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Kasozi KI, MacLeod ET, Sones KR, Welburn SC. Trypanocide usage in the cattle belt of southwestern Uganda. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1296522. [PMID: 38169897 PMCID: PMC10759318 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1296522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Systematic infrastructure and regulatory weaknesses over many decades, in communities struggling with animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT) would be expected to create an environment that would promote drug misuse and risk development of drug resistance. Here, we explore rural community practices of livestock keepers, livestock extension officers and drug shop attendants to determine whether appropriate practice was being followed in administration of trypanocides and other drugs. Methods A questionnaire-based survey was undertaken in southwestern Uganda in 2022 involving 451 farmers who kept cattle, sheep or goats and 79 "professionals" who were either livestock extension officers or drug shop attendants. Results Respondents reported using one or more type of trypanocidal drug on 80.1% of the 451 farms in the last 30 days. Diminazene aceturate was used on around three-quarters of farms, while isometamidium chloride was used on around one-fifth. Homidium bromide was used on less than 1% of farms. Cattle were significantly more likely to be treated with trypanocides than sheep or goats. On around two-thirds of farms, trypanocides were prepared and injected by farmers, with extension officers administering these drugs on most of the other third, especially on cattle farms. Almost all drugs were obtained from privately-owned drug shops. For treatment of AAT with trypanocides, prescription-only medicines were routinely used by farmers without professional supervision and in the absence of a definitive diagnosis. While a far greater proportion of professionals had a better education and had received training on the use of trypanocides than farmers, there was relatively little difference in their ability to use these drugs correctly. Farmers were more likely than professionals to use only DA to treat trypanosomiasis and were more likely to use antibiotics as well as trypanocidal drugs to treat the animal. Furthermore, they estimated, on average, that twice the recommended dose of either diminazene aceturate or isometamidium chloride was needed to treat a hypothetical 400 kg bovine. A minority of both farmers and professionals reported that they observed the recommended withdrawal times following injection of trypanocidal drugs and very few of either group knew the recommended withdrawal times for milk or meat. Only one in six farmers reported using the sanative pair (alternating use of diminazene aceturate and isometamidium chloride), to reduce the risk of drug resistant trypanosome strains emerging, while this approach was more widely used by professionals. Farmers reported using antibiotics more commonly than the professionals, especially in sheep and goats, raising concerns as to overuse and misuse of this critical class of drugs. In addition to using trypanocides, most farmers also reported using a topical veterinary pesticide for the control of ticks and tsetse. On average, farmers spent 12.2% of their income from livestock sales on trypanocides. Conclusion This study highlights the complexity of issues involved in the fight against AAT using drug treatment. A multistakeholder campaign to increase awareness among farmers, drug shop attendants, and extension workers of the importance of adherence to recommended drug dosing, using the sanative pair and following recommended drug withdrawal guidance would promote best practice, reduce the risk of emergence of resistant strains of trypanosomes, and support enhanced food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keneth Iceland Kasozi
- Infection Medicine, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, Biomedical Sciences: Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
- School of Medicine, Kabale University, Kabale, Uganda
| | - Ewan Thomas MacLeod
- Infection Medicine, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, Biomedical Sciences: Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Keith Robert Sones
- Infection Medicine, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, Biomedical Sciences: Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Keith Sones Associates, Warkworth House, Warkworth, Banbury, United Kingdom
| | - Susan Christina Welburn
- Infection Medicine, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, Biomedical Sciences: Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Zhejiang University - University of Edinburgh Institute, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Haining, China
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Molecular Characterization of Octopamine/Tyramine Receptor Gene of Amitraz-Resistant Rhipicephalus ( Boophilus) decoloratus Ticks from Uganda. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10122384. [PMID: 36557637 PMCID: PMC9788083 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10122384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously reported the emergence of amitraz-resistant Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus ticks in the western region of Uganda. This study characterized the octopamine/tyramine receptor gene (OCT/Tyr) of amitraz-resistant and -susceptible R. (B.) decoloratus ticks from four regions of Uganda. The OCT/Tyr gene was amplified from genomic DNA of 17 R. (B.) decoloratus larval populations of known susceptibility to amitraz. The amplicons were purified, cloned and sequenced to determine mutations in the partial coding region of the OCT/Tyr gene. The amplified R. (B.) decoloratus OCT/Tyr gene was 91-100% identical to the R. (B.) microplus OCT/Tyr gene. Up to 24 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were found in the OCT/Tyr gene from ticks obtained from high acaricide pressure areas, compared to 8 from the low acaricide pressure areas. A total of eight amino acid mutations were recorded in the partial OCT/Tyr gene from ticks from the western region, and four of them were associated with amitraz-resistant tick populations. The amino acid mutations M1G, L16F, D41G and V72A were associated with phenotypic resistance to amitraz with no specific pattern. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the OCT/Tyr gene sequence from this study clustered into two distinct groups that separated the genotype from high acaricide pressure areas from the susceptible populations. In conclusion, this study is the first to characterize the R. (B.) decoloratus OCT/Tyr receptor gene and reports four novel amino acid mutations associated with phenotypic amitraz resistance in Uganda. However, lack of mutations in the ORF of the OCT/Tyr gene fragment for some of the amitraz-resistant R. (B.) decoloratus ticks could suggest that other mechanisms of resistance may be responsible for amitraz resistance, hence the need for further investigation.
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Kizza D, Ocaido M, Mugisha A, Azuba R, Nalubwama S, Nalule S, Onyuth H, Musinguzi SP, Waiswa C. The economic cost of bovine trypanosomosis in pastoral and ago pastoral communities surrounding Murchision Falls National park, Buliisa district, Uganda. BMC Vet Res 2022; 18:372. [PMID: 36253776 PMCID: PMC9578198 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-022-03468-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Animal diseases that are endemic like tsetse transmitted trypanosomosis cause the continuous expenditure of financial resources of livestock farmers and loss of productivity of livestock. Estimating the cost of controlling animal trypanosomosis can provide evidence for priority setting and targeting cost-effective control strategies. Methodology: A cross-sectional survey to estimate the economic cost of bovine trypanosomosis was conducted in cattle-keeping communities living around Murchision falls National Park, in Buliisa district Uganda. Data was collected on herd structure, the cost of treatment and control, prevalence of morbidity and mortality rates due to trypanosomosis, and salvage sales losses in cattle herds in the last year. Results: In this study, 55.4% (n = 87) of the households reported their cattle had been affected by trypanosomosis during the previous last year. There was a high economic cost of trypanosomosis (USD 653) per household in cattle-keeping communities in Buliisa district of which 83% and 9% were due to mortality and milk loss respectively/ High mortality loss was due to low investment in treatment. The study showed that prophylactic treatment 3 times a year of the whole herd of cattle using Samorin ® (Isometamidium chloride) at a cost of USD 110 could drastically reduce cattle mortality loss due to trypanosomosis due to trypanosomosis with a return on investment of USD 540 annually per herd. This could be coupled with strategic restricted insecticide spraying of cattle with deltamethrin products. Conclusion: The results show a high economic cost of trypanosomosis in cattle-keeping communities in Buliisa district, with cattle mortality contributing the largest proportion of the economic cost. The high mortality loss was due to low investment in treatment of sick cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Kizza
- Department of Livestock and Industrial Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Michael Ocaido
- Department of Wildlife, Aquatic and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Anthony Mugisha
- Department of Livestock and Industrial Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Rose Azuba
- Department of Livestock and Industrial Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Sylvia Nalubwama
- Department of Livestock and Industrial Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Sarah Nalule
- Department of Wildlife, Aquatic and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Howard Onyuth
- Department of Wildlife, Aquatic and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Simon Peter Musinguzi
- Faculty of Agriculture Department of Agricultural Production, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Charles Waiswa
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinical and Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
