Platycodin D from Platycodonis Radix enhances the anti-proliferative effects of doxorubicin on breast cancer MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells

A safety study on ultra‑high or moderate static magnetic fields combined with platycodin D against lung cancer

Due to the serious side effects of chemotherapy drugs against lung cancer, and the antitumor properties and high safety of magnetic fields, the present study combined moderate or ultra-high intensity statics magnetic fields (SMFs) with platycodin D (PD) to explore the antitumor efficiency and biosafety. The antitumor effects of PD with or without moderate and ultra-high SMFs on A549 cells bearing mice were compared. Mouse body weight, food/water intake, hematology routine, blood biochemistry, tumor weight and tissues hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining were examined. Behavior was measured using the elevated plus maze, open field and vital signs tests. The combined targets of PD and SMFs were detected using RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq). The results showed that the antitumor effect of 22 Tesla (T) SMF group was 3.6-fold higher compared with that of the 2 mg/kg PD group (tumor growth inhibition=10.08%), while the antitumor effect of 150 mT SMF was only 1.56-fold higher compared with that of PD. Although PD reduced the food intake, there was no significant difference in body weight, water intake or food consumption among PD and SMF groups. Behavioral results indicated that PD ameliorated dysphoria in mice, but SMFs reduced this effect. However, no significant abnormalities were found in routine blood, blood biochemistry test, H&E staining or organ index, except renal index which was reduced by PD with or without SMFs. RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) demonstrated that SMFs and PD synergistically targeted the expression of genes associated with tumor growth, inflammation and neurological disease. The present study showed the antitumor efficacy and biosafety of moderate or ultra-high SMF combined with PD, which exhibited only few side effects in the treatment of lung cancer, thus supporting further research for the clinical application of magnetic fields.

The pharmacology and mechanisms of platycodin D, an active triterpenoid saponin from Platycodon grandiflorus

Chinese doctors widely prescribed Platycodon grandiflorus A. DC. (PG) to treat lung carbuncles in ancient China. Modern clinical experiences have demonstrated that PG plays a crucial role in treating chronic pharyngitis, plum pneumonia, pneumoconiosis, acute and chronic laryngitis, and so forth. Additionally, PG is a food with a long history in China, Japan, and Korea. Furthermore, Platycodin D (PLD), an oleanane-type triterpenoid saponin, is one of the active substances in PG. PLD has been revealed to have anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, anti-oxidation, anti-obesity, anticoagulant, spermicidal, anti-tumor etc., activities. And the mechanism of the effects draws lots of attention, with various signaling pathways involved in these processes. Additionally, research on PLD's pharmacokinetics and extraction processes is under study. The bioavailability of PLD could be improved by being prescribed with Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. or by creating a new dosage form. PLD has been recently considered to have the potential to be a solubilizer or an immunologic adjuvant. Meanwhile, PLD was discovered to have hemolytic activity correlated. PLD has broad application prospects and reveals practical pharmacological activities in pre-clinical research. The authors believe that these activities of PLD contribute to the efficacy of PG. What is apparent is that the clinical translation of PLD still has a long way to go. With the help of modern technology, the scope of clinical applications of PLD is probable to be expanded from traditional applications to new fields.

Platycodin D sensitizes KRAS-mutant colorectal cancer cells to cetuximab by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway

Cetuximab is a monoclonal antibody against epidermal growth factor receptor that blocks downstream signaling pathways of receptor tyrosine kinases, including Ras/Raf/MAPK and PI3K/Akt, thereby inhibiting tumor cell proliferation and inducing cancer cell apoptosis. Owing to KRAS mutations, the effectiveness of cetuximab is usually limited by intrinsic drug resistance. Continuous activation of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway is another reason for cetuximab resistance. Platycodin-D, a bioactive compound isolated from the Chinese herb Platycodon grandiflorum, regulates Akt in different trends based on tissue types. To investigate whether platycodin-D can sensitize KRAS-mutant colorectal cancer cells to cetuximab by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, HCT116 and LoVo cells were treated with cetuximab and platycodin-D. LY294002 and SC79 were used to regulate Akt to further evaluate whether platycodin-D sensitizes cells to cetuximab by inhibiting Akt. Our results confirmed that platycodin-D increased the cytotoxic effects of cetuximab, including inhibition of growth, migration, and invasion, via downregulation of PI3K and Akt phosphorylation in HCT116 and LoVo cells both in vitro and in vivo. Given these data, platycodin-D may sensitize KRAS-mutant colorectal cancer cells to cetuximab via inhibition of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

Whole Transcriptome Analysis Identifies Platycodin D-Mediated RNA Regulatory Network in Non–Small-Cell Lung Cancer

