Tobacco smoke particles and indoor air quality (ToPIQ) - the protocol of a new study

Sources of personal PM2.5 exposure during pregnancy in the MADRES cohort

BACKGROUND

Personal exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is impacted by different sources each with different chemical composition. Determining these sources is important for reducing personal exposure and its health risks especially during pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE

Identify main sources and their contributions to the personal PM2.5 exposure in 213 women in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy in Los Angeles, CA.

METHODS

We measured 48-hr integrated personal PM2.5 exposure and analyzed filters for PM2.5 mass, elemental composition, and optical carbon fractions. We used the EPA Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) model to resolve and quantify the major sources of personal PM2.5 exposure. We then investigated bivariate relationships between sources, time-activity patterns, and environmental exposures in activity spaces and residential neighborhoods to further understand sources.

RESULTS

Mean personal PM2.5 mass concentration was 22.3 (SD = 16.6) μg/m3. Twenty-five species and PM2.5 mass were used in PMF with a final R2 of 0.48. We identified six sources (with major species in profiles and % contribution to PM2.5 mass) as follows: secondhand smoking (SHS) (brown carbon, environmental tobacco smoke; 65.3%), fuel oil (nickel, vanadium; 11.7%), crustal (aluminum, calcium, silicon; 11.5%), fresh sea salt (sodium, chlorine; 4.7%), aged sea salt (sodium, magnesium, sulfur; 4.3%), and traffic (black carbon, zinc; 2.6%). SHS was significantly greater in apartments compared to houses. Crustal source was correlated with more occupants in the household. Aged sea salt increased with temperature and outdoor ozone, while fresh sea salt was highest on days with westerly winds from the Pacific Ocean. Traffic was positively correlated with ambient NO2 and traffic-related NOx at residence. Overall, 76.8% of personal PM2.5 mass came from indoor or personal compared to outdoor sources.

IMPACT

We conducted source apportionment of personal PM2.5 samples in pregnancy in Los Angeles, CA. Among identified sources, secondhand smoking contributed the most to the personal exposure. In addition, traffic, crustal, fuel oil, fresh and aged sea salt sources were also identified as main sources. Traffic sources contained markers of combustion and non-exhaust wear emissions. Crustal source was correlated with more occupants in the household. Aged sea salt source increased with temperature and outdoor ozone and fresh sea salt source was highest on days with westerly winds from the Pacific Ocean.

Comparison Between Smoked Tobacco and Medical Cannabis Cigarettes Concerning Particulate Matter

Introduction: Cannabis is a widely used drug like tobacco and alcohol. In the meantime, it is also prescribed for medical treatment in some countries. Tobacco smoke contains chemical carcinogens and particulate matter (PM) that are both harmful to health. Method: In this study, we investigated PM levels in second-hand smoke (SHS) of hand-tamped cannabis cigarettes compared to cigarettes with tubing tobacco and the 3R4F reference cigarette. Results: It could be demonstrated that the largest proportion of the particle mass is attributable to particles with a diameter of less than 1μm and that every tested cigarette emitted more PM than the 3R4F reference cigarette. In addition, our data clearly revealed that cannabis smoke contains higher PM levels in SHS than tobacco cigarettes. Compared to the reference cigarette, the PM1 emissions of cannabis were 105% higher. Also, the cannabis mixed cigarettes had higher PM levels than the 3R4F cigarettes. For instance, the PM10 emissions were 93% higher. Also, the Gauloises Mélange tubing tobacco also reached higher PM concentrations than the 3R4F cigarette. Discussion: Regardless of negative health effects, cannabis is seen as a harmless drug in the public eye. We found strong indications for potential health risks by PM from cannabis products and, therefore, the public should be educated about a potential harm.

Impact of different ventilation conditions on tobacco smoke-associated particulate matter emissions in a car cabin using the TAPaC platform

Despite antagonizing attempts from the tobacco industry, passive inhalation of tobacco smoke is known to be cancerogenic and toxic to human health for decades. Nonetheless, millions of non-smoking adults and children are still victims of second-hand smoke. Accumulation of particulate matter (PM) in confined spaces such as the car are particularly harmful due to high concentrations. We here aimed to analyze the specific effects of ventilation conditions in the setting of a car. By the use of the measuring platform TAPaC (tobacco-associated particulate matter emissions inside a car cabin), 3R4F reference cigarettes, Marlboro red, and Marlboro gold were smoked in a car interior with a volume of 3.709 m3. Seven different ventilation conditions (C1-C7) were analyzed. Under C1, all windows were closed. Under C2-C7, the car ventilation was turned on power level 2/4 with the air directed towards the windshield. Only the passenger side window was opened, where an outer placed fan could create an airstream speed of 15.9-17.4 km/h at one meter distance to simulate a driving car. C2: Window 10 cm opened. C3: Window 10 cm opened with the fan turned on. C4: Window half-opened. C5: Window half-opened with the fan turned on. C6: Window fully opened. C7: Window fully opened with the fan turned on. Cigarettes were remotely smoked by an automatic environmental tobacco smoke emitter and a cigarette smoking device. Depending on the ventilation condition the cigarettes emitted different mean PM concentrations after 10 min under condition C1 (PM10: 1272-1697 µg/m3, PM2.5: 1253-1659 µg/m3, PM1: 964-1263 µg/m3) under C2, C4, and C6 (PM10: 68.7-196.2 µg/m3, PM2.5: 68.2-194.7 µg/m3, PM1: 66.1-183.8 µg/m3) C3, C5, and C7 (PM10: 73.7-139 µg/m3, PM2.5: 72-137.9 µg/m3, PM1:68.9-131.9 µg/m3). Vehicle ventilation is insufficient to protect passengers from toxic second-hand smoke completely. Brand-specific variations of tobacco ingredients and mixtures markedly influence PM emissions under ventilation conditions. The most efficient ventilation mode to reduce PM exposure was achieved by opening the passenger´s window 10 cm and turning the onboard ventilation on power level 2/4. In-vehicle smoking should be banned to preserve innocent risk groups (e.g., children) from harm.