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Serem EK, Bargul JL, Ngari MM, Abdullahi OA, Mburu DM. Farmers' knowledge, perceptions, and practices on animal trypanosomosis and the tsetse fly vector: A cross-sectional study around Kenya's Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve at the livestock-wildlife interface. OPEN RESEARCH AFRICA 2022; 5:22. [PMID: 37600566 PMCID: PMC10439355 DOI: 10.12688/openresafrica.13397.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Background: Animal African trypanosomosis (AAT) is a veterinary disease caused by trypanosomes transmitted cyclically by tsetse flies. AAT causes huge agricultural losses in sub-Saharan Africa. Both tsetse flies and trypanosomosis (T&T) are endemic in the study area inhabited by smallholder livestock farmers at the livestock-wildlife interface around Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve (ASFR) in Kilifi County on the Kenyan coast. We assessed farmers' knowledge, perceptions and control practices towards T&T. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted during November and December 2017 to collect data from 404 randomly selected cattle-rearing households using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics were used to determine farmers' knowledge, perceptions, and control practices towards T&T. Demographic factors associated with knowledge of T&T were assessed using a logistic regression model. Results: Participants consisted of 53% female, 77% married, 30% elderly (>55 years), and the majority (81%) had attained primary education or below. Most small-scale farmers (98%) knew the tsetse fly by its local name, and 76% could describe the morphology of the adult tsetse fly by size in comparison to the housefly's ( Musca domestica). Only 16% of the farmers knew tsetse flies as vectors of livestock diseases. Higher chances of adequate knowledge on T&T were associated with the participants' (i) age of 15-24 years (aOR 2.88 (95% CI 1.10-7.52), (ii) level of education including secondary (aOR 2.46 (95% CI 1.43-4.24)) and tertiary (aOR 3.80 (95% CI 1.54-9.37)), and (iii) employment status: self-employed farmers (aOR 6.54 (95% CI 4.36-9.80)). Conclusions: Our findings suggest that small-scale farmers around ASFR have limited knowledge of T&T. It is envisaged that efforts geared towards training of the farmers would bridge this knowledge gap and sharpen the perceptions and disease control tactics to contribute to the prevention and control of T&T.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erick K Serem
- Department of Public Health, School of Health and Human Sciences, Pwani University, Kilifi, P.O Box 195-80108 Kilifi, Kenya
- Pwani University Bioscience Research Centre (PUBReC), Pwani University, Kilifi, P.O Box 195-80108, Kenya
| | - Joel L Bargul
- Department of Biochemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), Nairobi, P.O Box 62000-00200, Kenya
- Animal Health Theme, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), Nairobi, P.O Box 30772-00100, Kenya
| | - Moses M Ngari
- Department of Public Health, School of Health and Human Sciences, Pwani University, Kilifi, P.O Box 195-80108 Kilifi, Kenya
- KEMRI/Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Clinical Trials Facility, Kilifi, P.O Box 230-80108, Kenya
| | - Osman A Abdullahi
- Department of Public Health, School of Health and Human Sciences, Pwani University, Kilifi, P.O Box 195-80108 Kilifi, Kenya
- Pwani University Bioscience Research Centre (PUBReC), Pwani University, Kilifi, P.O Box 195-80108, Kenya
| | - David M Mburu
- Pwani University Bioscience Research Centre (PUBReC), Pwani University, Kilifi, P.O Box 195-80108, Kenya
- Department of Biological Sciences, Pwani University, Kilifi, P.O Box 195-80108, Kenya
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Jaime G, Hobeika A, Figuié M. Access to Veterinary Drugs in Sub-Saharan Africa: Roadblocks and Current Solutions. Front Vet Sci 2022; 8:558973. [PMID: 35356415 PMCID: PMC8959935 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.558973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Access to veterinary drugs for livestock has become a major issue over the last decade. Analysis has tended to focus on the demand for these products, while studies looking at the drivers behind their use generally focus on farmer behavior and interactions between veterinarians and farmers. However, the use of drugs also depends on structural factors that determine the functioning of the drug supply chain and farmers' access to the drugs. This article presents an overview of the factors that limit access to veterinary drugs in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) as well as the international policy tools and arrangements that claim to improve it. Methods We have conducted a scoping review of the scientific and grey literature as well as the publicly-available data from both the animal health industry and international organizations. We aimed to gather information on the veterinary drugs market in SSA as well as on the international norms, recommendations, guidelines, and initiatives that impact SSA farmers' access to these drugs. Findings We highlight numerous barriers to veterinary drug access in SSA. The SSA market is highly dependent on imports, yet the region attracts little attention from the international companies capable of exporting to it. It suffers from a high level of fragmentation and weak distribution infrastructures and services, and is driven by the multiplication of private non-professional actors playing a growing role in the veterinary drug supply chain. The distribution system is increasingly dualized, with on the one hand the public sector (supported by development organizations) supplying small scale farmers in rural areas, but with limited and irregular means; and on the other side a private sector largely unregulated which supplies commercial and industrial farming systems. Different innovations have been developed at the international and regional levels to try to reduce barriers, such as homogenizing national legislations, donations, and vaccine banks. Alongside decades-old inter-state cooperation, many new forms of public-private partnerships and other hybrid forums continue to emerge, signaling the private sector's increasing influence in global governance. Conclusions Policies on animal health would be bolstered by a better understanding of the drivers behind and the components of access to veterinary drugs in different regional and national contexts. Inequalities in drug access need to be addressed and a market-driven approach adopted in order to strengthen our understanding of what determines veterinary drug use at the farm level. Policies should balance the interests of the various stakeholders, being careful not to reinforce bias toward certain diseases deemed "interesting" and neglect others that could prove to be highly important for veterinary public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glória Jaime
- CIRAD, UMR MoISA, Montpellier, France
- MoISA, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, CIHEAM-IAMM, INRAE, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Alexandre Hobeika
- CIRAD, UMR MoISA, Montpellier, France
- MoISA, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, CIHEAM-IAMM, INRAE, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Muriel Figuié
- CIRAD, UMR MoISA, Montpellier, France
- MoISA, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, CIHEAM-IAMM, INRAE, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
- Eduardo Mondlane University, Maputo, Mozambique
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6
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula MacGregor
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | | | - R. Ellen R. Nisbet
- School of Bioscience, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
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Okello WO, MacLeod ET, Muhanguzi D, Waiswa C, Shaw AP, Welburn SC. Critical Linkages Between Livestock Production, Livestock Trade and Potential Spread of Human African Trypanosomiasis in Uganda: Bioeconomic Herd Modeling and Livestock Trade Analysis. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:611141. [PMID: 34381829 PMCID: PMC8350160 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.611141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Tsetse-transmitted human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) remains endemic in Uganda. The chronic form caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (gHAT) is found in north-western Uganda, whereas the acute zoonotic form of the disease, caused by T. b. brucei rhodesiense (rHAT), occurs in the eastern region. Cattle is the major reservoir of rHAT in Uganda. These two forms of HAT are likely to converge resulting in a public health disaster. This study examines the intricate and intrinsic links between cattle herd dynamics, livestock trade and potential risk of spread of rHAT northwards. Methods: A bio-economic cattle herd model was developed to simulate herd dynamics at the farm level. Semi-structured interviews (n = 310), focus group discussions (n = 9) and key informant interviews (n = 9) were used to evaluate livestock markets (n = 9) as part of the cattle supply chain analysis. The cattle market data was used for stochastic risk analysis. Results: Cattle trade in eastern and northern Uganda is dominated by sale of draft and adult male cattle as well as exportation of young male cattle. The study found that the need to import draft cattle at the farm level was to cover deficits because of the herd structure, which is mostly geared towards animal traction. The importation and exportation of draft cattle and disposal of old adult male cattle formed the major basis of livestock movement and could result in the spread of rHAT northwards. The risk of rHAT infected cattle being introduced to northern Uganda from the eastern region via cattle trade was found to be high (i.e. probability of 1). Conclusion: Through deterministic and stochastic modelling of cattle herd and cattle trade dynamics, this study identifies critical links between livestock production and trade as well as potential risk of rHAT spread in eastern and northern Uganda. The findings highlight the need for targeted and routine surveillance and control of zoonotic diseases such as rHAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter O Okello
- Infection Medicine, Biomedical Sciences, Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.,Land & Water Business Unit, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Ewan T MacLeod
- Infection Medicine, Biomedical Sciences, Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Dennis Muhanguzi
- Department of Biomolecular and Biolaboratory Sciences, School of Biosecurity, Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Charles Waiswa
- Infection Medicine, Biomedical Sciences, Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.,The Coordinating Office for Control of Trypanosomiasis in Uganda (COCTU), Kampala, Uganda
| | - Alexandra P Shaw
- Infection Medicine, Biomedical Sciences, Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.,Avia-GIS, Zoersel, Belgium
| | - Susan C Welburn
- Infection Medicine, Biomedical Sciences, Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.,Zhejiang University-University of Edinburgh Institute, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Haining, China