Non–small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is one of the most fatal malignant tumors harmful to human health. Previous studies report that Platycodin D (PD) exhibits anti-tumor effects in multiple human cancers, including NSCLC, but the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. Accumulating evidence indicates that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) participate in NSCLC disease progression, but the link between PD and the ncRNAs in NSCLC is poorly elucidated. Here, we used whole transcriptome sequencing to systematically investigate the RNAs-associated regulatory network in the PD treating NSCLC cell lines. A total of 942 significantly dysregulated RNAs were obtained. Among those, five circRNAs and six IncRNAs were rigorously selected via database and in vitro validation. In addition, the functional enrichment study of differentially expressed mRNAs, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within PD-related mRNA structures, and the interaction between PD and mRNA-related proteins were analyzed through gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), structural variant analysis, and molecular docking, respectively. With further in vitro validation, the results show that PD inhibits cell proliferation, arrests the cell cycle, and induces cell apoptosis through targeting BCL2-related proteins. We hope these data can provide a full concept of PD-related molecular changes, leading to a new treatment for NSCLC.

A review of Chinese medicine for the treatment of psoriasis: principles, methods and analysis

Chinese medicine (CM) has a long history in the treatment of psoriasis, and its different understanding angle and treatment mode from modern medicine have unique wisdom. In this article, we consulted a large number of literatures and collected data in order to systematically clarify how CM understands psoriasis, including the classification and judgment of syndrome types, the diagnosis and thinking of etiology and pathogenesis, the application of treatment ideas, principles, methods and various prescriptions, and suggestions on patient care, so as to provide a clear CM treatment process and experience for the world clinic. In addition, we analyzed the efficacy and safety through clinical data, and summarize the methods and prescriptions worthy of promotion, so as to provide reference for doctors to prescribe prescriptions and medication. Finally, we found that compared with modern medicine, CM has unique advantages in the treatment of psoriasis, including the uniqueness of syndrome classification, the abundantly and flexibility of treatment ideas. Not only many famous doctors have studied the ideas in ancient books, but also made great efforts to innovate, which has left a lot of valuable experiences for clinical practice. Moreover, a large number of treatment methods, prescriptions and medicines have achieved high effectiveness and safety in clinical practices for many years, which has been proved to be worthy of clinical reference and in-depth research. In addition, we also think about the deficiencies of CM in the treatment of psoriasis and the direction of breakthrough combined with modern medicine. The treatment of psoriasis with CM is worth popularizing, and we hope it can benefit more patients.

Terpenoids' anti-cancer effects: focus on autophagy

Terpenoids are the largest class of natural products, most of which are derived from plants. Amongst their numerous biological properties, their anti-tumor effects are of interest for they are extremely diverse which include anti-proliferative, apoptotic, anti-angiogenic, and anti-metastatic activities. Recently, several in vitro and in vivo studies have been dedicated to understanding the 'terpenoid induced autophagy' phenomenon in cancer cells. Light has already been shed on the intricacy of apoptosis and autophagy relationship. This latter crosstalk is driven by the delicate balance between activating or silencing of certain proteins whereby the outcome is expressed via interrelated signaling pathways. In this review, we focus on nine of the most studied terpenoids and on their cell death and autophagic activity. These terpenoids are grouped in three classes: sesquiterpenoid (artemisinin, parthenolide), diterpenoids (oridonin, triptolide), and triterpenoids (alisol, betulinic acid, oleanolic acid, platycodin D, and ursolic acid). We have selected these nine terpenoids among others as they belong to the different major classes of terpenoids and our extensive search of the literature indicated that they were the most studied in terms of autophagy in cancer. These terpenoids alone demonstrate the complexity by which these secondary metabolites induce autophagy via complex signaling pathways such as MAPK/ERK/JNK, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, AMPK, NF-kB, and reactive oxygen species. Moreover, induction of autophagy can be either destructive or protective in tumor cells. Nevertheless, should this phenomenon be well understood, we ought to be able to exploit it to create novel therapies and design more effective regimens in the management and treatment of cancer.

Platycodin D reverses histone deacetylase inhibitor resistance in hepatocellular carcinoma cells by repressing ERK1/2-mediated cofilin-1 phosphorylation

BACKGROUND

Chemoresistance remains the main obstacle in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) therapy. Despite significant advances in HCC therapy, HCC still has a poor prognosis. Thus, there is an urgent need to identify a treatment target to reverse HCC chemotherapy resistance. Platycodon grandiflorus (PG) is a perennial herb that has been used as food and traditional Chinese medicine for thousands of years in Northeast Asia. Platycodin D (PD), a main active triterpenoid saponin found in the root of PG, has been reported to possess anticancer properties in several cancer cell lines, including HCC; however, the reversal effect of this molecule on HCC chemoresistance remains largely unknown.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the role and the mechanism of PD-mediated reversal of the histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi) resistance in HCC cells.

