Moving towards supraspinal TRPV1 receptors for chronic pain relief

Spinal Involvement of TRPV1 and PI3K/AKT/mTOR Pathway During Chronic Postoperative Pain in Mice

BACKGROUND

Chronic postoperative pain (CPOP) is among the main consequences of surgical procedures, directly affecting the quality of life. Although many strategies have been used to treat this symptom, they are often ineffective. Thus, studies investigating CPOP-associated mechanisms may help to develop more effective treatment strategies. Therefore, the present study investigated the spinal participation of the transient potential receptor vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) and PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway activation during CPOP.

METHODS

In this study C57BL/6 male mice were used, and CPOP was induced by muscle retraction and incision. The nociceptive threshold was measured by the von Frey filament test. For pharmacological evaluation, TRPV1 and PI3K/AKT/mTOR inhibitors were administered intrathecally. TRPV1 and PI3K/AKT/mTOR protein levels were evaluated by Western blotting.

RESULTS

The results showed that CPOP increased TRPV1 and mTOR protein levels, and pretreatment with the specific inhibitors alleviated CPOP. In addition, pretreatment with the TRPV1 antagonist SB-366791 attenuated mTOR protein levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that TRPV1 and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway are involved in CPOP at the spinal level, and TRPV1 may activate mTOR during this process.

Treatment of trigeminal neuralgia by acupuncture combined with Chinese medicine from the perspective of modern medicine: A review

Trigeminal neuralgia (TN) is characterized by recurrent episodes of transient severe pain in its distribution area, with abrupt onset and termination. With the progression of the disease, patients are prone to concurrent psychiatric disorders, such as anxiety and depression, which seriously affect patients' quality of life. Currently, anticonvulsant drugs are commonly used in clinical practice as the primary treatment, but long-term use of drugs is prone to drug resistance, limiting clinical application. Acupuncture and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), as alternative and complementary therapies, can make up for the deficiencies in modern medicine and are accepted by patients with the advantages of safety and effectiveness. TCM therapy works by promoting the release of endogenous opioid peptides, adjusting the level of inflammatory factors, and improving negative emotions to exert analgesic effects. This paper discusses the clinical efficacy and safety of acupuncture combined with Chinese medicine in the treatment of TN from the perspective of modern medicine and provides a theoretical basis for seeking better therapeutic targets.

Current insights and therapeutic strategies for targeting TRPV1 in neuropathic pain management

Neuropathic pain, a common symptom of several disorders, exerts a substantial socioeconomic burden worldwide. Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), a non-selective cation channel predominantly ex-pressed in nociceptive neurons, plays a pivotal role in nociception, by detecting various endogenous and exogenous stimuli, including heat, pro-inflammatory mediators, and physical stressors. Dysregulation of TRPV1 signaling further contributes to the pathophysiology of neuropathic pain. Therefore, targeting TRPV1 is a promising strategy for developing novel analgesics with improved efficacy and safety profiles. Several pharmacological approaches to modulate TRPV1 activity, including agonists, antagonists, and biological TRPV1 RNA interference (RNAi, small interfering RNA [siRNA]) have been explored. Despite preclinical success, the clinical translation of TRPV1-targeted therapies has encountered challenges, including hyperthermia, hypothermia, pungency, and desensitization. Nevertheless, ongoing research efforts aim to refine TRPV1-targeted interventions through structural modifications, development of selective modulators, and discovery of natural, peptide-based drug candidates. Herein, we provide guidance for researchers and clinicians involved in the development of new interventions specifically targeting TRPV1 by reviewing the existing literature and highlighting current research activities. This study further discusses potential future research endeavors for enhancing the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of TRPV1 candidates, and thereby facilitates the translation of these discoveries into effective clinical interventions to alleviate neuropathic pain disorders.

Electroacupuncture Reduced Fibromyalgia-Pain-like Behavior through Inactivating Transient Receptor Potential V1 and Interleukin-17 in Intermittent Cold Stress Mice Model

Fibromyalgia (FM) is a widespread musculoskeletal pain associated with psychological disturbances, the etiopathogenesis of which is still not clear. One hypothesis implicates inflammatory cytokines in increasing central and peripheral sensitization along with neuroinflammation, leading to an elevation in pro-inflammatory cytokines, e.g., interleukin-17A (IL-17A), enhanced in FM patients and animal models. The intermittent cold stress (ICS)-induced FM-like model in C57BL/6 mice has been developed since 2008 and proved to have features which mimic the clinical pattern in FM patients such as mechanical allodynia, hyperalgesia, and female predominance of pain. Electroacupuncture (EA) is an effective treatment for relieving pain in FM patients, but its mechanism is not totally clear. It was reported as attenuating pain-like behaviors in the ICS mice model through the transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) pathway. Limited information indicates that TRPV1-positive neurons trigger IL-17A-mediated inflammation. Therefore, we hypothesized that the IL-17A would be inactivated by EA and TRPV1 deletion in the ICS-induced FM-like model in mice. We distributed mice into a control (CON) group, ICS-induced FM model (FM) group, FM model with EA treatment (EA) group, FM model with sham EA treatment (Sham) group, and TRPV1 gene deletion (Trpv1-/-) group. In the result, ICS-induced mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia increased pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, IL-17, TNFα, and IFNγ in the plasma, as well as TRPV1, IL-17RA, pPI3K, pAkt, pERK, pp38, pJNK, and NF-κB in the somatosensory cortex (SSC) and cerebellum (CB) lobes V, VI, and VII. Moreover, EA and Trpv1-/- but not sham EA countered these effects significantly. The molecular mechanism may involve the pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, IL-17, TNFα, and IFNγ. IL-17A-IL-17RA play a crucial role in peripheral and central sensitization as well as neuroinflammation and cannot be activated without TRPV1 in the ICS mice model. EA alleviated FM-pain-like behaviors, possibly by abolishing the TRPV1- and IL-17A-related pathways. It suggests that EA is an effective and potential therapeutic strategy in FM.

The Effect of Ginger and Its Sub-Components on Pain

Zingiber officinale Roscoe (ginger) has long been used as an herbal medicine to treat various diseases, and its main sub-components, [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol, were also reported to have anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-tumor effects. However, their effects on various types of pain and their underlying mechanisms of action have not been clearly analyzed and understood yet. Thus, in this review, by analyzing 16 studies that used Z. officinale, [6]-gingerol, and [6]-shogaol on mechanical, spontaneous and thermal pain, their effects and mechanisms of action have been analyzed. Pain was induced by either nerve injury or chemical injections in rodents. Nine studies analyzed the analgesic effect of Z. officinale, and four and three studies focused on [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol, respectively. Seven papers have demonstrated the underlying mechanism of action of their analgesic effects. Studies have focused on the spinal cord and one on the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. Involvement and change in the function of serotonergic receptors (5-HT_1A, _B, _D, and _5A), transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (pERK1/2), histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1), voltage-gated sodium channel 1.8 (Na_v1.8), substance P (SP), and sciatic nerve’s morphology have been observed.