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Cattle ticks and tick-borne diseases: a review of Uganda's situation. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2021; 12:101756. [PMID: 34134062 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Herein we review the epidemiology of ticks and tick-borne diseases (TTBDs), their impact on livestock health and on the economy, control and associated challenges in Uganda. Ticks are leading vectors of economically important pathogens and are widespread in Uganda due to suitable climatic conditions. Besides the physical injury inflicted on the animal host, ticks transmit a number of pathogens that can cause morbidity and mortality of livestock if untreated, resulting in economic losses. Uganda suffers an aggregated annual loss (direct and indirect) of over USD 1.1 billion in the TTBDs complex. East Coast fever (ECF) caused by a protozoan haemoparasite, Theileria parva, is the most prevalent and economically important tick-borne disease (TBD) in Uganda and its vector, the brown ear tick (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus) widely distributed. Other prevalent TBDs in Uganda include anaplasmosis, babesiosis and heartwater. We highlight the role of agro-ecological zones (AEZs) and livestock management system in the distribution of TTBDs, citing warm and humid lowlands as being ideal habitats for ticks and endemic for TBDs. Control of TTBDs is a matter of great importance as far as animal health is concerned in Uganda. Indigenous cattle, which make up over 90% of the national herd are known to be more tolerant to TTBDs and most farms rely on endemic stability to TBDs for control. However, exotic cattle breeds are more capital intensive than indigenous breeds, but the increasing adoption of tick-susceptible exotic cattle breeds (especially dairy) in western and central Uganda demands intensive use of acaricides for tick control and prevention of TBDs. Such acaricide pressure has unfortunately led to selection of acaricide-resistant tick populations and the consequent acaricide resistance observed in the field. Vaccination against ECF, selective breeding for tick resistance and integrated tick control approaches that limit tick exposure, could be adopted to interrupt spread of acaricide resistance. We recommend increasing monitoring and surveillance for TTBDs and for emerging acaricide resistance, improved extension services and sensitization of farmers on tick control measures, appropriate acaricide use and the development and implementation of vaccines for the control of TTBDs as more sustainable and effective interventions. A tick control policy should be developed, taking into account variations of agro-ecological zones, farm circumstances and indigenous technical knowledge, and this should be incorporated into the overall animal health program.
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Mutavi F, Heitkönig I, Wieland B, Aarts N, Van Paassen A. Tick treatment practices in the field: Access to, knowledge about, and on-farm use of acaricides in Laikipia, Kenya. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2021; 12:101757. [PMID: 34147920 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The prevention of tick-borne diseases is a major challenge for livestock production globally. Tick control strategies include the use of acaricides, but the prescribed strategies do not achieve the desired results in several countries, including Kenya. To better understand how tick treatment practices, contribute to reported tick treatment failures, we assessed livestock owners' acaricide procurement, level of knowledge about acaricides and tick resistance, and how they apply acaricides. We also assessed the quality of the commonly available acaricides. We focused on three livestock systems in Laikipia County, Kenya: two private ranches; one community ranch whose members communally graze their cattle and acquire and apply acaricides; and individual livestock owners in two pastoral communities who individually graze their cattle and acquire and apply acaricides. Through interviews and focus group discussions we assessed; access to acaricides, livestock owners' knowledge, and acaricide use practices; interview data were triangulated with participant observations (n = 107). We analysed nine commonly used acaricides to determine the active ingredient concentration and we determined the concentration of active ingredients in acaricide dilutions collected on farms. All livestock owners had access to and used chemical acaricides for tick control, predominantly amitraz-based. Private ranchers bought one amitraz-based acaricide in bulk directly from the manufacturer, while all other livestock owners bought from agrovet shops. The livestock owners acquired knowledge about acaricides from their own experiences and through experience-based recommendations from peers, but not from the technical information provided by the manufacturers and agrovet shops. All pastoral livestock frequently changed acaricide brand and active ingredient class. A large majority of pastoralists (86%) mixed acaricide brands within and across active ingredient classes; a smaller majority (56%) mixed acaricides with crop pesticides and insecticides. Our lab tests confirmed the content description on the labels bought from agrovet shops. However, on-farm acaricide dilutions from all three livestock systems deviated from the level recommended for effective treatment. If too diluted, the acaricide does not kill ticks, promoting resistance development. If too concentrated, this increases environmental contamination and raises public health concerns. Livestock owners lack a technical understanding of the functioning of acaricides, compromising their use and effectiveness. The widely adopted mixing of acaricides with insecticides and pesticides raises serious health concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faith Mutavi
- Strategic Communication Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 8130-6700 EW Wageningen, the Netherlands; Wildlife Ecology and Conservation Group, Wageningen University, PO Box 47-6700AA Wageningen, the Netherlands; International Livestock Research Institute, PO Box 30709-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Ignas Heitkönig
- Wildlife Ecology and Conservation Group, Wageningen University, PO Box 47-6700AA Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Barbara Wieland
- International Livestock Research Institute, PO Box 5689 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Institute of Virology and Immunology, P.O Box 3350 - 3001 Bern Mittelhäusern, Switzerland; Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology (DIP), Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, P.O Box 3350 - 3001 Bern Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - Noelle Aarts
- Strategic Communication Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 8130-6700 EW Wageningen, the Netherlands; Institute for Science in Society, Radboud University, Faculty of Science, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Annemarie Van Paassen
- Knowledge, Technology and Innovation Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 8130-6700 EW Wageningen, the Netherlands
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Richards S, Morrison LJ, Torr SJ, Barrett MP, Manangwa O, Mramba F, Auty H. Pharma to farmer: field challenges of optimizing trypanocide use in African animal trypanosomiasis. Trends Parasitol 2021; 37:831-843. [PMID: 33962879 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2021.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Trypanocides are a key control component of African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) in tsetse-infested areas of sub-Saharan Africa. While farmers are dependent upon trypanocides, recent research highlights their inappropriate and ineffective use, problems with drug quality, and treatment failure. There are currently gaps in knowledge and investment in inexpensive AAT diagnostics, understanding of drug resistance, and the effective use of trypanocides in the field. Without this important knowledge it is difficult to develop best practice and policy for existing drugs or to inform development and use of new drugs. There needs to be better understanding of the drivers and behavioural practices around trypanocide use so that they can be incorporated into sustainable solutions needed for the development of effective control of AAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shauna Richards
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
| | - Liam J Morrison
- Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Steve J Torr
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
| | - Michael P Barrett
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Inflammation & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | | | - Furaha Mramba
- Tanzania Veterinary Laboratory Agency, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Harriet Auty
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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Okello WO, MacLeod ET, Muhanguzi D, Waiswa C, Welburn SC. Controlling Tsetse Flies and Ticks Using Insecticide Treatment of Cattle in Tororo District Uganda: Cost Benefit Analysis. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:616865. [PMID: 33829051 PMCID: PMC8019991 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.616865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The endemic vector-borne diseases transmitted by tsetse and ticks impose heavy burdens on the livestock keepers in Africa. Applying deltamethrin to the belly, legs, and ears of cattle offers a possibility of mitigating these losses at a cost affordable to livestock keepers. Although studies have quantified the impacts of individual diseases on livestock productivity, little is known about the dual economic benefits of controlling both tsetse and ticks, nor about the number of cattle that need to be treated to confer these benefits. Alongside an epidemiological study in south-east Uganda, a farm level assessment was done to investigate the benefits and costs of spraying different proportions of the village cattle population using this restricted application protocol. Methods: A study comprising 1,902 semi-structured interviews was undertaken over a period of 18 months. Financial data on household income and expenditure on cattle was collected, and cost-benefit analysis was done pre- and post-intervention and for different spraying regimes. The total cost of the intervention was obtained from the implementation costs of the epidemiological study and from expenses incurred by participating farmers enabling examination of benefit-cost ratios and incremental benefit-cost ratios for each treatment regime. Results: The benefit-cost analysis of spraying 25%, 50%, and 75% of the cattle population yielded average benefit-cost ratios of 3.85, 4.51, and 4.46. The incremental benefit-cost ratios from spraying each additional 25% of the cattle population were 11.38, 3.89, and 0.79, showing a very high return on investment for spraying 50% of the population, with returns reducing thereafter. Conclusion: Comparing the gross margins per bovine, the study found that increasing the proportion of cattle sprayed yielded increasing benefits to the farmers, but that these benefits were subject to diminishing returns. From a practical viewpoint, this study recommends spraying only draft cattle to control trypanosomiasis and tick-borne diseases in this area as they make 38.62% of the cattle population, approaching the 50% threshold. In areas with a lower proportion of draft males, farmers could be advised to also include cows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter O. Okello