METHODS

Human HCC cells (HA22T) and HDACi-resistant (HDACi-R) cells were used. Cell viability was measured using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay. Combination index was used to calculate the synergism potential. Expression of ERK1/2 (total/phospho), cofilin-1 (total/phospho) and apoptosis-related protein was determined using western blotting. Mitochondrial membrane potential was assessed using the JC-1 (5,5',6,6'-tetrachloro-1,1',3,3'-tetraethylbenzimidazolocarbocyanine iodide) probe. Apoptosis was detected using the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling assay. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation was measured using the MitoSOX Red fluorescent probe.

RESULTS

We found that PD treatment inhibited cell viability both in HA22T HCC and HDACi-R cells. Inhibition of ERK1/2 by PD98059 could reverse drug resistance in HDACi-R cells treated with PD98059 and PD. Nevertheless, pre-treatment with U46619, an ERK1/2 activator, rescued PD-induced apoptosis by decreasing levels of apoptosis-related proteins in HCC cells. The combined treatment of PD with apicidin a powerful HDACi, dramatically enhanced the apoptotic effect in HDACi-R cells.

CONCLUSION

For the first time, we showed that PD reversed HDACi resistance in HCC by repressing ERK1/2-mediated cofilin-1 phosphorylation. Thus, PD can potentially be a treatment target to reverse HCC chemotherapy resistance in future therapeutic trials.

Bioactive platycodins from Platycodonis Radix: Phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, toxicology and pharmacokinetics

Platycodonis Radix, the root of Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC., is a well-known edible herbal medicine. It is a common vegetable used for the preparation of side dish, kimchi, dessert, and tea. Besides, it has been used to treat respiratory disease including cough, excessive phlegm, and sore throat for a long history. In the past decades, the bioactive components and the pharmacological activities of Platycodonis Radix have been widely investigated. Thereinto, platycodins, the oleanane-type triterpenoid saponins were demonstrated to be the main bioactive components in Platycodonis Radix, and more than 70 platycodins have been identified up to date. This paper mainly reviewed the phytochemistry, pharmacological activities (apophlegmatic, anti-tussive, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, immunomodulatory, cardiovascular protective, and hepatoprotective activities, etc.), toxicology and pharmacokinetics of platycodins isolated from Platycodonis Radix, aiming to promote further investigation on therapeutic potential of these platycodins.

Activation of notch 3/c-MYC/CHOP axis regulates apoptosis and promotes sensitivity of lung cancer cells to mTOR inhibitor everolimus

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway converges diverse environmental cues to support the lung cancer growth and survival. However, the mTOR-targeted mono-therapy does not achieve expected therapeutic effect. Here, we revealed that fangchinoline (FCL), an active alkaloid that purified from the traditional Chinese medicine Stephania tetrandra S. Moore, enhanced the anti-lung cancer effect of mTOR inhibitor everolimus (EVE). The combination of EVE and FCL was effective to activate Notch 3, and subsequently evoked its downstream target c-MYC. The blockage of Notch 3 signal by the molecular inhibitor of γ-secretase or siRNA of Notch 3 reduced the c-MYC expression and attenuated the combinational efficacy of EVE and FCL on cell apoptosis and proliferation. Moreover, the c-MYC could bind to the C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) promoter and facilitate CHOP transcription. The conditional genetic deletion of CHOP reduced the apoptosis on lung cancer cells to the same degree as blockage of Notch 3/c-MYC axis, providing further evidence for that the Notch 3/c-MYC axis regulates the transcription of CHOP and finally induces apoptosis upon co-treatment of FCL and EVE in lung cancer cells. Overall, our findings, to the best of our knowledge, firstly link CHOP to Notch 3/c-MYC axis-dependent apoptosis and provide the Notch 3/c-MYC/CHOP activation as a promising strategy for mTOR-targeted combination therapy in lung cancer treatment.

Combination of 2 Bioactive Compounds for Treatment of Breast Cancer: Triterpenoid Cucurbitacin I and Phenolic CAPE

It has been demonstrated that both cucurbitacin I (Cu I) and caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) have anticancer activities. The current study aimed to examine the proliferation, migration, and colony formation actions of Cu I and CAPE on MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells. The antimigration, antiproliferative, and colony inhibition effects of different dosages of Cu I, CAPE, and Cu I + CAPE on cells were determined by the 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide (MTT) cell viability assay, wound healing, and colony formation assays, respectively. Compared with single treatment, combination of 2 bioactive compounds enhanced the anticancer activity. When Cu I and CAPE were combined, a strong inhibitor effect was shown on cell growth, colony formation, and cell migration compared with the compounds used singly. The concomitant treatment with Cu I and CAPE showed stronger antiproliferative activities on both MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells compared with individual treatment with either Cu I or CAPE. Caffeic acid phenethyl ester is a specific inhibitor of Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB). It shows anticancer activity depending on this inhibition. It is a bioactive phenolic compound that is derived from propolis. Cucurbitacin I is a selective Januskinase/signal transducer and a transcription-3 signal pathway inhibitor. Combination of these 2 natural anticancer compounds is beneficial in the treatment of cancer, as well as the side effects associated with classical chemotherapeutics not being observed with the use of these compounds.