Novel Therapeutic Targets for the Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease that significantly impacts quality of life. The pathogenesis of AD is a complex combination of skin barrier dysfunction, type II immune response, and pruritus. Progress in the understanding of the immunological mechanisms of AD has led to the recognition of multiple novel therapeutic targets. For systemic therapy, new biologic agents that target IL-13, IL-22, IL-33, the IL-23/IL-17 axis, and OX40-OX40L are being developed. Binding of type II cytokines to their receptors activates Janus kinase (JAK) and its downstream signal, namely signal transduction and activator of transcription (STAT). JAK inhibitors block the activation of the JAK-STAT pathway, thereby blocking the signaling pathways mediated by type II cytokines. In addition to oral JAK inhibitors, histamine H4 receptor antagonists are under investigation as small-molecule compounds. For topical therapy, JAK inhibitors, aryl hydrocarbon receptor modulators, and phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitors are being approved. Microbiome modulation is also being examined for the treatment of AD. This review outlines current and future directions for novel therapies of AD that are currently being investigated in clinical trials, focusing on their mechanisms of action and efficacy. This supports the accumulation of data on advanced treatments for AD in the new era of precision medicine.

Spatial epidemiology of acute respiratory infections in children under 5 years and associated risk factors in India: District-level analysis of health, household, and environmental datasets

Background

In India, acute respiratory infections (ARIs) are a leading cause of mortality in children under 5 years. Mapping the hotspots of ARIs and the associated risk factors can help understand their association at the district level across India.

Methods

Data on ARIs in children under 5 years and household variables (unclean fuel, improved sanitation, mean maternal BMI, mean household size, mean number of children, median months of breastfeeding the children, percentage of poor households, diarrhea in children, low birth weight, tobacco use, and immunization status of children) were obtained from the National Family Health Survey-4. Surface and ground-monitored PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ datasets were collected from the Global Estimates and National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme. Population density and illiteracy data were extracted from the Census of India. The geographic information system was used for mapping, and ARI hotspots were identified using the Getis-Ord Gi^* spatial statistic. The quasi-Poisson regression model was used to estimate the association between ARI and household, children, maternal, environmental, and demographic factors.

Results

Acute respiratory infections hotspots were predominantly seen in the north Indian states/UTs of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, and Chandigarh, and also in the border districts of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir. There is a substantial overlap among PM_2.5, PM₁₀, population density, tobacco smoking, and unclean fuel use with hotspots of ARI. The quasi-Poisson regression analysis showed that PM_2.5, illiteracy levels, diarrhea in children, and maternal body mass index were associated with ARI.

Conclusion

To decrease ARI in children, urgent interventions are required to reduce the levels of PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ (major environmental pollutants) in the hotspot districts. Furthermore, improving sanitation, literacy levels, using clean cooking fuel, and curbing indoor smoking may minimize the risk of ARI in children.

Direct adsorption sampling and ambient mass spectrometry analysis of tobacco smoke with porous paper strips

Chemical analysis of atmospheric aerosols by conventional analytical methods is usually required to perform complicated and time-consuming sample preparation processes. In recent decades, ambient ionization mass spectrometry (AI-MS) methods have been proven to be simple, rapid, and effective analytical tools for direct analysis of various complex samples. In this work, we applied porous paper filters for direct adsorptive sampling of tobacco smoke, and then the sampled paper filters were performed the emitters of the paper spray ionization (PSI) device. An auto-sampling device was made to control the generation and collection of tobacco smoke. Nicotine, the typical compound of tobacco smoke, was used to optimize the key conditions of auto-sampling. Moreover, different types of tobacco smoke were also compared with multivariate variable analysis, and the makers of tobacco smoke from different sources of tobacco smoke were investigated. By using this method, direct sampling and analysis of a single tobacco sample can be completed within minutes. Overall, our results show that PSI-MS is a powerful tool that integrates collection, extraction, ionization, and identification analytes in smoke.