- Infection Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Black Mountain Science and Innovation Park, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Ewan T. MacLeod
- Infection Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Dennis Muhanguzi
- Infection Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Department of Biomolecular and Biolaboratory Sciences, School of Biosecurity, Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Charles Waiswa
- Infection Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Department of Biomolecular and Biolaboratory Sciences, School of Biosecurity, Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
- The Coordinating Office for Control of Trypanosomiasis in Uganda, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Susan C. Welburn
- Infection Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Zhejiang University–University of Edinburgh Institute, Zhejiang University, International Campus, Haining, China
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Kasozi KI, Welburn SC, Batiha GES, Marraiki N, Nalumenya DP, Namayanja M, Matama K, Zalwango KK, Matovu W, Zirintunda G, Ekou J, Kembabazi S, Mugasa CM, Kitibwa A, Tayebwa DS, Musinguzi SP, Mahero M, Ssengendo I, Nanteza A, Matovu E, MacLeod ET. Molecular epidemiology of anaplasmosis in small ruminants along a human-livestock-wildlife interface in Uganda. Heliyon 2020; 7:e05688. [PMID: 33437885 PMCID: PMC7788096 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Information as regards the epidemiology of the Anaplasmataceae in small ruminants in several low- and middle-income countries is scarce. Methods In this study a total of 712 DNA samples collected from small ruminants were analyzed for Anaplasmataceae and Anaplasma ovis using the 16S rRNA and MSP4 genes respectively. Infection risk was assessed by location, sex and age of the animals and qGIS® was used to construct spatial maps. Results The prevalence of Anaplasmataceae spp was 89.1% (95% CI: 77.5–95.9) and 79.1% (95% CI: 75.9–82.1) in ovines and caprines respectively (RR = 1.1, 95% CI: 1.0–1.3); higher than those previously reported in other eastern African countries. The prevalence of A. ovis was 26.1% and 25.4% for both ovines and caprines respectively with ovines showing significantly higher levels of infection than caprines (P < 0.05). The risk of Anaplasma ovis infections was not affected by age (OR = 1.2, 95% CI: 0.9–1.7) or sex (OR = 1.1, 95% CI: 0.6–2.0). Small ruminants located at the forest edge (<0.3 km) showed higher A. ovis prevalence than those found inland with infections present in the midland regions associated with increased agricultural activity. Conclusion Anaplasma ovis remains a major challenge for small ruminant husbandry in Uganda and infections are under-reported. Policy efforts to prioritize management of Anaplasmataceae for small ruminant health would promote livestock productivity in vulnerable communities, improving livelihoods and ecosystem health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keneth Iceland Kasozi
- Infection Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, 1 George Square, Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, United Kingdom
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Agricultural Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Box 203 Soroti, Uganda
- School of Medicine, Kabale University, Box 317 Kabale, Uganda
- Corresponding author.
| | - Susan Christina Welburn
- Infection Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, 1 George Square, Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, United Kingdom
- Zhejiang University-University of Edinburgh Institute, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, International Campus, 718 East Haizhou Road, Haining 314400, China
| | - Gaber El-Saber Batiha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhour 22511, AlBeheira, Egypt
| | - Najat Marraiki
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - David Paul Nalumenya
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda
| | - Monica Namayanja
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda
| | - Kevin Matama
- Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71 Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Kelly Katenta Zalwango
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda
| | - Wycliff Matovu
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda
| | - Gerald Zirintunda
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Agricultural Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Box 203 Soroti, Uganda
| | - Justine Ekou
- Department of Animal Production and Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Agricultural Sciences, Busitema University Arapai Campus, Box 203 Soroti, Uganda
| | | | - Claire Mack Mugasa
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda
| | - Annah Kitibwa
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda
| | - Dickson Stuart Tayebwa
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda
| | - Simon Peter Musinguzi
- Faculty of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Kabale University, Box 315 Kabale, Uganda
| | - Michael Mahero
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, USA
| | - Ibrahim Ssengendo
- Kampala International University Western Campus, Box 71 Bushenyi, Uganda
| | - Anne Nanteza
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda
| | - Enock Matovu
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Box 7062 Kampala, Uganda
| | - Ewan Thomas MacLeod
- Infection Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, 1 George Square, Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, United Kingdom
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Kamran K, Ali A, Villagra CA, Bazai ZA, Iqbal A, Sajid MS. Hyalomma anatolicum resistance against ivermectin and fipronil is associated with indiscriminate use of acaricides in southwestern Balochistan, Pakistan. Parasitol Res 2020; 120:15-25. [PMID: 33225403 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-06981-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Ivermectin and fipronil have been used regularly to control the hard tick Hyalomma anatolicum (Acari: Ixodidae) in domestic ruminants for more than a half-decade in Balochistan, Pakistan. Inappropriate and indiscriminate use of these acaricides has resulted in the development of resistances in tick species. In this work, acaricides (ivermectin and fipronil) resistance was evaluated in H. anatolicum through in vitro and in vivo bioassays in a horse farm of Quetta, Balochistan province, Pakistan. A participatory epidemiological survey was conducted to assess potential risk factors associated with the development of acaricide resistance in H. anatolicum. The results of the epidemiological survey revealed that the horse keepers did not follow the manufacturer's instructions for the use of acaricides and applied indiscriminate doses of acaricides. The results of in vitro bioassays (adult immersion test and larval immersion test) showed that fipronil and ivermectin have protective efficacy against H. anatolicum. The results of in vivo bioassay (adult-tick mortality assay) revealed that fipronil had a higher efficacy (78.16%) than ivermectin (49.94%). More than 80% of tick mortality was not achieved in any bioassays, even for the highest acaricide concentration (100 ppm), which suggests the development of acaricide resistance against fipronil and ivermectin. This study highlights the urgency to implement a country-wide awareness about resistance monitoring and effective tick control. Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kashif Kamran
- Department of Zoology, University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan
| | - Abid Ali
- Department of Zoology, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
| | - Cristian A Villagra
- Instituto de Entomología, Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Asim Iqbal
- Department of Zoology, University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Sohail Sajid
- Department of Parasitology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
- Center for Advanced Studies in Agriculture and Food Security (CAS-AFS), University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
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Wangoola RM, Kevin B, Acup CA, Welburn S, Waiswa C, Bugeza J. Factors associated with persistence of African animal trypanosomiasis in Lango subregion, northern Uganda. Trop Anim Health Prod 2019; 51:2011-2018. [PMID: 31054060 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-019-01900-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) continues to inflict heavy losses on livestock production especially cattle in terms of decreased production and productivity in Uganda. AAT is a disease complex caused by tsetse fly-transmitted Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, Trypanosoma congolense, and Trypanosoma vivax. The disease is most important in cattle but also known to cause serious losses in pigs, camels, goats, and sheep. Several control measures including live bait technology, mass treatment of cattle with trypanocidal drugs, and deployment of tsetse traps have been used in the past 10 years, but the problem still persists in some areas. This necessitated an exploration of the factors associated with continued trypanosome infections in cattle, which are also known reservoirs for the zoonotic trypanosomiasis. A structured questionnaire was administered to 286 animal owners from 20 villages purposively selected from Lira, Kole, and Alebtong districts of Lango subregion to obtain information on the factors associated with persistence of infection. Over 50% of the respondents reported trypanosomiasis as a major challenge to their livestock. Land ownership (P = 0.029), type of livestock kept (P = 0.000), disease control strategy employed (P = 0.000), source of drugs (P = 0.046), and drug preparation (P = 0.017) were associated with persistent AAT infection. We recommend continued farmer sensitization on the threat of AAT and the available prevention and control options. The use of isometamidium chloride for prophylaxis against trypanosomiasis is highly recommended. There is also a need to foster qualified private veterinary drug supply in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Mandela Wangoola
- Coordinating Office for Control of Trypanosomiasis in Uganda, Plot 78 Buganda Road, P.O Box 16345, Kampala, Uganda
| | | | - Christine Among Acup
- Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, The Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, Scotland, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Susan Welburn
- Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, The Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, Scotland, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Charles Waiswa
- Coordinating Office for Control of Trypanosomiasis in Uganda, Plot 78 Buganda Road, P.O Box 16345, Kampala, Uganda
| | - James Bugeza
- National Livestock Resources Research Institute (NaLIRRI), P.O. Box 5704, Wakiso, Uganda.