Optoacoustic properties of Doxorubicin - A pilot study

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a widely used chemotherapeutic anticancer drug. Its intrinsic fluorescence properties enable investigation of tumor response, drug distribution and metabolism. First phantom studies in vitro showed optoacoustic property of DOX. We therefore aimed to further investigate the optoacoustic properties of DOX in biological tissue in order to explore its potential as theranostic agent. We analysed doxorubicin hydrochloride (Dox·HCl) and liposomal encapsulated doxorubicin hydrochloride (Dox·Lipo), two common drugs for anti-cancer treatment in clinical medicine. Optoacoustic measurements revealed a strong signal of both doxorubicin substrates at 488 nm excitation wavelength. Post mortem analysis of intra-tumoral injections of DOX revealed a detectable optoacoustic signal even at three days after the injection. We thereby demonstrate the general feasibility of doxorubicin detection in biological tissue by means of optoacoustic tomography, which could be applied for high resolution imaging at mesoscopic depths dictated by effective penetration of visible light into the biological tissues.

Inhibiting protein-protein interactions of Hsp90 as a novel approach for targeting cancer

The ninety kilo Dalton molecular weight heat shock protein (Hsp90) is an attractive target for the discovery of novel anticancer agents. Several strategies have been employed for the development of inhibitors against this polypeptide. The most successful strategy is targeting the N-terminal ATP binding region of the chaperone. However, till date not a single molecule reached Phase-IV of clinical trials from this class of Hsp90 inhibitors. The other approach is to target the Cterminal region of the protein. The success with this approach has been limited due to lack of well-defined ligand binding pocket in this terminal. The other promising strategy is to prevent the interaction of client proteins/co-chaperones with Hsp90 protein, i.e., protein-protein interaction inhibitors of Hsp90. The review focuses on advantage of this approach along with the recent advances in the discovery of inhibitors by following this strategy. Additionally, the biology of the client protein/co-chaperone binding site of Hsp90 is also discussed.

Activation of prolyl hydroxylase-2 for stabilization of mitochondrial stress along with simultaneous downregulation of HIF-1α/FASN in ER + breast cancer subtype

The present study was undertaken to inquest the chemical activation of prolyl hydroxylase-2 for the curtailment of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α and fatty acid synthase. It was well documented that hypoxia-inducible factor-1α and fatty acid synthase were overexpressed in mammary gland carcinomas. After screening a battery of compounds, BBAP-2 was retrieved as a potential prolyl hydroxylase-2 activator and validates its activity using ER + MCF-7 cell line and n-methyl-n-nitrosourea-induced rat in vivo model, respectively. BBAP-2 was palpable for the morphological characteristics of apoptosis along with changes in the mitochondrial intergrity as visualized by acridine orange/ethidium bromide and JC-1 staining against ER + MCF-7 cells. BBAP-2 also arrest the cell cycle of ER + MCF-7 cells at G2/M phase. Afterward, BBAP-2 has scrutinized against n-methyl-n-nitrosourea-induced mammary gland carcinoma in albino Wistar rats. BBAP-2 restored the morphological architecture when screened through carmine staining, haematoxylin and eosin staining, and scanning electron microscopy. BBAP-2 also delineated the markers of oxidative stress favourably. The immunoblotting and mRNA expression analysis validated that BBAP-2 has a potentialty activate the prolyl hydroxylase-2 with sequential downregulating effect on hypoxia-inducible factor-1α and its downstream checkpoint. BBAP-2 also fostered apoptosis through mitochondrial-mediated death pathway. The present study elaborates the chemical activation of prolyl hydroxylase-2 by which the increased expression of HIF-1α and FASN can be reduced in mammary gland carcinoma.

Platycodin D inhibits platelet function and thrombus formation through inducing internalization of platelet glycoprotein receptors

Background

Platycodin D (PD) is one of the major bioactive components of the roots of Platycodon grandiflorum and possesses multiple biological and pharmacological properties, such as antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer activities. However, whether it affects platelet function remains unclear. This study aims to evaluate the role of PD in platelet function and thrombus formation.

Methods

Platelets were treated with PD followed by measuring platelet aggregation, activation, spreading, clot retraction, expression of glycoprotein receptors. Moreover, mice platelets were treated with PD and infused into wild-type mice for analysis of in vivo hemostasis and arterial thrombosis.