Exposure assessment of children living in homes with hookah smoking parents to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: urinary level, exposure predictors, and risk assessment

Children are extremely liable to indoor air pollutants as their physiology and a few metabolic pathways are different from those of adults. The present cross-sectional study aimed to assess exposure of children living with parents who use hookah tobacco smoke to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) using a biomonitoring approach. The study was conducted on 25 children (7-13 years of age) exposed to hookah smoke at home and 25 unexposed age-matched children. Urinary levels of five metabolites of PAHs were quantified via headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Urinary malondialdehyde (MDA) was measured, as well. Information regarding the sociodemographic and lifestyle conditions was collected through interviews using managed questionnaires. The urinary 1-OH-NaP and 9-OH-Phe concentrations were respectively 1.7- and 4.6-folds higher in the case samples compared to the control group (p < 0.05). In addition, urinary MDA levels were 1.4 times higher in the exposed children than in the unexposed group, but the difference was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Increasing the consumption of grilled and meat food in the diet increased the participants' urinary 2-OH-Flu and 1-OH-Pyr levels, respectively. Moreover, sleeping in the living room instead of the bedroom at night was a significant predictor of high 1-OH-NaP and 2-OH-NaP concentrations in the children's urine. Overall, the findings confirmed that children living in their homes with hookah-smoking parents were significantly exposed to naphthalene and phenanthrene. Hence, implementing protective measures is critical to reduce the exposure of this group of children.

TAPaC-tobacco-associated particulate matter emissions inside a car cabin: establishment of a new measuring platform

Background

Particulate matter (PM) emission caused by tobacco combustion leads to severe health burdens worldwide. Second-hand smoke exposure is extraordinarily high in enclosed spaces (e.g., indoor rooms, car cabins) and poses a particular threat to the health of vulnerable individuals (e.g., children, elderly, etc.). This study aimed to establish a new measuring platform and investigate PM emissions under four different ventilation conditions inside a car cabin without exposing any person to harmful tobacco smoke.

Methods

PM concentrations were measured during the smoking of 3R4F reference cigarettes in a Mitsubishi Space Runner (interior volume 3.709 m³). The cigarettes were smoked with a machine, eliminating exposure of the researchers. Cigarettes were extinguished 4.5 min after ignition, and PM measurements continued until 10 min after ignition.

Results

High mean PM concentrations were measured for cigarettes without ventilation after 4.5 min (PM₁₀: 1150 µg/m³, PM_2.5: 1132 µg/m³, PM₁: 861.6 µg/m³) and after 10 min (PM₁₀: 1608 µg/m³, PM_2.5: 1583 µg/m³, PM₁: 1133 µg/m³). 3R4F smoked under conditions with turned on ventilation resulted in reduction of PM compared to those smoked without ventilation after 4.5 min (PM₁₀:-47.5 to -58.4%, PM_2.5:-47.2 to -58%, PM₁:-39.6 to -50.2%) and after 10 min (PM₁₀:-70.8 to -74.4%, PM_2.5:-70.6 to -74.3%, PM₁:-64.0 to -68.0%). Cigarettes smoked without ventilation generated high PM peaks at 4.5 min (PM₁₀: 2207 µg/m³, PM_2.5: 2166 µg/m³, PM₁: 1421 µg/m³) and at 10 min (PM₁₀: 1989 µg/m³, PM_2.5: 1959 µg/m³, PM₁: 1375 µg/m³). PM peaks of cigarettes smoked under different ventilation modes varied at 4.5 min (PM₁₀: 630-845 µg/m³, PM_2.5: 625-836 µg/m³, PM₁: 543 - 693 µg/m³) and 10 min (PM₁₀: 124 - 130 µg/m³, PM_2.5: 124 - 129 µg/m³, PM₁: 118 - 124 µg/m³).

Conclusion

The new measuring platform provides a safer way for researchers to investigate PM emissions of cigarettes. These data are comparable to published research and show that smoking in a parked vehicle with the windows closed generates harmful PM emissions even when the vehicle ventilation is in operation. Future studies should be carried out using the new measuring platform investigating PM exposure and PM distribution of in-vehicle smoking under a wide range of conditions.

Do Budget Cigarettes Emit More Particles? An Aerosol Spectrometric Comparison of Particulate Matter Concentrations between Private-Label Cigarettes and More Expensive Brand-Name Cigarettes

Private-label cigarettes are cigarettes that belong to the retailer itself. Private-label cigarettes from discounters or supermarkets are cheaper than brand-name cigarettes, and their lower price has allowed them to garner an ever-increasing share of the tobacco product market, especially among lower socioeconomic groups. Particulate matter (PM), a considerable component of air pollution, is a substantial health-damaging factor. Smoking is the primary source of PM in smokers’ homes. In a 2.88 m3 measuring chamber, the PM emission fractions PM10, PM2.5, and PM1 from three private-label cigarette brands and three brand-name cigarette brands with identical nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide content were measured and compared to those of a reference cigarette by laser aerosol spectroscopy. All cigarette brands emitted PM in health-threatening quantities. The measurement results ranged from 1394 µg/m3 to 1686 µg/m3 PM10, 1392 µg/m3 to 1682 µg/m3 PM2.5, and 1355 µg/m3 to 1634 µg/m3 PM1, respectively. Only one private-label brand differed significantly (p < 0.001) from the other cigarette brands, which were tested with slightly lower PM levels. All other brands differed only marginally (not significant, p > 0.05) from one another. Significant (p < 0.05) negative correlations between private-label and brand-name cigarettes were found for PM10, PM2.5, and PM1 when accounting for tobacco filling densities, and for PM1 when accounting for filter lengths. The especially health-hazardous fraction PM1 accounted for the largest proportion of PM emissions from the cigarettes tested. The results of this study suggest that- cheaper tobacco products are as harmful as more expensive ones, at least regarding PM emissions. This highlights the importance of anti-smoking campaigns, especially for lower socioeconomic groups, where smoking is more widespread. Governments should reduce the price gap between cheap and more expensive tobacco products by implementing specific tobacco taxes. In such a case, at increasing prices of tobacco products, a downward shift to private-label cigarettes would probably decrease.