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Mawela KG, Luseba D, Magano S, Eloff JN. Repellent properties of Rotheca glabrum plant extracts against adults of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. BMC Vet Res 2019; 15:122. [PMID: 31029169 PMCID: PMC6487012 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-019-1853-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Rotheca glabrum (formerly known as Clerodendrum glabrum [Verbenaceae]) is used by local communities in the Limpopo Province of South Africa to control ticks on livestock and was selected from the database of the ARC-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute. Its leaves were extracted using organic solvents ranging from polar to non-polar solvents (methanol, acetone and dichloromethane (DCM)). In addition, the traditional soap-water (infusion) and water-based (decoction) methods were used. The tick repelling activity was determined against the adult stage of the livestock tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. Results In the tick-climbing repellency bioassay a 30% acetone extract had a significant (p ≤ 0.05) repellent effect against adults of R. appendiculatus. The extract was still active at a lower concentration of 10%. The hexane fraction from the R. glabrum acetone extract had a higher tick repellency activity than the positive controls Amitix and Bayticol at the same concentrations. Unfortunately, the activity decreased after 2.5 h, probably due to volatility of the biologically active compound(s) within the extract. Conclusion Attempts were made to isolate the repellent compound from the acetone extract of R. glabrum. The process produced very good results up to a late stage in the bioassay-guided fractionation process. At that point, the repellent activity was lost. When two fractions were combined, the repellent activity was regained. These results provide strong evidence for the existence of a synergisticactivity of different compounds. It may be better to concentrate on extracts that would kill ticks rather than on extracts that would repel ticks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kedibone Gloria Mawela
- Phytomedicine Programme, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, 0110, Republic of South Africa.,Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort Veterinary Research, Division of Toxicology, Private Bag X05, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
| | - Dibungi Luseba
- Department of Animal Sciences, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
| | - Solomon Magano
- Department of Life and Consumer Science, University of South Africa, Private Bag X6, Florida, 1710, Republic of South Africa
| | - Jacobus Nicolaas Eloff
- Department Agriculture and Animal Health, University of South Africa, Private Bag X6, Florida, 1710, Republic of South Africa.
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Waiswa C, Wangoola MR. Sustaining Efforts of Controlling Zoonotic Sleeping Sickness in Uganda Using Trypanocidal Treatment and Spray of Cattle with Deltamethrin. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2019; 19:613-618. [PMID: 30638437 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2018.2382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2005, the zoonotic acute sleeping sickness was spreading rapidly from the endemic areas of southeastern Uganda with potential for merger into areas affected by the chronic form of the disease in northwest Uganda. Movement of cattle reservoirs due to restocking was blamed for the rapid spread. To stop the spread of the zoonotic sleeping sickness, cattle in the disease endemic areas had to be treated with trypanocidal drugs and sprayed with deltamethrin to promote the live bait technology that helps suppress the tsetse vector. The initiative that started in five high-risk districts in 2006 with a mix of using several undergraduate veterinary students has now been integrated in the local government veterinary service delivery in 23 high-risk districts. By 2016, the annual spray of cattle with deltamethrin and treatment with diminazene aceturate had reached one million with 1,065,444 cattle sprayed in the reporting year July 1, 2016 to June 30, 2017. This is believed to have contributed significantly to the reduction in the number of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness cases (from 473 recorded in 2005 to 14 in 2016, and only about 10 reported to the Coordinating Office for Control of Trypanosomiasis in Uganda [COCTU] in 2017). The initiative that started as the Stamp Out Sleeping Sickness Consortium with a public good approach, implemented in a public-private partnership with the faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Makerere University, has today been integrated in both private and public sectors to fast-track the elimination of T. b. rhodesiense sleeping sickness with active financial contribution from the affected communities in sustaining the delivery of live bait technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Waiswa
- 1Uganda Trypanosomiasis Control Council (UTCC) Secretariat, Coordinating Office for Control of Trypanosomiasis in Uganda (COCTU), Wandegeya-Kampala, Uganda.,2School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources (SVAR), College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Mandela Robert Wangoola
- 1Uganda Trypanosomiasis Control Council (UTCC) Secretariat, Coordinating Office for Control of Trypanosomiasis in Uganda (COCTU), Wandegeya-Kampala, Uganda
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17
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Vudriko P, Okwee-Acai J, Byaruhanga J, Tayebwa DS, Okech SG, Tweyongyere R, Wampande EM, Okurut ARA, Mugabi K, Muhindo JB, Nakavuma JL, Umemiya-Shirafuji R, Xuan X, Suzuki H. Chemical tick control practices in southwestern and northwestern Uganda. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2018; 9:945-955. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2018.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Revised: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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18
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Killeen GF, Tatarsky A, Diabate A, Chaccour CJ, Marshall JM, Okumu FO, Brunner S, Newby G, Williams YA, Malone D, Tusting LS, Gosling RD. Developing an expanded vector control toolbox for malaria elimination. BMJ Glob Health 2017; 2:e000211. [PMID: 28589022 PMCID: PMC5444090 DOI: 10.1136/bmjgh-2016-000211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2016] [Revised: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 12/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Vector control using long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) accounts for most of the malaria burden reductions achieved recently in low and middle-income countries (LMICs). LLINs and IRS are highly effective, but are insufficient to eliminate malaria transmission in many settings because of operational constraints, growing resistance to available insecticides and mosquitoes that behaviourally avoid contact with these interventions. However, a number of substantive opportunities now exist for rapidly developing and implementing more diverse, effective and sustainable malaria vector control strategies for LMICs. For example, mosquito control in high-income countries is predominantly achieved with a combination of mosquito-proofed housing and environmental management, supplemented with large-scale insecticide applications to larval habitats and outdoor spaces that kill off vector populations en masse, but all these interventions remain underused in LMICs. Programmatic development and evaluation of decentralised, locally managed systems for delivering these proactive mosquito population abatement practices in LMICs could therefore enable broader scale-up. Furthermore, a diverse range of emerging or repurposed technologies are becoming available for targeting mosquitoes when they enter houses, feed outdoors, attack livestock, feed on sugar or aggregate into mating swarms. Global policy must now be realigned to mobilise the political and financial support necessary to exploit these opportunities over the decade ahead, so that national malaria control and elimination programmes can access a much broader, more effective set of vector control interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerry F Killeen
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences Department, Ifakara Health Institute, United Republic of Tanzania
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
| | - Allison Tatarsky
- Malaria Elimination Initiative, Global Health Group, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Abdoulaye Diabate
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé/Centre Muraz, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Carlos J Chaccour