TRPV1: A Common Denominator Mediating Antinociceptive and Antiemetic Effects of Cannabinoids

The most common medicinal claims for cannabis are relief from chronic pain, stimulation of appetite, and as an antiemetic. However, the mechanisms by which cannabis reduces pain and prevents nausea and vomiting are not fully understood. Among more than 450 constituents in cannabis, the most abundant cannabinoids are Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). Cannabinoids either directly or indirectly modulate ion channel function. Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) is an ion channel responsible for mediating several modalities of pain, and it is expressed in both the peripheral and the central pain pathways. Activation of TRPV1 in sensory neurons mediates nociception in the ascending pain pathway, while activation of TRPV1 in the central descending pain pathway, which involves the rostral ventral medulla (RVM) and the periaqueductal gray (PAG), mediates antinociception. TRPV1 channels are thought to be implicated in neuropathic/spontaneous pain perception in the setting of impaired descending antinociceptive control. Activation of TRPV1 also can cause the release of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and other neuropeptides/neurotransmitters from the peripheral and central nerve terminals, including the vagal nerve terminal innervating the gut that forms central synapses at the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS). One of the adverse effects of chronic cannabis use is the paradoxical cannabis-induced hyperemesis syndrome (HES), which is becoming more common, perhaps due to the wider availability of cannabis-containing products and the chronic use of products containing higher levels of cannabinoids. Although, the mechanism of HES is unknown, the effective treatment options include hot-water hydrotherapy and the topical application of capsaicin, both activate TRPV1 channels and may involve the vagal-NTS and area postrema (AP) nausea and vomiting pathway. In this review, we will delineate the activation of TRPV1 by cannabinoids and their role in the antinociceptive/nociceptive and antiemetic/emetic effects involving the peripheral, spinal, and supraspinal structures.

Unlocking the potential of TRPV1 based siRNA therapeutics for the treatment of chemotherapy-induced neuropathic pain

Chemotherapy-induced neuropathic pain (CINP) is among the most common clinical complications associated with the use of anti-cancer drugs. CINP occurs in nearly 68.1% of the cancer patients receiving chemotherapeutic drugs. Most of the clinically available analgesics are ineffective in the case of CINP patients as the pathological mechanisms involved with different chemotherapeutic drugs are distinct from each other. CINP triggers the somatosensory nervous system, increases the neuronal firing and activation of nociceptive mediators including transient receptor protein vanilloid 1 (TRPV1). TRPV1 is widely present in the peripheral nociceptive nerve cells and it has been reported that the higher expression of TRPV1 in DRGs serves a critical role in the potentiation of CINP. The therapeutic glory of TRPV1 is well recognized in clinics which gives a promising insight into the treatment of pain. But the adverse effects associated with some of the antagonists directed the scientists towards RNA interference (RNAi), a tool to silence gene expression. Thus, ongoing research is focused on developing small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based therapeutics targeting TRPV1. In this review, we have discussed the involvement of TRPV1 in the nociceptive signaling associated with CINP and targeting this nociceptor, using siRNA will potentially arm us with effective therapeutic interventions for the clinical management of CINP.

Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) as a plausible novel therapeutic target for treating neurological complications in ZikaVirus

Zika virus was declared a national emergency by WHO (World Health Organization) in 2016 when its widespread outbreaks and life-threatening complications were reported, especially in newborns and adults. Numerous studies reported that neuroinflammation is one of the significant root-causes behind its major neurological complications like microcephaly and Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS). In this hypothesis, we propose Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 channel (TRPV1) as a major culprit in triggering positive inflammatory loop, ultimately leading to sustained neuroinflammation, one of the key clinical findings in Zika induced microcephalic and GBS patients. Opening of TRPV1 channel also leads to calcium influx and oxidative stress that ultimately results in cellular apoptosis (like Schwann cell in GBS and developing fetal nerve cells in microcephaly), ultimately leading to these complications. Currently, no specific cure exists for these complications. Most of the antiviral candidates are under clinical trials. Though there is no direct research on TRPV1 as a cause of Zika virus's neurological complications, but similarity in mechanisms is undeniable. Thus, exploring pathobiological involvement of TRPV1 channels and various TRPV1 modulators in these complications can possibly prove to be an effective futuristic therapeutic strategy for treatment and management of these life-threatening complications.

Electroacupuncture inhibits the interaction between peripheral TRPV1 and P2X3 in rats with different pathological pain

Chronic pain is regarded to be one of the common and refractory diseases to cure in the clinic. One hundred Hz electroacupuncture (EA) is commonly used for inflammatory pain and 2 Hz for neuropathic pain possibly by modulating the transient receptor potential vanilloid subtype 1 (TRPV1) or the purinergic P2X3 related pathways. To clarify the mechanism of EA under various conditions of pathological pain, rats received a subcutaneous administration of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) for inflammatory pain and spared nerve injury (SNI) for neuropathic pain. The EA was performed at the bilateral ST36 and BL60 1 d after CFA or SNI being successfully established for 3 consecutive days. The mechanical hyperalgesia test was measured at baseline, 1 d after model establishment, 1 d and 3 d after EA. The co-expression changes, co-immunoprecipitation of TRPV1 and P2X3, and spontaneous pain behaviors (SPB) test were performed 3 d after EA stimulation. One hundred Hz EA or 2Hz EA stimulation could effectively down-regulate the hyperalgesia of CFA or SNI rats. The increased co-expression ratio between TRPV1 and P2X3 at the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) in two types of pain could be reduced by 100Hz or 2Hz EA intervention. While 100Hz or 2Hz EA was not able to eliminate the direct physical interaction between TRPV1 and P2X3. Moreover, EA could significantly inhibit the SPB induced by the co-activation of peripheral TRPV1 and P2X3. All results indicated that EA could significantly reduce the hyperalgesia and the SPB, which was partly related to inhibiting the co-expression and indirect interaction between peripheral TRPV1 and P2X3.

TRPV1 Antagonist Prevents Neonatal Sevoflurane-Induced Synaptic Abnormality and Cognitive Impairment in Mice Through Regulating the Src/Cofilin Signaling Pathway

Long-term neurodevelopmental disorders following neonatal anesthesia have been reported both in young animals and in children. The activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) channels in hippocampus adversely affects neurodevelopment. The current study explored the underlying mechanism of TRPV1 channels on long-lasting cognitive dysfunction induced by anesthetic exposure to the developing brain. we demonstrated that TRPV1 expression was increased after sevoflurane exposure both in vitro and in vivo. Sevoflurane exposure to hippocampal neurons decreased the synaptic density and the surface GluA1 expression, as well as increased co-localization of internalized AMPAR in early and recycling endosomes. Sevoflurane exposure to newborn mice impaired learning and memory in adulthood, and reduced AMPAR subunit GluA1, 2 and 3 expressions in the crude synaptosomal fractions from mouse hippocampus. The inhibition of TRPV1 reversed the phenotypic changes induced by sevoflurane. Moreover, sevoflurane exposure increased Src phosphorylation at tyrosine 416 site thereby reducing cofilin phosphorylation. TRPV1 blockade reversed these suppressive effects of sevoflurane. Our data suggested that TRPV1 antagonist may protect against synaptic damage and cognitive dysfunction induced by sevoflurane exposure during the brain developing stage.