AHR and NRF2 in Skin Homeostasis and Atopic Dermatitis

Skin is constantly exposed to environmental insults, including toxic chemicals and oxidative stress. These insults often provoke perturbation of epidermal homeostasis and lead to characteristic skin diseases. AHR (aryl hydrocarbon receptor) and NRF2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) are transcription factors that induce a battery of cytoprotective genes encoding detoxication and antioxidant enzymes in response to environmental insults. In addition to their basic functions as key regulators of xenobiotic and oxidant detoxification, recent investigations revealed that AHR and NRF2 also play critical roles in the maintenance of skin homeostasis. In fact, specific disruption of AHR function in the skin has been found to be associated with the pathogenesis of various skin diseases, most prevalently atopic dermatitis (AD). In this review, current knowledge on the roles that AHR and NRF2 play in epidermal homeostasis was summarized. Functional annotations of genetic variants, both regulatory and nonsynonymous SNPs, identified in the AHR and NRF2 loci in the human genome were also summarized. Finally, the possibility that AHR and NRF2 serve as therapeutic targets of AD was assessed.

Prenatal and Postnatal Cigarette Smoke Exposure Is Associated With Increased Risk of Exacerbated Allergic Airway Immune Responses: A Preclinical Mouse Model

Increased exposure to household air pollution and ambient air pollution has become one of the world’s major environmental health threats. In developing and developed countries, environmental cigarette smoke (CS) exposure is one of the main sources of household air pollution (HAP). Moreover, results from different epidemiological and experimental studies indicate that there is a strong association between HAP, specifically CS exposure, and the development of allergic diseases that often persists into later life. Here, we investigated the impact of prenatal and postnatal CS exposure on offspring susceptibility to the development of allergic airway responses by using a preclinical mouse model. Pregnant BALB/c mice were exposed to either CS or air during pregnancy and lactation and in order to induce allergic asthma the offspring were sensitized and challenged with house dust mite (HDM). Decreased lung function parameters, like dynamic compliance and pleural pressure, were observed in PBS-treated offspring born to CS-exposed mothers compared to offspring from air-exposed mothers. Maternal CS exposure significantly increased the HDM-induced airway eosinophilia and neutrophilia in the offspring. Prenatal and postnatal CS exposure increased the frequency of Th2 cells in the lungs of HDM-treated offspring compared to offspring born to air-exposed mothers. Offspring born to CS-exposed mothers showed increased levels of IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid compared to offspring from air-exposed mothers. Ex-vivo restimulation of lung cells isolated from HDM-treated offspring born to CS-exposed mothers also resulted in increased IL-4 production. Finally, serum immunoglobulins levels of HDM-specific IgE and HDM-specific IgG1 were significantly increased upon a HDM challenge in offspring born to CS-exposed mothers compared to offspring from air-exposed mothers. In summary, our results reveal a biological plausibility for the epidemiological studies indicating that prenatal and postnatal CS exposure increases the susceptibility of offspring to allergic immune responses.

Endothelial progenitor cells as critical mediators of environmental air pollution-induced cardiovascular toxicity

Environmental air pollution exposure is a leading cause of death worldwide, and with increasing industrialization and urbanization, its disease burden is expected to rise even further. The majority of air pollution exposure-associated deaths are linked to cardiovascular disease (CVD). Although ample research demonstrates a strong correlation between air pollution exposure and CVD risk, the mechanisms by which inhalation of polluted air affects cardiovascular health are not completely understood. Inhalation of environmental air pollution has been associated with endothelial dysfunction, which suggests that air pollution exposure impacts CVD health by inducing endothelial injury. Interestingly, recent studies demonstrate that air pollution exposure affects the number and function of endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs), subpopulations of bone marrow-derived proangiogenic cells that have been shown to play an essential role in maintaining cardiovascular health. In line with their beneficial function, chronically low levels of circulating EPCs and EPC dysfunction (e.g., in diabetic patients) have been associated with vascular dysfunction, poor cardiovascular health, and increases in the severity of cardiovascular outcomes. In contrast, treatments that improve EPC number and function (e.g., exercise) have been found to attenuate cardiovascular dysfunction. Considering the critical, nonredundant role of EPCs in maintaining vascular health, air pollution exposure-induced impairments in EPC number and function could lead to endothelial dysfunction, consequently increasing the risk for CVD. This review article covers novel aspects and new mechanistic insights of the adverse effects of air pollution exposure on cardiovascular health associated with changes in EPC number and function.