- Instituto de Salud Global, Barcelona Centre for International Health Research (CRESIB), Hospital Clínic, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Instituto de Salud Tropical, Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - John M Marshall
- Divisions of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Fredros O Okumu
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences Department, Ifakara Health Institute, United Republic of Tanzania
- School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Shannon Brunner
- Malaria Elimination Initiative, Global Health Group, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Gretchen Newby
- Malaria Elimination Initiative, Global Health Group, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Yasmin A Williams
- Malaria Elimination Initiative, Global Health Group, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - David Malone
- Innovative Vector Control Consortium, Liverpool, UK
| | - Lucy S Tusting
- Oxford Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Roland D Gosling
- Malaria Elimination Initiative, Global Health Group, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
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Hamill L, Picozzi K, Fyfe J, von Wissmann B, Wastling S, Wardrop N, Selby R, Acup CA, Bardosh KL, Muhanguzi D, Kabasa JD, Waiswa C, Welburn SC. Evaluating the impact of targeting livestock for the prevention of human and animal trypanosomiasis, at village level, in districts newly affected with T. b. rhodesiense in Uganda. Infect Dis Poverty 2017; 6:16. [PMID: 28162093 PMCID: PMC5292814 DOI: 10.1186/s40249-016-0224-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Uganda has suffered from a series of epidemics of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), a tsetse transmitted disease, also known as sleeping sickness. The area affected by acute Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense HAT (rHAT) has been expanding, driven by importation of infected cattle into regions previously free of the disease. These regions are also affected by African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT) demanding a strategy for integrated disease control. Methods In 2008, the Public Private Partnership, Stamp Out Sleeping Sickness (SOS) administered a single dose of trypanocide to 31 486 head of cattle in 29 parishes in Dokolo and Kaberamaido districts. This study examines the impact of this intervention on the prevalence of rHAT and AAT trypanosomes in cattle from villages that had (HAT+ve) or had not (HAT-ve) experienced a recent case of rHAT. Cattle herds from 20 villages were sampled and screened by PCR, pre-intervention and 6-months post-intervention, for the presence or absence of: Trypanosoma brucei s.l.; human infective T. b. rhodesiense; Trypanosoma vivax; and Trypanosoma congolense savannah. Results Post-intervention, there was a significant decrease in the prevalence of T. brucei s.l. and the human infective sub-species T. b. rhodesiense in village cattle across all 20 villages. The prevalence of T. b. rhodesiense was reduced from 2.4% to 0.74% (P < 0.0001), with the intervention showing greater impact in HAT-ve villages. The number of villages containing cattle harbouring human infective parasites decreased from 15/20 to 8/20, with T. b. rhodesiense infection mainly persisting within cattle in HAT+ve villages (six/eight). The proportion of T. brucei s.l. infections identified as human infective T. b. rhodesiense decreased after the intervention from 8.3% (95% CI = 11.1–5.9%) to 4.1% (95% CI = 6.8–2.3%). Villages that had experienced a recent human case (HAT+ve villages) showed a significantly higher prevalence for AAT both pre- and post-intervention. For AAT the prevalence of T. vivax was significantly reduced from 5.9% to 0.05% post-intervention while the prevalence of T. congolense increased from 8.0% to 12.2%. Conclusions The intervention resulted in a significant decrease in the prevalence of T. brucei s.l., human infective T. b. rhodesiense and T. vivax infection in village cattle herds. The proportion of T. brucei s.l. that were human infective, decreased from 1:12 T. brucei s.l. infections before the intervention to 1:33 post-intervention. It is clearly more difficult to eliminate T. b. rhodesiense from cattle in villages that have experienced a human case. Evidence of elevated levels of AAT in livestock within village herds is a useful indicator of risk for rHAT in Uganda. Integrated veterinary and medical surveillance is key to successful control of zoonotic rHAT. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40249-016-0224-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Hamill
- Edinburgh Infectious Diseases, Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Kim Picozzi
- Edinburgh Infectious Diseases, Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Jenna Fyfe
- Edinburgh Infectious Diseases, Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Beatrix von Wissmann
- Edinburgh Infectious Diseases, Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Sally Wastling
- Edinburgh Infectious Diseases, Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Nicola Wardrop
- Edinburgh Infectious Diseases, Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Richard Selby
- Edinburgh Infectious Diseases, Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Christine Amongi Acup
- Edinburgh Infectious Diseases, Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Kevin L Bardosh
- Edinburgh Infectious Diseases, Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Dennis Muhanguzi
- Department of Pharmacy, Clinical and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - John D Kabasa
- Department of Pharmacy, Clinical and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Charles Waiswa
- Department of Pharmacy, Clinical and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.,The Coordinating Office for Control of Trypanosomiasis in Uganda (COCTU), Wandegeya, Plot 76/78 Buganda Road, P.O. Box 16345, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Susan C Welburn
- Edinburgh Infectious Diseases, Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK.
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Exploring the potential of using cattle for malaria vector surveillance and control: a pilot study in western Kenya. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:18. [PMID: 28069065 PMCID: PMC5223359 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1957-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 12/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Malaria vector mosquitoes with exophilic and zoophilic tendencies, or with a high acceptance of alternative blood meal sources when preferred human blood-hosts are unavailable, may help maintain low but constant malaria transmission in areas where indoor vector control has been scaled up. This residual transmission might be addressed by targeting vectors outside the house. Here we investigated the potential of insecticide-treated cattle, as routinely used for control of tsetse and ticks in East Africa, for mosquito control. Methods The malaria vector population in the study area was investigated weekly for 8 months using two different trapping tools: light traps indoors and cattle-baited traps (CBTs) outdoors. The effect of the application of the insecticide deltamethrin and the acaricide amitraz on cattle on host-seeking Anopheles arabiensis was tested experimentally in field-cages and the impact of deltamethrin-treated cattle explored under field conditions on mosquito densities on household level. Results CBTs collected on average 2.8 (95% CI: 1.8–4.2) primary [Anopheles gambiae (s.s.), An. arabiensis and An. funestus (s.s.)] and 6.3 (95% CI: 3.6–11.3) secondary malaria vectors [An. ivulorum and An. coustani (s.l.)] per trap night and revealed a distinct, complementary seasonality. At the same time on average only 1.4 (95% CI: 0.8–2.3) primary and 1.1 (95% CI: 0.6–2.0) secondary malaria vectors were collected per trap night with light traps indoors. Amitraz had no effect on survival of host-seeking An. arabiensis under experimental conditions but deltamethrin increased mosquito mortality (OR 19, 95% CI: 7–50), but only for 1 week. In the field, vector mortality in association with deltamethrin treatment was detected only with CBTs and only immediately after the treatment (OR 0.25, 95% CI: 0.13–0.52). Conclusions Entomological sampling with CBTs highlights that targeting cattle for mosquito control has potential since it would not only target naturally zoophilic malaria vectors but also opportunistic feeders that lack access to human hosts as is expected in residual malaria transmission settings. However, the deltamethrin formulation tested here although used widely to treat cattle for tsetse and tick control, is not suitable for the control of malaria vectors since it causes only moderate initial mortality and has little residual activity.