Results

Platycodin D treatment significantly inhibited platelet aggregation in response to collagen, ADP, arachidonic acid and epinephrine, reduced platelet P-selectin expression, integrin α_IIbβ₃ activation, spreading on fibrinogen as well as clot retraction, accompanied with decreased phosphorylation of Syk and PLCγ2 in collagen-related peptide or thrombin-stimulated platelets. Moreover, PD-treated mice platelets presented significantly impaired in vivo hemostasis and arterial thrombus formation. Interestingly, PD induced internalization of glycoprotein receptors α_IIbβ₃, GPIbα and GPVI. However, GM6001, cytochalasin D, BAPTA-AM and wortmannin did not prevent PD-induced internalization of receptors.

Conclusions

Our study demonstrates that PD inhibits platelet aggregation, activation and impairs hemostasis and arterial thrombosis, suggesting it might be a potent anti-thrombotic drug.

A Systems-Level Analysis of Mechanisms of Platycodon grandiflorum Based on A Network Pharmacological Approach

Platycodon grandiflorum (PG) is widely used in Asia for its various beneficial effects. Although many studies were conducted to understand the molecular mechanisms of PG, it is still unclear how the combinations of multiple ingredients work together to exert its therapeutic effects. The aim of the present study was to provide a comprehensive review of the systems-level mechanisms of PG by adopting network pharmacological analysis. We constructed a compound⁻target⁻disease network for PG using experimentally validated and machine-leaning-based prediction results. Each target of the network was analyzed based on previously known pharmacological activities of PG. Gene ontology analysis revealed that the majority of targets were related to cellular and metabolic processes, responses to stimuli, and biological regulation. In pathway enrichment analyses of targets, the terms related to cancer showed the most significant enrichment and formed distinct clusters. Degree matrix analysis for target⁻disease associations of PG suggested the therapeutic potential of PG in various cancers including hepatocellular carcinoma, gastric cancer, prostate cancer, small-cell lung cancer, and renal cell carcinoma. We expect that network pharmacological approaches will provide an understanding of the systems-level mechanisms of medicinal herbs and further develop their therapeutic potentials.

Platycodin D exerts anti-tumor efficacy in H22 tumor-bearing mice via improving immune function and inducing apoptosis

Platycodin D (PD), a major saponin derived and isolated from the roots of Platycodon grandiflorum, exerts potent growth inhibition and strong cytotoxicity against various cancer cell lines. However, the anti-tumor efficacy of PD on H22 hepatocellular carcinoma remains unknown. In the present study, we aimed to explore the anti-hepatoma activity in vivo and the underlying mechanism of PD in H22 tumor-bearing mice. The results revealed that PD could considerably suppress tumor growth with no significant side effects on immune organs and body weight. Further investigations showed that the levels of serum cytokines, including interferon gamma (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-2 (IL-2), were enhanced by PD administration. On the other hand, PD inhibited the production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in serum of H22 tumor mice. Additionally, the observations from H&E and Hoechst 33258 staining results demonstrated that PD noticeably induced apoptosis in H22 hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Importantly, immunohistochemical analysis showed that PD treatment increased Bax expression and decreased Bcl-2 and VEGF expression of H22 tumor tissues in a dose-dependent manner. Taken together, the findings in the present investigation clearly demonstrated that the PD markedly suppressed the tumor growth of H22 transplanted tumor in vivo at least partly via improving the immune functions, inducing apoptosis, and inhibiting angiogenesis.

Induction of reactive oxygen species-stimulated distinctive autophagy by chelerythrine in non-small cell lung cancer cells

Chelerythrine (CHE), a natural benzo[c]phenanthridine alkaloid, shows anti-cancer effect through a number of mechanisms. Herein, the effect and mechanism of the CHE-induced autophagy, a type II programmed cell death, in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells were studied for the first time. CHE induced cell viability decrease, colony formation inhibition, and apoptosis in a concentration-dependent manner in NSCLC A549 and NCI-H1299 cells. In addition, CHE triggered the expression of phosphatidylethanolamine-modified microtubule-associated protein light-chain 3 (LC3-II). The CHE-induced expression of LC3-II was further increased in the combination treatment with chloroquine (CQ), an autophagy inhibitor, and large amounts of red-puncta were observed in the CHE-treated A549 cells with stable expression of mRFP-EGFP-LC3, indicating that CHE induces autophagy flux. Silence of beclin 1 reversed the CHE-induced expression of LC3-II. Inhibition of autophagy remarkably reversed the CHE-induced cell viability decrease and apoptosis in NCI-H1299 cells but not in A549 cells. Furthermore, CHE triggered reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in both cell lines. A decreased level of ROS through pretreatment with N-acetyl-L-cysteine reversed the CHE-induced cell viability decrease, apoptosis, and autophagy. Taken together, CHE induced distinctive autophagy in A549 (accompanied autophagy) and NCI-H1299 (pro-death autophagy) cells and a decreased level of ROS reversed the effect of CHE in NSCLC cells in terms of cell viability, apoptosis, and autophagy.