How Is Indoor Air Quality during Sleep? A Review of Field Studies

This review aimed to provide an overview of the characterisation of indoor air quality (IAQ) during the sleeping period, based only on real life conditions’ studies where, at least, one air pollutant was considered. Despite the consensual complexity of indoor air, when focusing on sleeping environments, the available scientific literature is still scarce and falls to provide a multipollutants’ characterisation of the air breathed during sleep. This review, following PRISMA’s approach, identified a total of 22 studies that provided insights of how IAQ is during the sleeping period in real life conditions. Most of studies focused on carbon dioxide (77%), followed by particles (PM2.5, PM10 and ultrafines) and only 18% of the studies focused on pollutants such as carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds and formaldehyde. Despite the high heterogeneity between studies (regarding the geographical area, type of surrounding environments, season of the year, type of dwelling, bedrooms’ ventilation, number of occupants), several air pollutants showed exceedances of the limit values established by guidelines or legislation, indicating that an effort should be made in order to minimise human exposure to air pollutants. For instance, when considering the air quality guideline of World Health Organisation of 10 µg·m−3 for PM2.5, 86% of studies that focused this pollutant registered levels above this threshold. Considering that people spend one third of their day sleeping, exposure during this period may have a significant impact on the daily integrated human exposure, due to the higher amount of exposure time, even if this environment is characterised by lower pollutants’ levels. Improving the current knowledge of air pollutants levels during sleep in different settings, as well as in different countries, will allow to improve the accuracy of exposure assessments and will also allow to understand their main drivers and how to tackle them.

High Particulate Matter Burden of Cigarettes from the United Arab Emirates and Germany: Are There Country-Specific Differences?

Although the big tobacco companies offer the same cigarette brands across countries, little is known about the potential regional differences of the particulate matter (PM) emissions of apparently equal brands. PM emissions of three cigarette brands (Marlboro Gold, Winston Red resp. Classic, Parliament Platinum resp. Night Blue) from the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Germany were analysed. Second-hand smoke was produced in a 2.88 m³ measuring cabin by an automatic environmental tobacco smoke emitter. PM size fractions PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and PM₁ were detected in real-time using laser aerosol spectrometry. Depending on the PM fraction Marlboro cigarettes from UAE showed 33%-35% higher PM amounts. Moreover, Winston cigarettes from UAE showed distinctly higher PM values (28-31%) than the German counterparts. The "lighter" Parliament from UAE emitted 3%-9% more PM than the German one. The measured mean PM₁₀ values laid between 778 and 1163 µg/m³ (mean PM_2.5: 777-1161 µg/m³; mean PM₁: 724-1074 µg/m³). That means smoking in enclosed rooms causes massive PM burden. The PM emission of equal or similar tobacco products from different countries can differ distinctly. Hence, the declaration of PM emission values, besides nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide amounts, should be obligatory worldwide. Furthermore, complete information about the ingredients and production processes of tobacco products should be provided to health officials and the public. This can help to minimise or ban substances or product designs that make smoking even more harmful, and to enhance the awareness of the risks of smoking.

A Summary of In Vitro and In Vivo Studies Evaluating the Impact of E-Cigarette Exposure on Living Organisms and the Environment

Worldwide use of electronic cigarettes has been rapidly expanding over recent years, but the long-term effect of e-cigarette vapor exposure on human health and environment is not well established; however, its mechanism of action entails the production of reactive oxygen species and trace metals, and the exacerbation of inflammation, which are associated with potential cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. The present study examines the effects of selected liquid chemicals used in e-cigarettes, such as propylene glycol/vegetable glycerin, nicotine and flavorings, on living organisms; the data collected indicates that exposure to e-cigarette liquid has potentially detrimental effects on cells in vitro, and on animals and humans in vivo. While e-liquid exposure can adversely influence the physiology of living organisms, vaping is recommended as an alternative for tobacco smoking. The study also compares the impact of e-cigarette liquid exposure and traditional cigarette smoke on organisms and the environmental impact. The environmental influence of e-cigarette use is closely connected with the emission of airborne particulate matter, suggesting the possibility of passive smoking. The obtained data provides an insight into the impact of nicotine delivery systems on living organisms and the environment.

Particulate matter emissions of less harmful-looking super-slim size cigarettes appealing to women: a laser spectrometric analysis of second-hand smoke

Slim tobacco products shall appear by their look less harmful. In 2013, the European Union ministers discussed to ban them. However, only a ban on small package sizes was realized. To add more data for exposure risk assessment of slim tobacco products, the particulate matter (PM) amount in second-hand smoke (SHS) of super-slim size cigarettes compared with a king size brand was investigated. PM amount of four super-slim size cigarette types of the brand Couture was analysed in comparison with the king-size reference cigarette. Therefore, SHS was produced in an enclosed space with a volume of 2.88 m³ by an automatic environmental tobacco smoke emitter. PM size fractions PM₁₀, PM_2.5 and PM₁ were measured in real time using a laser aerosol spectrometer. SHS of Couture Gold contained about 36% and Couture Purple about 28% more PM than the reference cigarette. In contrast, Couture Green emitted about 37% and Couture Silver about 53% less PM than the reference cigarette. Depending on the brand, the PM_2.5 mean concentrations increased up to 1538 μg/m³. This exceeds the 24-h mean concentration of at most 25 μg/m³ according to the WHO Air quality guidelines about 62-fold. Smoking in enclosed rooms leads to a massive increase of PM. The PM pollution by slim-size tobacco products are substantial and sometimes higher than by king size tobacco products. Therefore, SHS exposure from slim-size tobacco products is not less harmful to health. Decision makers should take this aspect in consideration.