P2RX7 in Dopaminergic Neurons of Ventral Periaqueductal Gray Mediates HTWP Acupuncture-Induced Consciousness in Traumatic Brain Injury

The induction of a coma by traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a crucial factor for poor clinical prognoses. We report that acupuncture at the hand 12 Jing-Well points (HTWP) improved consciousness and neurologic function in TBI rats. Gene chip analyses showed that HTWP acupuncture mostly activated genes modulating neuronal projections (P2rx7, P2rx3, Trpv1, Tacr1, and Cacna1d), protein secretion (Exoc1, Exoc3l1, Fgb, and Fgr), and dopamine (DA) receptor D3 (Drd3) in the ventral periaqueductal gray (vPAG), among which the expression rate of P2rx7 was the most obviously increased. Acupuncture also increased the expression and excitability of DA and P2RX7 neurons, and the DA neurons expressed P2RX7, P2RX3, and TRPV1 in the vPAG. Intracerebroventricular administration of P2RX7, P2RX3, or TRPV1 antagonists blocked acupuncture-induced consciousness, and the subsequent injection of a P2RX7 antagonist into the vPAG nucleus also inhibited this effect. Our findings provide evidence that acupuncture alleviates TBI-induced comas via DA neurons expressing P2RX7 in the vPAG, so as to reveal the cellular and molecular mechanisms of the improvement of TBI clinical outcomes by HTWP acupuncture.

Supraspinal Mechanisms of Intestinal Hypersensitivity

Gut inflammation or injury causes intestinal hypersensitivity (IHS) and hyperalgesia, which can persist after the initiating pathology resolves, are often referred to somatic regions and exacerbated by psychological stress, anxiety or depression, suggesting the involvement of both the spinal cord and the brain. The supraspinal mechanisms of IHS remain to be fully elucidated, however, over the last decades the series of intestinal pathology-associated neuroplastic changes in the brain has been revealed, being potentially responsible for the phenomenon. This paper reviews current clinical and experimental data, including the authors' own findings, on these functional, structural, and neurochemical/molecular changes within cortical, subcortical and brainstem regions processing and modulating sensory signals from the gut. As concluded in the review, IHS can develop and maintain due to the bowel inflammation/injury-induced persistent hyperexcitability of viscerosensory brainstem and thalamic nuclei and sensitization of hypothalamic, amygdala, hippocampal, anterior insular, and anterior cingulate cortical areas implicated in the neuroendocrine, emotional and cognitive modulation of visceral sensation and pain. An additional contribution may come from the pathology-triggered dysfunction of the brainstem structures inhibiting nociception. The mechanism underlying IHS-associated regional hyperexcitability is enhanced NMDA-, AMPA- and group I metabotropic receptor-mediated glutamatergic neurotransmission in association with altered neuropeptide Y, corticotropin-releasing factor, and cannabinoid 1 receptor signaling. These alterations are at least partially mediated by brain microglia and local production of cytokines, especially tumor necrosis factor α. Studying the IHS-related brain neuroplasticity in greater depth may enable the development of new therapeutic approaches against chronic abdominal pain in inflammatory bowel disease.

Paracetamol is a centrally acting analgesic using mechanisms located in the periaqueductal grey

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

We previously demonstrated that paracetamol has to be metabolised in the brain by fatty acid amide hydrolase enzyme into AM404 (N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenamide) to activate CB₁ receptors and TRPV1 channels, which mediate its analgesic effect. However, the brain mechanisms supporting paracetamol-induced analgesia remain unknown.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

The effects of paracetamol on brain function in Sprague-Dawley rats were determined by functional MRI. Levels of neurotransmitters in the periaqueductal grey (PAG) were measured using in vivo ¹ H-NMR and microdialysis. Analgesic effects of paracetamol were assessed by behavioural tests and challenged with different inhibitors, administered systemically or microinjected in the PAG.

KEY RESULTS

Paracetamol decreased the connectivity of major brain structures involved in pain processing (insula, somatosensory cortex, amygdala, hypothalamus, and the PAG). This effect was particularly prominent in the PAG, where paracetamol, after conversion to AM404, (a) modulated neuronal activity and functional connectivity, (b) promoted GABA and glutamate release, and (c) activated a TRPV1 channel-mGlu₅ receptor-PLC-DAGL-CB₁ receptor signalling cascade to exert its analgesic effects.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The elucidation of the mechanism of action of paracetamol as an analgesic paves the way for pharmacological innovations to improve the pharmacopoeia of analgesic agents.

CDK5 inhibits the clathrin-dependent internalization of TRPV1 by phosphorylating the clathrin adaptor protein AP2μ2

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), a nonselective, ligand-gated cation channel, responds to multiple noxious stimuli and is targeted by many kinases that influence its trafficking and activity. Studies on the internalization of TRPV1 have mainly focused on that induced by capsaicin or other agonists. Here, we report that constitutive internalization of TRPV1 occurred in a manner dependent on clathrin, dynamin, and adaptor protein complex 2 (AP2). The μ2 subunit of AP2 (AP2μ2) interacted directly with TRPV1 and was required for its constitutive internalization. Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) phosphorylated AP2μ2 at Ser⁴⁵, which reduced the interaction between TRPV1 and AP2μ2, leading to decreased TRPV1 internalization. Intrathecal delivery of a cell-penetrating fusion peptide corresponding to the Cdk5 phosphorylation site in AP2μ2, which competed with AP2μ2 for phosphorylation by Cdk5, increased the abundance of TRPV1 on the surface of dorsal root ganglion neurons and reduced complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced inflammatory thermal hyperalgesia in rats. In addition to describing a mechanism of TRPV1 constitutive internalization and its inhibition by CDK5, these findings demonstrate that CDK5 promotes inflammatory thermal hyperalgesia by reducing TRPV1 internalization, providing previously unidentified insights into the search for drug targets to treat pain.

Primary sensory neuron-specific interference of TRPV1 signaling by AAV-encoded TRPV1 peptide aptamer attenuates neuropathic pain

Background

TRPV1 (transient receptor potential vanilloid subfamily member 1) is a pain signaling channel highly expressed in primary sensory neurons. Attempts for analgesia by systemic TRPV1 blockade produce undesirable side effects, such as hyperthermia and impaired heat pain sensation. One approach for TRPV1 analgesia is to target TRPV1 along the peripheral sensory pathway.