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Chelerythrine induces autophagic flux in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) A549 and NCI-H1299 cells.

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Chelerythrine induces an accompanied autophagy in A549 cells, while a pro-death autophagy in NCI-H1299 cells.

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A decreased level of ROS reverses the chelerythrine-induced apoptosis and autophagy in NSCLC cells.

Comparing Apoptosis and Necrosis Effects of Arctium Lappa Root Extract and Doxorubicin on MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 Cell Lines

Objective: Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease and very common malignancy in women worldwide. The efficacy of chemotherapy as an important part of breast cancer treatment is limited due to its side effects. While pharmaceutical companies are looking for better chemicals, research on traditional medicines that generally have fewer side effects is quite interesting. In this study, apoptosis and necrosis effect of Arctium lappa and doxorubicin was compared in MCF7, and MDA-MB-231 cell lines. Materials and Methods: MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 cells were cultured in RPMI 1640 containing 10% FBS and 100 U/ml penicillin/streptomycin. MTT assay and an annexin V/propidium iodide (AV/PI) kit were used respectively to compare the survival rate and apoptotic effects of different concentrations of doxorubicin and Arctium lappa root extract on MDA-MB-231 and MCF7 cells. Results: Arctium lappa root extract was able to reduce cell viability of the two cell lines in a dose and time dependent manner similar to doxorubicin. Flow cytometry results showed that similar to doxorubicin, Arctium Lappa root extract had a dose and time dependent apoptosis effect on both cell lines. 10μg/mL of Arctium lappa root extract and 5 μM of doxorubicin showed the highest anti-proliferative and apoptosis effect in MCF7 and MDA231 cells. Conclusion: The MCF7 (ER/PR-) and MDA-MB-231 (ER/PR+) cell lines represent two major breast cancer subtypes. The similar anti-proliferative and apoptotic effects of Arctium lappa root extract and doxorubicin (which is a conventional chemotherapy drug) on two different breast cancer cell lines strongly suggests its anticancer effects and further studies.

Platycodin D potentiates proliferation inhibition and apoptosis induction upon AKT inhibition via feedback blockade in non-small cell lung cancer cells

AKT is the frequently overexpressed and constitutively active kinase within NSCLC cells and recognized as a promising target for NSCLC treatment. However, AKT inhibition relieves the feedback inhibition of upstream receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) that may weaken the efficiency of AKT inhibitors. Platycodin D (PD), isolated from widely-used traditional Chinese medicine Platycodonis Radix, is now found to remarkably enhance the anti-proliferative effect of AKT inhibitors. In this study, combinatorial activity of AKT inhibitor MK2206 and PD on cell proliferation, apoptosis and related signaling were disclosed. Long-term AKT inhibition induced up-regulation of RTKs, including EGFR and HER-2. Co-treatment of MK2206 with PD could abolish this feedback survival through decrease of EGFR, HER-2, and p-AKT, and profound inhibition of 4E-BP1, leading to an amplified anti-proliferative and apoptotic activity in NSCLC cells. Similarly, feedback activation in response to reduction of AKT expression by small interfering RNA (siRNA) was also blocked by PD and apoptotic effect was further enhanced. Thus, PD potentiated proliferative inhibition and apoptotic induction of both AKT inhibitor and siRNA. These findings also reveal the limitations of suppressing feedback-regulated pathways by monotherapy and establish a mechanistic rationale for a novel combination approach targeting AKT for the treatment of NSCLC.

Glycyrrhetinic acid induces cytoprotective autophagy via the inositol-requiring enzyme 1α-c-Jun N-terminal kinase cascade in non-small cell lung cancer cells

Glycerrhetinic acid (GA), one of the main bioactive constituents of Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch, exerts anti-cancer effects on various cancer cells. We confirmed that GA inhibited cell proliferation and induced apoptosis in non-small cell lung cancer A549 and NCI-H1299 cells. GA also induced expression of autophagy marker phosphatidylethanolamine-modified microtubule-associated protein light-chain 3 (LC3-II) and punta formation of green fluorescent protein microtubule-associated protein light-chain 3. We further proved that expression of GA-increased autophagy marker was attributed to activation instead of suppression of autophagic flux. The c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway was activated after incubation with GA. Pretreatment with the JNK inhibitor SP600125 or silencing of the JNK pathway by siRNA of JNK or c-jun decreased GA-induced autophagy. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress responses were also apparently stimulated by GA by triggering the inositol-requiring enzyme 1α (IRE1α) pathway. The GA-induced JNK pathway activation and autophagy were decreased by IRE1α knockdown, and inhibition of autophagy or the JNK cascade increased GA-stimulated IRE1α expression. In addition, GA-induced cell proliferative inhibition and apoptosis were increased by inhibition of autophagy or the JNK pathway. Our study was the first to demonstrate that GA induces cytoprotective autophagy in non-small cell lung cancer cells by activating the IRE1α-JNK/c-jun pathway. The combined treatment of autophagy inhibitors markedly enhances the anti-neoplasmic activity of GA. Such combination shows potential as a strategy for GA or GA-contained prescriptions in cancer therapy.