Comparison of indoor air quality during sleep in smokers and non-smokers' bedrooms: A preliminary study

People spend one third of their life sleeping, but the bedroom, as a specific micro-environment, is often neglected when assessing human exposure to air pollutants. However, exposure during sleep may be significant in the long-term to the integrated individual exposure. This study aimed to assess the exposure during sleep, focusing on a multi-pollutant approach (comfort parameters, carbon dioxide - CO₂, carbon monoxide - CO, formaldehyde (CH₂O), total volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulate matter - PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ - and ultrafine particles, particle number concentrations - PNC - and lung deposited surface area - LDSA). For that, the air quality during sleep (in real conditions) was monitored using real-time devices in 12 bedrooms of urban (Lisbon and Vila Franca de Xira) and rural (Ponte de Sor) areas of Portugal for one night. Volunteers were smokers and non-smokers. Considering the Portuguese legislation for indoor air quality (IAQ), 67% of the bedrooms registered CO₂ levels above the limit value, while CH₂O, VOC, PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 thresholds were exceeded in 30, 100, 36, and 45% of cases, respectively. Regarding ultrafine parameters, LDSA and PNC ranged from 7.3 to 95.2 μm²/cm³ and from 0.6 to 4.8 × 10³/cm³, respectively. Even with no smoking indoors, smokers' bedrooms were found to have significant higher levels of CO, CH₂O, PM_2.5, PM₁₀ and LDSA than non-smokers' bedrooms, showing the effect of thirdhand smoke, exhalation of pollutants after smoking and infiltration on the degradation of the air quality in the bedroom. A recent new model of real-time monitor was also used for a wide set of IAQ parameters. Its performance to measure PM_2.5 and CO₂ was assessed, showing its applicability in real conditions. Although often neglected, these micro-environments should be considered in the integrated individual exposure to air pollutants and further studied. MAIN FINDINGS OF THE WORK: Several pollutants (CO₂, PM, VOCs and CH₂O) exceeded the guidelines during sleep; smokers are exposed to higher levels of CO, CH₂O, PM, and LDSA than non-smokers while sleeping.

Particulate Matter Emissions of Four Different Cigarette Types of One Popular Brand: Influence of Tobacco Strength and Additives

The inhalation of particulate matter (PM) in second-hand smoke (SHS) is hazardous to health of smokers and non-smokers. Tobacco strength (amount of tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide) and different additives might have an effect on the amount of PM. This study aimed to investigate the influence of tobacco strength or additives on PM. Four cigarette types of the brand Marlboro with different strengths and with or without additives were analyzed in comparison to the 3R4F reference cigarette. SHS was generated by an automatic environmental tobacco smoke emitter (AETSE) in an enclosed space with a volume of 2.88 m³. PM concentrations (PM10, PM2.5, PM₁) were measured with a laser aerosol spectrometer followed by statistical analysis. The two strongest Marlboro brands (Red and Red without additives) showed the highest PM concentrations of all tested cigarettes. The measured mean concentrations Cmean of PM10 increased up to 1458 µg/m³ for the Marlboro Red without additives (PM2.5: 1452 µg/m³, PM₁: 1263 µg/m³). The similarly strong Marlboro Red showed very similar PM values. The second strongest type Marlboro Gold showed 36% (PM10, PM2.5) and 32% (PM₁) lower values, respectively. The "lightest" type Marlboro Silver Blue showed 54% (PM10, PM2.5) or 50% (PM₁) lower PM values. The results indicate that the lower the tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide amounts, as well as the longer the cigarette filter, the lower are the PM levels. An influence of additives could not be determined.

Particulate matter emissions of four types of one cigarette brand with and without additives: a laser spectrometric particulate matter analysis of secondhand smoke

OBJECTIVE

Inhaled particulate matter (PM) in secondhand smoke (SHS) is deleterious for smokers and non-smokers. Different additives in cigarettes might effect the amount of PM. This study aimed to assess the influence of additives on the PM emissions from different cigarette types in SHS.

DESIGN

An experimental study of PM measuring in SHS of cigarettes without exposition of any person.

METHOD

The concentrations of PM (PM10, PM2.5 and PM1) in SHS of four different types of cigarettes of the brand Lucky Strike, two types with additives (Original Red, Original Blue) and two types without additives (Straight Red, Straight Blue), in comparison to the reference cigarette 3R4F were analysed. An automatic environmental tobacco smoke emitter generated SHS in an enclosed space with a volume of 2.88 m3. PM was measured with a laser aerosol spectrometer (Grimm model 1.109). Afterwards, the measuring values of the four Lucky Strike brands and the reference cigarette were statistically evaluated and visualised.