Results

For functional blockade of TRPV1 signaling, we constructed an adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector expressing a recombinant TRPV1 interfering peptide aptamer, derived from a 38mer tetrameric assembly domain (TAD), encompassing residues 735 to 772 of rat TRPV1, fused to the C-terminus of enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP). AAV-targeted sensory neurons expressing EGFP-TAD after vector injection into the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) revealed decreased inward calcium current and diminished intracellular calcium accumulation in response to capsaicin, compared to neurons of naïve or expressing EGFP alone. To examine the potential for treating neuropathic pain, AAV-EGFP-TAD was injected into fourth and fifth lumbar (L) DRGs of rats subjected to neuropathic pain by tibial nerve injury (TNI). Results showed that AAV-directed selective expression of EGFP-TAD in L4/L5 DRG neuron somata, and their peripheral and central axonal projections can limit TNI-induced neuropathic pain behavior, including hypersensitivity to heat and, to a less extent, mechanical stimulation.

Conclusion

Selective inhibition of TRPV1 activity in primary sensory neurons by DRG delivery of AAV-encoded analgesic interfering peptide aptamers is efficacious in attenuation of neuropathic pain. With further improvements of vector constructs and in vivo application, this approach might have the potential to develop as an alternative gene therapy strategy to treat chronic pain, especially heat hypersensitivity, without complications due to systemic TRPV1 blockade.

RAGE-dependent potentiation of TRPV1 currents in sensory neurons exposed to high glucose

Diabetes mellitus is associated with sensory abnormalities, including exacerbated responses to painful (hyperalgesia) or non-painful (allodynia) stimuli. These abnormalities are symptoms of diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN), which is the most common complication that affects approximately 50% of diabetic patients. Yet, the underlying mechanisms linking hyperglycemia and symptoms of DPN remain poorly understood. The transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) channel plays a central role in such sensory abnormalities and shows elevated expression levels in animal models of diabetes. Here, we investigated the function of TRPV1 channels in sensory neurons cultured from the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) of neonatal mice, under control (5mM) and high glucose (25mM) conditions. After maintaining DRG neurons in high glucose for 1 week, we observed a significant increase in capsaicin (CAP)-evoked currents and CAP-evoked depolarizations, independent of TRPV1 channel expression. These functional changes were largely dependent on the expression of the receptor for Advanced Glycation End-products (RAGE), calcium influx, cytoplasmic ROS accumulation, PKC, and Src kinase activity. Like cultured neurons from neonates, mature neurons from adult mice also displayed a similar potentiation of CAP-evoked currents in the high glucose condition. Taken together, our data demonstrate that under the diabetic condition, DRG neurons are directly affected by elevated levels of glucose, independent of vascular or glial signals, and dependent on RAGE expression. These early cellular and molecular changes to sensory neurons in vitro are potential mechanisms that might contribute to sensory abnormalities that can occur in the very early stages of diabetes.

Long Non-coding RNA BC168687 is Involved in TRPV1-mediated Diabetic Neuropathic Pain in Rats

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) participate in a diverse range of molecular and biological processes, and dysregulation of lncRNAs has been observed in the pathogenesis of various human diseases. We observed alterations in mechanical withdrawal thresholds (MWT) and thermal withdrawal latencies (TWL) in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats treated with small interfering RNA (siRNA) of lncRNA BC168687. We detected expression of transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) in rat dorsal root ganglia (DRG) by a series of molecular experiments. We determined relative levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β in rat serum by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In addition, we examined extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways by Western blot (WB). We showed that the MWT and TWL of diabetic rats increased significantly compared with control. Expression of TRPV1 receptors in DRG substantially decreased. Relative levels of TNF-α and IL-1β in the serum of lncRNA BC168687 siRNA-treated rats were reduced. Phosphorylation (p)-ERK and p-p38 signaling pathways in DRG were also decreased. Taken together, we concluded lncRNA BC168687 siRNA may alleviate TRPV1-mediated diabetic neuropathic pain.

A Combined Water Extract of Frankincense and Myrrh Alleviates Neuropathic Pain in Mice via Modulation of TRPV1

Frankincense and myrrh are widely used in clinics as a pair of herbs to obtain a synergistic effect for relieving pain. To illuminate the analgesia mechanism of frankincense and myrrh, we assessed its effect in a neuropathic pain mouse model. Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) plays a crucial role in neuropathic pain and influences the plasticity of neuronal connectivity. We hypothesized that the water extraction of frankincense and myrrh (WFM) exerted its analgesia effect by modulating the neuronal function of TRPV1. In our study, WFM was verified by UHPLC-TQ/MS assay. In vivo study showed that nociceptive response in mouse by heat and capsaicin induced were relieved by WFM treatment. Furthermore, thermal hypersensitivity and mechanical allodynia were also alleviated by WFM treatment in a chronic constriction injury (CCI) mouse model. CCI resulted in increased TRPV1 expression at both the mRNA and protein levels in predominantly small-to-medium neurons. However, after WFM treatment, TRPV1 expression was reverted in real-time PCR, Western blot, and immunofluorescence experiments. Calcium response to capsaicin was also decreased in cultured DRG neurons from CCI model mouse after WFM treatment. In conclusion, WFM alleviated CCI-induced mechanical allodynia and thermal hypersensitivity via modulating TRPV1.

TRPV1 channels are critical brain inflammation detectors and neuropathic pain biomarkers in mice

The capsaicin receptor TRPV1 has been widely characterized in the sensory system as a key component of pain and inflammation. A large amount of evidence shows that TRPV1 is also functional in the brain although its role is still debated. Here we report that TRPV1 is highly expressed in microglial cells rather than neurons of the anterior cingulate cortex and other brain areas. We found that stimulation of microglial TRPV1 controls cortical microglia activation per se and indirectly enhances glutamatergic transmission in neurons by promoting extracellular microglial microvesicles shedding. Conversely, in the cortex of mice suffering from neuropathic pain, TRPV1 is also present in neurons affecting their intrinsic electrical properties and synaptic strength. Altogether, these findings identify brain TRPV1 as potential detector of harmful stimuli and a key player of microglia to neuron communication.

Ingestion of transient receptor potential channel agonists attenuates exercise-induced muscle cramps

INTRODUCTION

Exercise-associated muscle cramping (EAMC) is a poorly understood problem that is neuromuscular in origin. Ingestion of transient receptor potential (TRP) channel agonists has been efficacious in attenuating electrically induced muscle cramps. This study examines the effect of TRP agonist ingestion on voluntarily induced EAMC and motor function.

METHODS

Study 1: Thirty-nine participants completed 2 trials after ingesting TRP agonist-containing active treatment (A), or vehicle (V) control. Cramping in the triceps surae muscle was induced via voluntary isometric contraction. Study 2: After ingesting A or V, 31 participants performed kinematic and psychomotor tests of manual dexterity.

RESULTS

A increased precramp contraction duration (A, 36.9 ± 4.1 s; V, 27.8 ± 3.1 s), decreased cramp EMG area under the curve (A, 37.3 ± 7.7 %EMG_max ·s; V, 77.2 ± 17.7 %EMG_max ·s), increased contraction force to produce the cramp (A, 13.8 ± 1.8 kg; V, 9.9 ± 1.6 kg), and decreased postcramp soreness (A, 4.1 ± 0.3 arbitrary units (a.u.); V, 4.7 ± 0.3 a.u.). Kinematic and psychomotor tests were not affected.