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Fyfe J, Picozzi K, Waiswa C, Bardosh KL, Welburn SC. Impact of mass chemotherapy in domestic livestock for control of zoonotic T. b. rhodesiense human African trypanosomiasis in Eastern Uganda. Acta Trop 2017; 165:216-229. [PMID: 27570206 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2016.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Revised: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) comprises two fatal parasitic diseases. Uganda is home to both chronic T. b. gambiense (gHAT) and the acute zoonotic form T. b. rhodesiense (rHAT) which occur in two large but discrete geographical foci. The area affected by rHAT has been rapidly expanding due to importation of T. b. rhodesiense infected cattle into tsetse infested but previously HAT free districts. Migration of rHAT has resulted in a considerable human health burden in these newly affected districts. Here, we examined the impact of a single, district-wide, mass chemotherapeutic livestock intervention, on T. b. rhodesiense prevalence in cattle and on incidence and distribution of human rHAT cases in Kamuli and Soroti districts in eastern Uganda. METHODS A single mass intervention in domestic cattle (n=30,900) using trypanocidal drugs was undertaken in November and December 2002 under the EU funded Farming in Tsetse Controlled Areas (FITCA) programme. The intervention targeted removal of the reservoir of infection i.e. human infective T. b. rhodesiense parasites in cattle, in the absence of tsetse control. Interventions were applied in high-risk sub-counties of Kamuli district (endemic for rHAT) and Soroti district (where rHAT has been recently introduced). The prevalence of T. brucei s.l. and the human infective subspecies, T. b. rhodesiense in cattle (n=1833) was assessed before and 3 and 12 months after intervention using PCR-based methods. A combination of descriptive statistical analysis and spatial scan statistics were applied to analyse rHAT cases reported over a 5-year period (January 2000-July 2005). RESULTS A single intervention was highly effective at removing human infective T. b. rhodesiense parasites from the cattle reservoir and contributed to a significant decrease in human rHAT cases. Intervention coverage was higher in Kamuli (81.1%) than in Soroti (47.3%) district but despite differences in coverage both districts showed a reduction in prevalence of T. b. brucei s.l. and T. b. rhodesiense. In Kamuli, the prevalence of T. brucei s.l. decreased by 54%, from 6.75% to 3.11%, 3, months post-intervention, rising to 4.7% at 12 months. The prevalence of T. b. rhodesiense was 3% pre-intervention and no T. b. rhodesiense infections were detected 3 and 12, months post-treatment. In Soroti, the prevalence of T. brucei s.l. in cattle decreased by 38% (from 21% to 13%) 3 months after intervention decreasing to less than 10% at 12 months. The prevalence of T. b. rhodesiense was reduced by 50% at 12-months post-intervention (6%-3%). Most notably, was the impact of the intervention on the population dynamics between T. b. brucei and human infective T. b. rhodesiense. Before intervention in Kamuli district 56% of T. b. brucei s.l. circulating in cattle were T. b. rhodesiense; at both 3 and 12 months after intervention none of the re-infecting T. b. brucei s.l. were human infective, T. rhodesiense. For human rHAT cases, there was a seven-fold decrease in rHAT incidence after intervention in Kamuli district (5.54 cases/1,000 head of population 2000-2002 to 0.76 cases/1,000, 2003-2005). Incidence data suggests that the intervention had minimal impact on the number of rHAT cases in Soroti overall, but showed a significant decrease in the seasonal peak of cases in the year following treatment. CONCLUSION A single intervention, targeted at cattle, introduced at district level, in the absence of tsetse control, was highly effective at removing human infective rHAT parasites from the cattle reservoir and contributed to a significant decrease in human rHAT cases. The differential impacts observed between the two districts are related to both the different stages of rHAT endemicity in the districts, and levels of intervention coverage achieved in the cattle population. Treatment of cattle to remove the reservoir of rHAT infection offers a promising and cost effective approach for the control of rHAT. It is important that cattle are treated before relocation to prevent possible merger of the two HAT foci, which would complicate diagnosis and treatment of both gHAT and rHAT.
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Acup C, Bardosh KL, Picozzi K, Waiswa C, Welburn SC. Factors influencing passive surveillance for T. b. rhodesiense human african trypanosomiasis in Uganda. Acta Trop 2017; 165:230-239. [PMID: 27212706 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2016.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Revised: 05/14/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Sleeping sickness or Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) is a neglected tropical disease of public health importance across much of Sub-Saharan Africa. In Uganda, chronic T. b. gambiense HAT (gHAT) and acute T. b. rhodesiense HAT (rHAT) occur in two large but discrete geographical foci. Both forms are difficult to diagnose, expensive to treat and ultimately fatal in the absence of treatment. The area affected by zoonotic rHAT has been steadily expanding, placing a high burden on local health systems. HAT is a disease of neglected populations and is notorious for being under-reported. Here we examine the factors that influence passive rHAT surveillance within the district health system in four Ugandan districts into which the disease had recently been introduced, focusing on staff knowledge, infrastructure and data management. METHODS A mixed methods study was undertaken between 2011 and 2013 in Dokolo, Kaberamaido, Soroti and Serere districts to explore health facility capacity and clinical service provision, diagnostic capacity, HAT knowledge and case reporting. Structured interviews were undertaken with 86 medical personnel, including clinicians, nurses, midwives and technicians across 65 HC-II and HC-III medical facilities, where the health infrastructure was also directly observed. Eleven semi-structured interviews were undertaken with medical staff in each of the three designated HAT treatment facilities (Dokolo, Lwala and Serere HC-IV) in the area. HAT treatment centre case records, collected between 2009 and 2012, were analyzed. RESULTS Most medical staff in HC-II and HC-III facilities had been made aware of HAT from radio broadcasts, newspapers and by word of mouth, suggestive of a lack of formal training. Key knowledge as regards the causative agent, clinical signs and that HAT drugs are provided free of charge was lower amongst HC-II than HC-III staff. Many respondents did not know whether HAT was endemic in their district. In rHAT specialist treatment centres, staff were knowledgeable of HAT and were confident in their ability to diagnose and manage cases. Between 2009-2012, 342 people were diagnosed in the area, 54% in the late stage of the disease. Over the period of this study the proportion of rHAT cases identified in early stage fell and by 2012 the majority of cases identified were diagnosed in the late stage. CONCLUSION This study illustrates the critical role of the district health system in HAT management. The increasing proportion of cases identified at a late stage in this study indicates a major gap in lower tier levels in patient referral, diagnosis and reporting that urgently needs to be addressed. Integrating HAT diagnosis into national primary healthcare programs and providing training to medical workers at all levels is central to the new 2030 WHO HAT elimination goal. Given the zoonotic nature of rHAT, joined up active surveillance in human and animal populations in Uganda is also needed. The role of the Coordinating Office for Control of Trypanosomiasis in Uganda in implementing a One Health approach will be key to sustainable management of zoonotic HAT.