RESULTS

Lucky Strike Straight Blue, a cigarette type without additives and lower tar amount, showed 10% to 25% lower PM mean values compared with the other tested Lucky Strike products, but 21% (PM1) respectively 27% (PM2.5,PM10) higher mean values than the reference cigarette. The PM mean of all measured smoke-free baseline values (clean air) was 1.6 µg/m³. It increased up to about 1800 µg/m³ for the reference cigarette and up to about 3070 µg/m³ for the Lucky Strike Original Blue.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study show the massive increase of PM amount by smoking cigarettes in enclosed spaces and suggest that additives in tobacco products increase the PM amount in SHS. For validation, further comparative studies are necessary focusing on the comparison of the PM concentration of cigarettes with and without additives.

IMPLICATIONS

Due to the exposure to SHS, 890 000 people die each year worldwide. PM in SHS endangers the health of both non-smokers and smokers. This study considers the effect of additives like aromatics and humectant agents in cigarettes on PM in SHS. Do additives in tobacco products increase the amount of PM?

Particulate matter emissions of different brands of mentholated cigarettes

Inhaling particulate matter (PM) in environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) endangers the health of nonsmokers. Menthol, an additive in cigarettes, attenuates respiratory irritation of tobacco smoke. It reduces perceptibility of smoke and therefore passive smokers may inhale ETS unnoticed. To investigate a possible effect of menthol on PM concentrations (PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and PM₁), ETS of four mentholated cigarette brands (Elixyr Menthol, Winston Menthol, Reyno Classic, and Pall Mall Menthol Blast) with varying menthol content was analyzed. ETS was generated in a standardized way using an automatic environmental tobacco smoke emitter (AETSE), followed by laser aerosol spectrometry. This analysis shows that the tested cigarette brands, despite having different menthol concentrations, do not show differences with regard to PM emissions, with the exception of Reyno Classic, which shows an increased emission, although the menthol level ranged in the midfield. More than 90% of the emitted particles had a size smaller than or equal to 1 µm. Regardless of the menthol level, the count median diameter (CMD) and the mass median diameter (MMD) were found to be 0.3 µm and 0.5 µm, respectively. These results point out that there is no effect of menthol on PM emission and that other additives might influence the increased PM emission of Reyno Classic.

IMPLICATIONS

Particulate matter (PM) in ETS endangers the health of nonsmokers and smokers. This study considers the effect of menthol, an additive in cigarettes, on PM emissions. Does menthol increase the amount of PM? Due to the exposure to secondhand smoke nearly 900,000 people die each year worldwide. The aim of the study is to measure the particle concentration (L^-1), mass concentration (µg m^-3), and dust mass fractions shown as PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and PM₁ of five different cigarette brands, including four with different menthol concentrations and one menthol-free reference cigarette, in a well-established standardized system.

Urban Pollutant Transport and Infiltration into Buildings Using Perfluorocarbon Tracers

People spend the majority of their time indoors and therefore the quality of indoor air is worthy of investigation; indoor air quality is affected by indoor sources of pollutants and from pollutants entering buildings from outdoors. In this study, unique perfluorocarbon tracers were released in five experiments at a 100 m and ~2 km distance from a large university building in Manchester, UK and tracer was also released inside the building to measure the amount of outdoor material penetrating into buildings and the flow of material within the building itself. Air samples of the tracer were taken in several rooms within the building, and a CO₂ tracer was used within the building to estimate air-exchange rates. Air-exchange rates were found to vary between 0.57 and 10.90 per hour. Indoor perfluorocarbon tracer concentrations were paired to outdoor tracer concentrations, and in-out ratios were found to vary between 0.01 and 3.6. The largest room with the lowest air-exchange rate exhibited elevated tracer concentrations for over 60 min after the release had finished, but generally had the lowest concentrations, the room with the highest ventilation rates had the highest concentration over 30 min, but the peak decayed more rapidly. Tracer concentrations indoors compared to outdoors imply that pollutants remain within buildings after they have cleared outside, which must be considered when evaluating human exposure to outdoor pollutants.

Investigation of Indoor Air Quality in Houses of Macedonia

People who live in buildings are exposed to harmful effects of indoor air pollution for many years. Therefore, our research is aimed to investigate the indoor air quality in family houses. The measurements of indoor air temperature, relative humidity, total volatile organic compounds (TVOC), particulate matters (PM) and sound pressure level were carried out in 25 houses in several cities of the Republic of Macedonia. Mean values of indoor air temperature and relative humidity ranged from 18.9 °C to 25.6 °C and from 34.1% to 68.0%, respectively. With regard to TVOC, it can be stated that excessive occurrence was recorded. Mean values ranged from 50 μg/m³ to 2610 μg/m³. Recommended value (200 μg/m³) for human exposure to TVOC was exceeded in 32% of houses. Mean concentrations of PM2.5 (particular matter with diameter less than 2.5 μm) and PM10 (diameter less than 10 μm) are determined to be from 16.80 μg/m³ to 30.70 μg/m³ and from 38.30 μg/m³ to 74.60 μg/m³ individually. Mean values of sound pressure level ranged from 29.8 dB(A) to 50.6 dB(A). Dependence between characteristics of buildings (Year of construction, Year of renovation, Smoke and Heating system) and data from measurements (Temperature, Relative humidity, TVOC, PM2.5 and PM10) were analyzed using R software. Van der Waerden test shows dependence of Smoke on TVOC and PM2.5. Permutational multivariate analysis of variance shows the effect of interaction of Renovation and Smoke.