DISCUSSION

TRP agonist ingestion attenuated EAMC characteristics without affecting motor function. Muscle Nerve 56: 379-385, 2017.

The Role of C Fibers in Spinal Microglia Induction and Possible Relation with TRPV3 Expression During Chronic Inflammatory Arthritis in Rats

Introduction:

Stimulation of peptidergic fibers activates microglia in the dorsal horn. Microglia activation causes fractalkine (FKN) release, a neuron-glia signal, which enhances pain. The transient vanilloid receptor 1 (TRPV1) mediates the release of neuropeptides, which can subsequently activate glia. TRPV1 and TRPV2 are generally expressed on C and Aδ fibers, respectively. Expression of both proteins is upregulated during inflammation, but expression of TRPV3 after induction of inflammation is unclear.

Methods:

Adult male Wistar rats were used in all experiments. Arthritis was induced in them by single subcutaneous injection of complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) in their right hindpaws. Resiniferatoxin (RTX) was used to eliminate peptidergic fibers. We examined the relation between FKN and TRPV3 expression by administration of anti-FKN antibody.

Results:

Our study findings indicated that 1) spinal TRPV3 was mostly expressed on nonpeptidergic fibers, 2) expression of spinal TRPV3 increased following inflammation, 3) elimination of peptidergic fibers decreased spinal TRPV3 expression, 4) alteration of hyperalgesia was compatible with TRPV3 changes in RTX-treated rat, and 5) anti-FKN antibody reduced spinal TRPV3 expression.

Discussion:

It seems that the hyperalgesia variation during different phases of CFA-induced arthritis correlates with spinal TRPV3 expression variation on peptidergic fibers. Moreover, spinal microglial activation during CFA inflammation is involved in TRPV3 expression changes via FKN signaling.

Genotype-dependent responsivity to inflammatory pain: A role for TRPV1 in the periaqueductal grey

Negative affective state has a significant impact on pain, and genetic background is an important moderating influence on this interaction. The Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) inbred rat strain exhibits a stress-hyperresponsive, anxiety/depressive-like phenotype and also displays a hyperalgesic response to noxious stimuli. Transient receptor potential subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) within the midbrain periaqueductal grey (PAG) plays a key role in regulating both aversive and nociceptive behaviour. In the present study, we investigated the role of TRPV1 in the sub-columns of the PAG in formalin-evoked nociceptive behaviour in WKY versus Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. TRPV1 mRNA expression was significantly lower in the dorsolateral (DL) PAG and higher in the lateral (L) PAG of WKY rats, compared with SD counterparts. There were no significant differences in TRPV1 mRNA expression in the ventrolateral (VL) PAG between the two strains. TRPV1 mRNA expression significantly decreased in the DLPAG and increased in the VLPAG of SD, but not WKY rats upon intra-plantar formalin administration. Intra-DLPAG administration of either the TRPV1 agonist capsaicin, or the TRPV1 antagonist 5'-Iodoresiniferatoxin (5'-IRTX), significantly increased formalin-evoked nociceptive behaviour in SD rats, but not in WKY rats. The effects of capsaicin were likely due to TRPV1 desensitisation, given their similarity to the effects of 5'-IRTX. Intra-VLPAG administration of capsaicin or 5'-IRTX reduced nociceptive behaviour in a moderate and transient manner in SD rats, and similar effects were seen with 5'-IRTX in WKY rats. Intra-LPAG administration of 5'-IRTX reduced nociceptive behaviour in a moderate and transient manner in SD rats, but not in WKY rats. These results indicate that modulation of inflammatory pain by TRPV1 in the PAG occurs in a sub-column-specific manner. The data also provide evidence for differences in the expression of TRPV1, and differences in the effects of pharmacological modulation of TRPV1 in specific PAG sub-columns, between WKY and SD rats, suggesting that TRPV1 expression and/or functionality in the PAG plays a role in hyper-responsivity to noxious stimuli in a genetic background prone to negative affect.

Transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 antagonists: a patent review (2011 - 2014)

INTRODUCTION

Transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) is a nonselective cation channel that can be activated by noxious heat, low pH and vanilloid compounds such as capsaicin. Since TRPV1 acts as an integrator of painful stimuli, TRPV1 antagonists can be used as promising therapeutics for new types of analgesics.

AREAS COVERED

This review article covers the patents that claim TRPV1 antagonists and were published during 2011 - 2014. The patent evaluation is organized according to the applicant companies, and the representative chemical entities with important in vitro and in vivo data are summarized.

EXPERT OPINION

Many pharmaceutical companies showed promising results in the discovery of potent small molecule TRPV1 antagonists, and recently, a number of small molecule TRPV1 antagonists have been advanced into clinical trials. Unfortunately, several candidate molecules showed critical side effects such as hyperthermia and impaired noxious heat sensation in humans, leading to their withdrawal from clinical trials. Some TRPV1 antagonists patented in recent years (2011 - 2014) overcame these undesirable side effects, making the development of TRPV1 antagonists much more promising.

Differential expression of ATP-gated P2X receptors in DRG between chronic neuropathic pain and visceralgia rat models

There are divergences between neuropathic pain and visceralgia in terms of the duration, location, and character of hyperalgesia. It is generally recognized that nociceptive receptors, including P2X receptors, may play different roles in nociceptive mechanisms. The different roles of P2X1-7 receptors have not been fully understood both in neuropathic pain and visceral hyperalgesia. In order to explore the different expressions of P2X1-7 receptors in these two hyperalgesia models, the lumbosacral dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons from rat sciatic nerve chronic constriction injury (CCI) model and neonatal colorectal distention (NCRD) model were studied (both the primary nociceptive neuron afferents of those two models projected to the same segment of spinal cord). Both immunohistochemistry (IHC) technique and real-time fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technology were applied to analyze the protein expression levels and nucleic acid of P2X1-7 receptors. We found that except P2X2 and P2X3, the expression levels of P2X1 and P2X5 receptors increased in neuropathic pain while those expression levels of P2X4, P2X6, and P2X7 receptors increased in visceral pain. Our results also suggested that in addition to P2X2/3 heteromeric, other P2X subunits may also involved in generation heteromeric such as P2X1/5 and/or P2X2/5 in neuropathic pain and P2X4/6 and/or P2X4/7 in visceral pain.

Polypharmacology Shakes Hands with Complex Aetiopathology

Chronic diseases are due to deviations of fundamental physiological systems, with different pathologies being characterised by similar malfunctioning biological networks. The ensuing compensatory mechanisms may weaken the body's dynamic ability to respond to further insults and reduce the efficacy of conventional single target treatments. The multitarget, systemic, and prohomeostatic actions emerging for plant cannabinoids exemplify what might be needed for future medicines. Indeed, two combined cannabis extracts were approved as a single medicine (Sativex(®)), while pure cannabidiol, a multitarget cannabinoid, is emerging as a treatment for paediatric drug-resistant epilepsy. Using emerging cannabinoid medicines as an example, we revisit the concept of polypharmacology and describe a new empirical model, the 'therapeutic handshake', to predict efficacy/safety of compound combinations of either natural or synthetic origin.