Saponins from Chinese Medicines as Anticancer Agents

Saponins are glycosides with triterpenoid or spirostane aglycones that demonstrate various pharmacological effects against mammalian diseases. To promote the research and development of anticancer agents from saponins, this review focuses on the anticancer properties of several typical naturally derived triterpenoid saponins (ginsenosides and saikosaponins) and steroid saponins (dioscin, polyphyllin, and timosaponin) isolated from Chinese medicines. These saponins exhibit in vitro and in vivo anticancer effects, such as anti-proliferation, anti-metastasis, anti-angiogenesis, anti-multidrug resistance, and autophagy regulation actions. In addition, related signaling pathways and target proteins involved in the anticancer effects of saponins are also summarized in this work.

Platycodin D, a metabolite of Platycodin grandiflorum, inhibits highly metastatic MDA-MB-231 breast cancer growth in vitro and in vivo by targeting the MDM2 oncogene

The objective of the present study was to explore the in vitro and in vivo anticancer effects of Platycodin D (PD), derived from Platycodin grandiflorum, on highly metastatic MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Using the MTT assay, we found that PD inhibited MDA-MB-231 cell growth in a concentration-dependent manner, with an IC50 value of 7.77±1.86 µM. Further studies showed that PD had anti-proliferative effects and induced cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase. To explore the detailed mechanism(s) by which PD suppressed MDA-MB-231 cell growth, western blot analyses were used to detect the expression levels of proteins related to cell proliferation and survival. The data showed that PD decreased the expression of proteins related to the G0/G1 phases, downregulated the protein expression of MDM2, MDMX, and mutant p53, and increased the expression levels of p21 and p27 in vitro. We verified the effects of PD on the expression of MDM2, MDMX, mutant p53, p21 and p27 using a pcDNA3-Flag-MDM2 plasmid and MDM2 siRNA transfection, and found that PD inhibited MDA-MB-231 cell viability by targeting MDM2 and mutant p53. Compared with the corresponding parental cells, the cells with siRNA-MDM2 transfection had a greater decrease in cell viability and proliferation, while those with pcDNA3-MDM2 plasmid transfection did not show any increase in the effects of PD. We also established a MDA-MB-231 xenograft model in BALB/c nude mice, and found that PD significantly inhibited the growth of MDA-MB-231 xenograft tumors in these mice. The expression levels of various proteins in the tumor tissue exhibited changes similar to those observed in vitro. These findings indicate that PD exerted in vitro and in vivo anticancer effects against MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, that PD is a potential MDM2/MDMX inhibitor, and that the anticancer effects of PD were likely associated with its inhibition of these proteins. Our observations help to identify a mechanism by which PD functions as an anti-breast cancer agent.

Proteomic analysis of hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells treated with platycodin D

Platycodin D (PD), a triterpenoid saponin isolated from Platycodonis Radix, is a famous Chinese herbal medicine that has been shown to have anti-proliferative effects in several cancer cell lines. The aim of this study was to determine the changes in cellular proteins after the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells with PD using proteomics approaches. The cell viability was determined using the MTT assay. The proteome was analyzed by two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Western blot analysis was used to confirm the expression of changed proteins. Our results showed that PD inhibited the proliferation of HepG2 cells in concentration- and time-dependent manners. Sixteen proteins were identified to be up-regulated in PD-treated HepG2 cells, including ATP5H, OXCT1, KRT9, CCDC40, ERP29, RCN1, ZNF175, HNRNPH1, HSP27, PA2G4, PHB, BANF1, TPM3, ECH1, LGALS1, and MYL6. Three proteins (i.e., RPS12, EMG1, and KRT1) decreased in HepG2 cells after treatment with PD. The changes in HSP27 and PHB were further confirmed by Western blotting. In conclusion, our results shed new lights on the mechanisms of action for the anti-cancer activity of PD.

Platycodin D inhibits B16F10 melanoma metastasis via antiangiogenic activity

Platycodin D inhibits B16F10 melanoma metastasisviaantiangiogenic activity.