Are Filter-Tipped Cigarettes Still Less Harmful than Non-Filter Cigarettes?--A Laser Spectrometric Particulate Matter Analysis from the Non-Smokers Point of View

BACKGROUND

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is associated with human morbidity and mortality, particularly chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD and lung cancer. Although direct DNA-damage is a leading pathomechanism in active smokers, passive smoking is enough to induce bronchial asthma, especially in children. Particulate matter (PM) demonstrably plays an important role in this ETS-associated human morbidity, constituting a surrogate parameter for ETS exposure.

METHODS

Using an Automatic Environmental Tobacco Smoke Emitter (AETSE) and an in-house developed, non-standard smoking regime, we tried to imitate the smoking process of human smokers to demonstrate the significance of passive smoking. Mean concentration (C(mean)) and area under the curve (AUC) of particulate matter (PM2.5) emitted by 3R4F reference cigarettes and the popular filter-tipped and non-filter brand cigarettes "Roth-Händle" were measured and compared. The cigarettes were not conditioned prior to smoking. The measurements were tested for Gaussian distribution and significant differences.

RESULTS

C(mean) PM2.5 of the 3R4F reference cigarette: 3911 µg/m³; of the filter-tipped Roth-Händle: 3831 µg/m³; and of the non-filter Roth-Händle: 2053 µg/m³. AUC PM2.5 of the 3R4F reference cigarette: 1,647,006 µg/m³·s; of the filter-tipped Roth-Händle: 1,608,000 µg/m³·s; and of the non-filter Roth-Händle: 858,891 µg/m³·s.

CONCLUSION

The filter-tipped cigarettes (the 3R4F reference cigarette and filter-tipped Roth-Händle) emitted significantly more PM2.5 than the non-filter Roth-Händle. Considering the harmful potential of PM, our findings note that the filter-tipped cigarettes are not a less harmful alternative for passive smokers. Tobacco taxation should be reconsidered and non-smoking legislation enforced.

Tobacco smoke particles and indoor air quality (ToPIQ-II) - a modified study protocol and first results

Background

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)-associated particulate matter (PM) has to be seen as an independent health hazard and needs to be discussed separately from the already well-known toxic and carcinogenic compounds contained in cigarette smoke. We believe that brand-specific amounts of PM are of public interest and should be investigated.

Methods

An automatic environmental tobacco smoke emitter was developed and placed into a glass-chamber to generate cigarette smoke as reliably as possible. Cigarettes were smoked automatically according to a standardized protocol. Mean concentrations (C_mean) and area under the curve (AUC) of PM2.5 released by the brands P&S, Virginia (without filter) and the 3R4F standard research cigarette of the University of Kentucky, USA, were measured and compared with each other.

Results

C_mean PM2.5 of 3R4F reference was 1,725 μg/m³, for P&S: 1,982 μg/m³ and for Virginia without filter: 1,525 μg/m³. AUC PM2.5 for 3R4F reference was: 527,644 μg/m³×sec, for P&S: 606,171 μg/m³×sec, and for Virginia without filter: 464,788 μg/m³×sec.

Conclusions

Our modified ToPIQ-II study protocol shows significant brand-specific differences in the amounts of PM2.5 released by cigarettes into the environment, when compared to 3R4F reference cigarettes. We believe that information about PM-release of all relevant brands in relation to reference cigarettes should be published. In the light of PM as an independent risk factor for morbidity and mortality, this may serve as a basis for further epidemiologic investigations.

Brand cigarillos--a cheap and less harmful alternative to cigarettes? Particulate matter emissions suggest otherwise

Background: Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)-associated particulate matter (PM) constitutes a considerable health risk for passive smokers. It ought to be assessed separately from the other known toxic compounds of tobacco smoke. Brand-specific differences between cigarettes and particularly between cigarettes and favorably taxed cigarillos, are of public interest and therefore worth being investigated. Methods: An automatic environmental tobacco smoke emitter (AETSE) was developed to generate cigarette and cigarillo smoke in a reliable and reproducible way. John Player Special (JPS) Red cigarettes, JPS filter cigarillos and 3R4F standard research cigarettes were smoked automatically in a 2.88 m³ glass chamber according to a standardized protocol until 5 cm from the top were burned down. Results: Mean concentrations (C_mean) and area of the curve (AUC) of PM_2.5 were measured and compared. C_mean PM_2.5 were found to be 804 µg/m³ for 3R4F reference cigarettes, 1633 µg/m³ for JPS cigarettes, and 1059 µg/m³ for JPS filter cigarillos. AUC PM_2.5-values are 433,873 µg/m³×s for 3R4F reference cigarettes, 534,267 µg/m³×s for JPS Red cigarettes and 782,850 µg/m³×s for JPS filter cigarillos. Conclusion: Potential brand-specific differences of ETS-associated PM emissions among brands of cigarettes, and between cigarettes and cigarillos of the same brand and size should be investigated and published. Information about relative PM-emissions should be printed on the package.