Update on the role of spinal cord TRPV1 receptors in pain modulation

The structure, expression and function of the transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) receptor were intensively studied since the cloning in 1997 and TRPV1 receptors are now considered to act as transducers and molecular integrators of nociceptive stimuli in the periphery. In contrast, spinal TRPV1 receptors were studied less extensively and their role in pain modulation is still not fully understood. This short review is a follow up on our previous summary in this area (Spicarova and Palecek 2008). The aim was to review preferentially the most recent findings concerning the role of the spinal TRPV1 receptors, published within the last five years. The update is given on the expression and function of the spinal TRPV1 receptors, their activation by endogenous agonists, interaction between the endocannabinoid and endovanillod system and possible role of the spinal TRPV1 receptors in pathological pain states. There is now mounting evidence that TRPV1 receptors may be an important element in modulation of nociceptive information at the spinal cord level and represent an interesting target for analgesic therapy.

Supraspinal TRPV1 modulates the emotional expression of abdominal pain

The transient receptor potential vanilloid receptor type-1 (TRPV1) is critically involved in peripheral nociceptive processes of somatic and visceral pain. However, the role of the capsaicin receptor in the brain regarding visceral pain remains elusive. Here, we studied the contribution of TRPV1 to abdominal pain transmission at different nociceptive pathway levels using TRPV1 knock-out mice, resiniferatoxin-mediated deletion of TRPV1-positive primary sensory neurons, and intracerebral TRPV1 antagonism. We found that constitutive genetic TRPV1 deletion or peripheral TRPV1 deletion reduced acetic acid-evoked abdominal constrictions, without affecting referred abdominal hyperalgesia or allodynia in an acute pancreatitis model of visceral pain. Notably, intracerebral TRPV1 antagonism by SB 366791 significantly reduced chemical and inflammatory spontaneous abdominal nocifensive responses, as observed by reduced expressions of nociceptive facial grimacing, illustrating the affective component of pain. In addition to the established role of cerebral TRPV1 in anxiety, fear, or emotional stress, we demonstrate here for the first time that TRPV1 in the brain modulates visceral nociception by interfering with the affective component of abdominal pain.

Spatio-temporal expression and functional involvement of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 in diabetic mechanical allodynia in rats

Diabetic neuropathic pain (DNP) is one of the most common clinical manifestations of diabetes mellitus (DM), which is characterized by prominent mechanical allodynia (DMA). However, the molecular mechanism underlying it has not fully been elucidated. In this study, we examined the spatio-temporal expression of a major nociceptive channel protein transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) and analyzed its functional involvement by intrathecal (i.t.) application of TRPV1 antagonists in streptozocin (STZ)-induced DMA rat models. Western blot and immunofluorescent staining results showed that TRPV1 protein level was significantly increased in the soma of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons on 14 days after STZ treatment (DMA 14 d), whereas those in spinal cord and skin (mainly from the central and peripheral processes of DRG neurons) had already been enhanced on DMA 7 d to peak on DMA 14 d. qRT-PCR experiments confirmed that TRPV1 mRNA level was significantly up-regulated in the DRG on DMA 7 d, indicating a preceding translation of TRPV1 protein in the soma but preferential distribution of this protein to the processes under the DMA conditions. Cell counting assay based on double immunostaining suggested that increased TRPV1-immunoreactive neurons were likely to be small-sized and CGRP-ergic. Finally, single or multiple intrathecal applications of non-specific or specific TRPV1 antagonists, ruthenium red and capsazepine, at varying doses, effectively alleviated DMA, although the effect of the former was more prominent and long-lasting. These results collectively indicate that TRPV1 expression dynamically changes during the development of DMA and this protein may play important roles in mechanical nociception in DRG neurons, presumably through facilitating the release of CGRP.

"Hotheaded": the role OF TRPV1 in brain functions

The TRPV1 (vanilloid 1) channel is best known for its role in sensory transmission in the nociceptive neurons of the peripheral nervous system. Although first studied in the dorsal root ganglia as the receptor for capsaicin, TRPV1 has been recently recognized to have a broader distribution in the central nervous system, where it is likely to constitute an atypical neurotransmission system involved in several functions through modulation of both neuronal and glial activities. The endovanilloid-activated brain TRPV1 channels seem to be involved in somatosensory, motor and visceral functions. Recent studies suggested that TRPV1 channels also account for more complex functions, as addiction, anxiety, mood and cognition/learning. However, more studies are needed before the relevance of TRPV1 in brain activity can be clearly stated. This review highlights the increasing importance of TRPV1 as a regulator of brain function and discusses possible bases for the future development of new therapeutic approaches that by targeting brain TRPV1 receptors might be used for the treatment of several neurological disorders.

No requirement of TRPV1 in long-term potentiation or long-term depression in the anterior cingulate cortex

One major interest in the study of transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) in sensory system is that it may serve as a drug target for treating chronic pain. While the roles of TRPV1 in peripheral nociception and sensitization have been well documented, less is known about its contribution to pain-related cortical plasticity. Here, we used 64 multi-electrode array recording to examine the potential role of TRPV1 in two major forms of synaptic plasticity, long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). We found that pharmacological blockade of TRPV1 with either [(E)-3-(4-t-Butylphenyl)-N-(2,3-dihydrobenzo[b][1,4]dioxin-6-yl)acrylamide] (AMG9810, 10 μM) or N-(3-methoxyphenyl)-4-chlorocinnamide (SB366791, 20 μM) failed to affect LTP induced by strong theta burst stimulation in the ACC of adult mice. Similarly, neither AMG9810 nor SB366791 blocked the cingulate LTD induced by low-frequency stimulation. Analysis of the results from different layers of the ACC obtained the same conclusions. Spatial distribution of LTP or LTD-showing channels among the ACC network was also unaltered by the TRPV1 antagonists. Since cortical LTP and LTD in the ACC play critical roles in chronic pain triggered by inflammation or nerve injury, our findings suggest that TRPV1 may not be a viable target for treating chronic pain, especially at the cortical level.

