approaches. This is because certain antibody responses correlated with protection from HIV-1 acquisition in the RV144 phase III trial, and because a series of potent and broad spectrum neutralizing antibodies have been isolated from infected individuals. Taken together, these two findings suggest ways forward to develop a neutralizing antibody-based vaccine. However, understanding of the correlates of protection from disease in HIV-1 and other infections strongly suggests that we should not ignore CTL-based research. Here we review recent progress in the field and highlight the challenges implicit in HIV-1 vaccine design and some potential solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torben Schiffner
- The Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, The University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
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