Killing cancer with platycodin D through multiple mechanisms

Cancer is a multi-faceted disease comprised of a combination of genetic, epigenetic, metabolic and signalling aberrations which severely disrupt the normal homoeostasis of cell growth and death. Rational developments of highly selective drugs which specifically block only one of the signalling pathways have been associated with limited therapeutic success. Multi-targeted prevention of cancer has emerged as a new paradigm for effective anti-cancer treatment. Platycodin D, a triterpenoid saponin, is one the major active components of the roots of Platycodon grandiflorum and possesses multiple biological and pharmacological properties including, anti-nociceptive, anti-atherosclerosis, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, immunoregulatory, hepatoprotective and anti-tumour activities. Recently, the anti-cancer activity of platycodin D has been extensively studied. The purpose of this review was to give our perspectives on the current status of platycodin D and discuss its anti-cancer activity and molecular mechanisms which may help the further design and conduct of pre-clinical and clinical trials to develop it successfully into a potential lead drug for oncological therapy. Platycodin D has been shown to fight cancer by inducing apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and autophagy and inhibiting angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis by targeting multiple signalling pathways which are frequently deregulated in cancers suggesting that this multi-target activity rather than a single effect may play an important role in developing platycodin D into potential anti-cancer drug.

Platycodin D induces apoptosis and triggers ERK- and JNK-mediated autophagy in human hepatocellular carcinoma BEL-7402 cells

AIM

Platycodin D, the main saponin isolated from Chinese herb Platycodonis Radix, exhibits anticancer activities against various cancer cell lines. Here we evaluated its anticancer action against human hepatocellular carcinoma cells in vitro and in vivo, and elucidated the relationship between platycodin D-induced apoptosis and autophagy.

METHODS

The viability of human hepatocellular carcinoma BEL-7402 cells was evaluated with MTT assay, and the apoptosis was examined using Annexin V/PI and Hoechst 33342 staining assays. Monodansylcadaverine (MDC) staining was used to label autophagic vacuoles. The proteins were detected using Western blot analysis. For studying its anticancer action in vivo, platycodin D (5 and 10 mg· kg(-1)·d(-1)) was intraperitoneally injected to BEL-7402-bearing mice for 21 days.

RESULTS

Platycodin D (5-40 μmol/L) inhibited the cell proliferation in vitro with IC50 values of 37.70±3.99, 24.30±2.30 and 19.70±2.36 μmol/L at 24, 48 and 72 h, respectively. Platycodin D (5-20 μmol/L) dose-dependently increased BEL-7402 cell apoptosis, increased the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and the levels of cleaved PARP and cleaved caspase-3, and decreased the level of Bcl-2. Furthermore, platycodin D (5-20 μmol/L) induced autophagy in BEL-7402 cells, as evidenced by formation of cytoplasmic vacuoles, increased amounts of LC3-II, and increased numbers of MDC-positive cells. Pretreatment with the autophagy inhibitor chloroquine (5 μmol/L) or BAF (50 nmol/L) significantly enhanced platycodin D-induced proliferation inhibition and apoptosis. Moreover, platycodin D (20 μmol/L) activated the ERK and JNK pathways in BEL-7402 cells, and simultaneous blockage of the two pathways effectively suppressed platycodin D-induced autophagy and enhanced platycodin D-induced apoptosis. In BEL-7402-bearing mice, platycodin D (10 mg·kg(-1)•d(-1)) significantly reduced relative tumor volume with decreased body weight.

CONCLUSION

Platycodin D not only inhibits the proliferation of BEL-7402 cells but also suppresses BEL-7402 xenograft tumor growth. Platycodin D-induced cell proliferation inhibition and apoptosis are amplified by co-treatment with autophagy inhibitors.

The inhibition of Platycodin D on Mycoplasma pneumoniae proliferation and its effect on promoting cell growth after anti-Mycoplasma pneumoniae treatment

Platycodin D, extract from the root of Platycodon grandiflorum, is one of the most important monomers of the Qinbaiqingfei pellets (Qinbai) that has already been approved as the first Traditional Chinese Medicine for clinic use as an anti-M. pneumoniae agent. Qinbai constituents Scutellaria baicalensis and Platycodon grandiflorum were used to treat thousands of patients clinically in China each year. In this study, a M. pneumoniae–infected mouse strain, BALB/c, and a human-derived epithelial cell line, A549 type II pneumocytes, were used as experimental model. Anti-M. pneumoniae effect of Platycodin D was measured by the Real-time quantitative PCR, while the cell pathological change with hematoxylin and eosin and the growth recovery effects were determined with 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide and Trypan Blue dye in the experimental model after M. pneumoniae infection. Our research results showed that Platycodin D could significantly inhibit M. pneumoniae and promote cell growth after anti- M. pneumoniae treatment in the infected cells or mice.