Fatty acid amide hydrolase-dependent generation of antinociceptive drug metabolites acting on TRPV1 in the brain

The discovery that paracetamol is metabolized to the potent TRPV1 activator N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenamide (AM404) and that this metabolite contributes to paracetamol’s antinociceptive effect in rodents via activation of TRPV1 in the central nervous system (CNS) has provided a potential strategy for developing novel analgesics. Here we validated this strategy by examining the metabolism and antinociceptive activity of the de-acetylated paracetamol metabolite 4-aminophenol and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzylamine (HMBA), both of which may undergo a fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH)-dependent biotransformation to potent TRPV1 activators in the brain. Systemic administration of 4-aminophenol and HMBA led to a dose-dependent formation of AM404 plus N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-9Z-octadecenamide (HPODA) and arvanil plus olvanil in the mouse brain, respectively. The order of potency of these lipid metabolites as TRPV1 activators was arvanil = olvanil>>AM404> HPODA. Both 4-aminophenol and HMBA displayed antinociceptive activity in various rodent pain tests. The formation of AM404, arvanil and olvanil, but not HPODA, and the antinociceptive effects of 4-aminophenol and HMBA were substantially reduced or disappeared in FAAH null mice. The activity of 4-aminophenol in the mouse formalin, von Frey and tail immersion tests was also lost in TRPV1 null mice. Intracerebroventricular injection of the TRPV1 blocker capsazepine eliminated the antinociceptive effects of 4-aminophenol and HMBA in the mouse formalin test. In the rat, pharmacological inhibition of FAAH, TRPV1, cannabinoid CB1 receptors and spinal 5-HT₃ or 5-HT_1A receptors, and chemical deletion of bulbospinal serotonergic pathways prevented the antinociceptive action of 4-aminophenol. Thus, the pharmacological profile of 4-aminophenol was identical to that previously reported for paracetamol, supporting our suggestion that this drug metabolite contributes to paracetamol’s analgesic activity via activation of bulbospinal pathways. Our findings demonstrate that it is possible to construct novel antinociceptive drugs based on fatty acid conjugation as a metabolic pathway for the generation of TRPV1 modulators in the CNS.

Low Frequency Electroacupuncture Alleviated Spinal Nerve Ligation Induced Mechanical Allodynia by Inhibiting TRPV1 Upregulation in Ipsilateral Undamaged Dorsal Root Ganglia in Rats

Neuropathic pain is an intractable problem in clinical practice. Accumulating evidence shows that electroacupuncture (EA) with low frequency can effectively relieve neuropathic pain. Transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) plays a key role in neuropathic pain. The study aimed to investigate whether neuropathic pain relieved by EA administration correlates with TRPV1 inhibition. Neuropathic pain was induced by right L5 spinal nerve ligation (SNL) in rats. 2 Hz EA stimulation was administered. SNL induced mechanical allodynia in ipsilateral hind paw. SNL caused a significant reduction of TRPV1 expression in ipsilateral L5 dorsal root ganglia (DRG), but a significant up-regulation in ipsilateral L4 and L6 DRGs. Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) change was consistent with that of TRPV1. EA alleviated mechanical allodynia, and inhibited TRPV1 and CGRP overexpressions in ipsilateral L4 and L6 DRGs. SNL did not decrease pain threshold of contralateral hind paw, and TRPV1 expression was not changed in contralateral L5 DRG. 0.001, 0.01 mg/kg TRPV1 agonist 6'-IRTX fully blocked EA analgesia in ipsilateral hind paw. 0.01 mg/kg 6'-IRTX also significantly decreased pain threshold of contralateral paw. These results indicated that inhibition of TRPV1 up-regulation in ipsilateral adjacent undamaged DRGs contributed to low frequency EA analgesia for mechanical allodynia induced by spinal nerve ligation.

TRPV1 channels make major contributions to behavioral hypersensitivity and spontaneous activity in nociceptors after spinal cord injury

Chronic neuropathic pain is often a severe and inadequately treated consequence of spinal cord injury (SCI). Recent findings suggest that SCI pain is promoted by spontaneous activity (SA) generated chronically in cell bodies of primary nociceptors in dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Many nociceptors express transient receptor potential V1 (TRPV1) channels, and in a preceding study most dissociated DRG neurons exhibiting SA were excited by the TRPV1 activator, capsaicin. The present study investigated roles of TRPV1 channels in behavioral hypersensitivity and nociceptor SA after SCI. Contusive SCI at thoracic segment T10 increased expression of TRPV1 protein in lumbar DRG 1 month after injury and enhanced capsaicin-evoked ion currents and Ca2+ responses in dissociated small DRG neurons. A major role for TRPV1 channels in pain-related behavior was indicated by the ability of a specific TRPV1 antagonist, AMG9810, to reverse SCI-induced hypersensitivity of hind limb withdrawal responses to mechanical and thermal stimuli at a dose that did not block detection of noxious heat. Similar reversal of behavioral hypersensitivity was induced by intrathecal oligodeoxynucleotides antisense to TRPV1, which knocked down TRPV1 protein and reduced capsaicin-evoked currents. TRPV1 knockdown also decreased the incidence of SA in dissociated nociceptors after SCI. Prolonged application of very low concentrations of capsaicin produced nondesensitizing firing similar to SA, and this effect was enhanced by prior SCI. These results show that TRPV1 makes important contributions to pain-related hypersensitivity long after SCI, and suggest a role for TRPV1-dependent enhancement of nociceptor SA that offers a promising target for treating chronic pain after SCI.

Design and synthesis of conformationally restricted capsaicin analogues based in the 1, 3, 4-thiadiazole heterocycle reveal a novel family of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) antagonists

4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde was used as starting material to obtain a number of 1, 3, 4-thiadiazole alkylamide derivatives. The pharmacological properties of these conformationally restricted capsaicin analogues were evaluated on HEK-293T cells transiently expressing TRPV1 receptor. By means of a highthroughput calcium imaging assay we find that 1, 3, 4-thiadiazoles (compounds 8-15) act as potent antagonists of the capsaicin receptor, inhibiting both, the capsaicin- and temperature-dependent activation. Docking studies suggested a different binding orientation on the vanilloid binding site when compared with capsaicin analogues, such as 5-iodononivamide. Overall, our studies suggest that 1, 3, 4-thiadiazoles interact with capsaicin's binding region of the receptor, although using a different set of interactions within the vanilloid binding pocket.

Why do cannabinoid receptors have more than one endogenous ligand?

The endocannabinoid system was revealed following the understanding of the mechanism of action of marijuana's major psychotropic principle, Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol, and includes two G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs; the cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors), their endogenous ligands (the endocannabinoids, the best studied of which are anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG)), and the proteins that regulate the levels and activity of these receptors and ligands. However, other minor lipid metabolites different from, but chemically similar to, anandamide and 2-AG have also been suggested to act as endocannabinoids. Thus, unlike most other GPCRs, cannabinoid receptors appear to have more than one endogenous agonist, and it has been often wondered what could be the physiological meaning of this peculiarity. In 1999, it was proposed that anandamide might also activate other targets, and in particular the transient receptor potential of vanilloid type-1 (TRPV1) channels. Over the last decade, this interaction has been shown to occur both in peripheral tissues and brain, during both physiological and pathological conditions. TRPV1 channels can be activated also by another less abundant endocannabinoid, N-arachidonoyldopamine, but not by 2-AG, and have been proposed by some authors to act as ionotropic endocannabinoid receptors. This article will discuss the latest discoveries on this subject, and discuss, among others, how anandamide and 2-AG differential actions at TRPV1 and cannabinoid receptors contribute to making this signalling system a versatile tool available to organisms to fine-tune homeostasis.

Intervention of electroacupuncture on spinal p38 MAPK/ATF-2/VR-1 pathway in treating inflammatory pain induced by CFA in rats

Background

Previous studies have demonstrated that p38 MAPK signal transduction pathway plays an important role in the development and maintenance of inflammatory pain. Electroacupuncture (EA) can suppress the inflammatory pain. However, the relationship between EA effect and p38 MAPK signal transduction pathway in inflammatory pain remains poorly understood. It is our hypothesis that p38 MAPK/ATF-2/VR-1 and/or p38 MAPK/ATF-2/COX-2 signal transduction pathway should be activated by inflammatory pain in CFA-injected model. Meanwhile, EA may inhibit the activation of p38 MAPK signal transduction pathway. The present study aims to investigate that anti-inflammatory and analgesic effect of EA and its intervention on the p38 MAPK signal transduction pathway in a rat model of inflammatory pain.

Results

EA had a pronounced anti-inflammatory and analgesic effect on CFA-induced chronic inflammatory pain in rats. EA could quickly raise CFA-rat’s paw withdrawal thresholds (PWTs) and maintain good and long analgesic effect, while it subdued the ankle swelling of CFA rats only at postinjection day 14. EA could down-regulate the protein expressions of p-p38 MAPK and p-ATF-2, reduced the numbers of p-p38 MAPK-IR cells and p-ATF-2-IR cells in spinal dorsal horn in CFA rats, inhibited the expressions of both protein and mRNA of VR-1, but had no effect on the COX-2 mRNA expression.

Conclusions

The present study indicates that inhibiting the activation of spinal p38 MAPK/ATF-2/VR-1 pathway may be one of the main mechanisms via central signal transduction pathway in the process of anti-inflammatory pain by EA in CFA rats.

Role of TRPV1 and TRPA1 in visceral hypersensitivity to colorectal distension during experimental colitis in rats

The aim of the present study is to investigate the effects of TRPV1 and TRPA1 receptor antagonists and their synergism on the visceromotor responses during experimental colitis in rats. Colitis was induced in rats by a TNBS/ethanol enema at day 0 and was assessed at day 3 using endoscopy, histology and a myeloperoxidase assay. The visceromotor response to colorectal distension (10-80 mmHg) was evaluated in conscious rats before (control condition) and 3 days after 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) administration (colitis condition). At day 3, visceromotor responses were assessed before and after treatment with a TRPV1 (BCTC) or TRPA1 (TCS-5861528) receptor antagonist either alone or in combination and either after intraperitoneal or intrathecal administration. Endoscopy, microscopy and myeloperoxidase activity indicated severe colonic tissue damage 3 days after TNBS administration. Colorectal distension-evoked visceromotor responses demonstrated a 2.9-fold increase during acute colitis (day 3) compared to control conditions. Intraperitoneal and intrathecal administration of BCTC or TCS-5861528 partially reversed the colitis-induced increase in visceromotor responses compared to control conditions (P<0.05). Intraperitoneal blockade of TRPA1 plus TRPV1 further decreased the enhanced visceromotor responses at high distension pressures (40-80 mmHg) compared to blockade of either TRPV1 or TRPA1 alone. This synergistic effect was not seen after combined intrathecal blockade of TRPA1 plus TRPV1. The present study demonstrates that in the rat, TRPV1 and TRPA1 play a pivotal role in visceral hypersensitivity at the peripheral and spinal cord level during acute TNBS colitis. Target interaction, however, is presumably mediated via a peripheral site of action.

Receptor and channel heteromers as pain targets

Recent discoveries indicate that many G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) and channels involved in pain modulation are able to form receptor heteromers. Receptor and channel heteromers often display distinct signaling characteristics, pharmacological properties and physiological function in comparison to monomer/homomer receptor or ion channel counterparts. It may be possible to capitalize on such unique properties to augment therapeutic efficacy while minimizing side effects. For example, drugs specifically targeting heteromers may have greater tissue specificity and analgesic efficacy. This review will focus on current progress in our understanding of roles of heteromeric GPCRs and channels in pain pathways as well as strategies for controlling pain pathways via targeting heteromeric receptors and channels. This approach may be instrumental in the discovery of novel classes of drugs and expand our repertoire of targets for pain pharmacotherapy.

TRPV1 Antagonists and Chronic Pain: Beyond Thermal Perception

In the last decade, considerable evidence as accumulated to support the development of Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) antagonists for the treatment of various chronic pain conditions. Whereas there is a widely accepted rationale for the development of TRPV1 antagonists for the treatment of various inflammatory pain conditions, their development for indications of chronic pain, where conditions of tactical, mechanical and spontaneous pain predominate, is less clear. Preclinical localization and expression studies provide a firm foundation for the use of molecules targeting TRPV1 for conditions of bone pain, osteoarthritis and neuropathic pain. Selective TRPV1 antagonists weakly attenuate tactile and mechanical hypersensivity and are partially effective for behavioral and electrophysiological endpoints that incorporate aspects of spontaneous pain. While initial studies with TRPV1 antagonist in normal human subjects indicate a loss of warm thermal perception, clinical studies assessing allelic variants suggests that TRPV1 may mediate other sensory modalities under certain conditions. The focus of this review is to summarize the current perspectives of TRPV1 for the treatment of conditions beyond those with a primary thermal sensitivity.

Roles of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in pain

Peroxynitrite (PN; ONOO⁻) and its reactive oxygen precursor superoxide (SO; O₂•⁻) are critically important in the development of pain of several etiologies including pain associated with chronic use of opiates such as morphine (also known as opiate-induced hyperalgesia and antinociceptive tolerance). This is now an emerging field in which considerable progress has been made in terms of understanding the relative contributions of SO, PN, and nitroxidative stress in pain signaling at the molecular and biochemical levels. Aggressive research in this area is poised to provide the pharmacological basis for development of novel nonnarcotic analgesics that are based upon the unique ability to selectively eliminate SO and/or PN. As we have a better understanding of the roles of SO and PN in pathophysiological settings, targeting PN may be a better therapeutic strategy than targeting SO. This is because, unlike PN, which has no currently known beneficial role, SO may play a significant role in learning and memory. Thus, the best approach may be to spare SO while directly targeting its downstream product, PN. Over the past 15 years, our team has spearheaded research concerning the roles of SO and PN in pain and these results are currently leading to the development of solid therapeutic strategies in this important area.

Mechanisms of nociceptive transduction and transmission: a machinery for pain sensation and tools for selective analgesia

Many surgical and dental procedures depend on use of local anesthetics to reversibly eliminate pain. By the blockade of voltage-gated sodium channels, local anesthetics prevent the transmission of nociceptive information. However, since all local anesthetics act non-selectively on all types of axons they also cause a loss of innocuous sensation, motor paralysis and autonomic block. Thus, approaches that produce only a selective blockade of pain fibers are of great potential clinical importance. In this chapter we will review the recent findings describing mechanisms of pain transduction and transmission and introduce novel therapeutic approaches to produce pain-selective analgesia.