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Meyer A, Holt HR, Selby R, Guitian J. Past and Ongoing Tsetse and Animal Trypanosomiasis Control Operations in Five African Countries: A Systematic Review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0005247. [PMID: 28027299 PMCID: PMC5222520 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Control operations targeting Animal African Trypanosomiasis and its primary vector, the tsetse, were covering approximately 128,000 km2 of Africa in 2001, which is a mere 1.3% of the tsetse infested area. Although extensive trypanosomiasis and tsetse (T&T) control operations have been running since the beginning of the 20th century, Animal African Trypanosomiasis is still a major constraint of livestock production in sub-Saharan Africa. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We performed a systematic review of the existing literature describing T&T control programmes conducted in a selection of five African countries, namely Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Uganda and Zambia, between 1980 and 2015. Sixty-eight documents were eventually selected from those identified by the database search. This was supplemented with information gathered through semi-structured interviews conducted with twelve key informants recruited in the study countries and selected based on their experience and knowledge of T&T control. The combined information from these two sources was used to describe the inputs, processes and outcomes from 23 major T&T control programmes implemented in the study countries. Although there were some data gaps, involvement of the target communities and sustainability of the control activities were identified as the two main issues faced by these programmes. Further, there was a lack of evaluation of these control programmes, as well as a lack of a standardised methodology to conduct such evaluations. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Past experiences demonstrated that coordinated and sustained control activities require careful planning, and evidence of successes, failures and setbacks from past control programmes represent a mine of information. As there is a lack of evaluation of these programmes, these data have not been fully exploited for the design, analyses and justification of future control programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Meyer
- Department of Production and Population Health, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Hannah R. Holt
- Department of Production and Population Health, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Selby
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Javier Guitian
- Department of Production and Population Health, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
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Welburn SC, Bardosh KL, Coleman PG. Novel Financing Model for Neglected Tropical Diseases: Development Impact Bonds Applied to Sleeping Sickness and Rabies Control. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0005000. [PMID: 27855156 PMCID: PMC5113866 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Susan Christina Welburn
- Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor’s Building, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Kevin Louis Bardosh
- Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor’s Building, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Gerard Coleman
- Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, Bloomsbury, London, United Kingdom
- H2O Venture Partners, United Kingdom
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Characterising and comparing animal-health services in the Rift Valley, Kenya: an exploratory analysis (part I). Trop Anim Health Prod 2016; 48:1621-1632. [PMID: 27614894 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-016-1136-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Livestock are of vital importance to the livelihoods of millions of people across the world, playing a pivotal role in income generation, employment, food security, transport and social cohesion. Access to quality animal-health services by livestock owners is critical to sustainable food-animal production; therefore, animal-health practitioners represent key stakeholders within the world food system. A mixed-method study was conducted in the Rift Valley of Kenya to characterise and compare existing private animal-health services and to explore perceptions of veterinary services amongst pastoralists and farmers. Forty structured questionnaires were administered to staff at animal-health outlets, including franchise outlets of 'Sidai Africa Ltd.', and two focus group discussions were facilitated to explore the perceptions of a Maasai pastoralist group and members of a dairy-farmer cooperative of their local animal-health services. Results were analysed using descriptive methods and the confidence interval overlap technique. Differences were detected in the characteristics of Sidai outlets, agrovets (agricultural retailers), pharmacies and dukas (general shops). Sidai outlets offered a more professional and diverse portfolio of livestock services. Across all outlet types, staff knowledge and training gaps and a shortage of cold-chain facilities were identified. Farmers have strong preferences for certain products, which may foster the development of drug resistance. There is a disconnection between the sale of veterinary medicines and the provision of quality advice, with many agrovets, pharmacies and dukas selling veterinary medicines but lacking the capacity to provide clinical services. There is a clear demand from livestock keepers for accessible, affordable and quality animal-health services and products in Kenya; therefore, animal-health practitioners have the potential to provide increased support to livestock-based livelihoods.
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Higham LE, Ongeri W, Asena K, Thrusfield MV. Characterising and comparing drug-dispensing practices at animal health outlets in the Rift Valley, Kenya: an exploratory analysis (part II). Trop Anim Health Prod 2016; 48:1633-1643. [PMID: 27580621 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-016-1137-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A mixed-method study was conducted in the Rift Valley of Kenya to characterise drug-dispensing practices amongst staff at animal health outlets and to explore perceptions of veterinary medicines amongst pastoralists and farmers. Forty structured questionnaires were administered to staff at animal health outlets, including franchise outlets of 'Sidai Africa Ltd.', and two focus group discussions were facilitated to explore the perceptions of local animal health services by a Maasai pastoralist group and a dairy farmer cooperative. Differences were detected in the characteristics of Sidai outlets, agrovets, pharmacies and dukas. A greater proportion of Sidai outlet staff selected drugs based on principles of responsible drug use than staff at other types of outlet, and technical qualifications and training were associated with responsible drug use. Across all outlet types, staff knowledge and training gaps were identified, including in the correct administration of medicines. The majority of drug sales are accompanied by verbal advice to farmers. Members of the Maasai pastoralist group were concerned about accidental self-medication, withdrawal periods, drug residues and the misuse of drugs due to a lack of quality information and advice. The dairy farmer group raised similar concerns, reporting under-dosing as a common mistake amongst farmers. This study concludes that current knowledge, attitudes and practices of many service providers and livestock owners in the sale, purchase and use of veterinary medicines present risks of drug misuse and therefore the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. There is a clear demand from livestock keepers for accessible, affordable and quality animal health services and products in Kenya, and animal health practitioners have the potential to provide increased support to livestock-based livelihoods and act as stewards of our existing portfolio of animal and human medicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- L E Higham
- FAI Farms Ltd, The Field Station, Wytham, Oxford, OX2 8QJ, UK. .,Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK.
| | - W Ongeri
- Sidai Africa Ltd., Nairobi, Kenya
| | - K Asena
- Sidai Africa Ltd., Nairobi, Kenya
| | - M V Thrusfield
- Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9RG, UK
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Vudriko P, Okwee-Acai J, Tayebwa DS, Byaruhanga J, Kakooza S, Wampande E, Omara R, Muhindo JB, Tweyongyere R, Owiny DO, Hatta T, Tsuji N, Umemiya-Shirafuji R, Xuan X, Kanameda M, Fujisaki K, Suzuki H. Emergence of multi-acaricide resistant Rhipicephalus ticks and its implication on chemical tick control in Uganda. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:4. [PMID: 26727991 PMCID: PMC4700616 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-1278-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Acaricide failure has been on the rise in the western and central cattle corridor of Uganda. In this study, we identified the tick species associated with acaricide failure and determined their susceptibility to various acaricide molecules used for tick control in Uganda. Methods In this cross sectional study, tick samples were collected and identified to species level from 54 purposively selected farms (from 17 districts) that mostly had a history of acaricide failure. Larval packet test was used to screen 31 tick populations from 30 farms for susceptibility at discriminating dose (DD) and 2 × DD of five panels of commercial acaricide molecules belonging to the following classes; amidine, synthetic pyrethroid (SP), organophosphate (OP) and OP-SP co-formulations (COF). Resistance was assessed based on World Health Organization criteria for screening insecticide resistance. Results Of the 1357 ticks identified, Rhipicephalus (Rhipicephalus) appendiculatus and Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus were the major (95.6 %) tick species in farms sampled. Resistance against SP was detected in 90.0 % (27/30) of the tick populations tested. Worryingly, 60.0 % (18/30) and 63.0 % (19/30) of the above ticks were super resistant (0 % mortality) against 2 × DD cypermethrin and deltamethrin, respectively. Resistance was also detected against COF (43.3 %), OP chlorfenvinphos (13.3 %) and amitraz (12.9 %). In two years, 74.1 % (20/27) of the farms had used two to three acaricide molecules, and 55.6 % (15/27) rotated the molecules wrongly. Multi-acaricide resistance (at least 2 molecules) was detected in 55.2 % (16/29) of the resistant Rhipicephalus ticks and significantly associated with R. decoloratus (p = 0.0133), use of both SP and COF in the last 2 years (p < 0.001) and Kiruhura district (p = 0.0339). Despite emergence of amitraz resistance in the greater Bushenyi area, it was the most efficacious molecule against SP and COF resistant ticks. Conclusion This study is the first to report emergence of super SP resistant and multi-acaricide resistant Rhipicephalus ticks in Uganda. Amitraz was the best acaricide against SP and COF resistant ticks. However, in the absence of technical interventions, farmer-led solutions aimed at troubleshooting for efficacy of multitude of acaricides at their disposal are expected to potentially cause negative collateral effects on future chemical tick control options, animal welfare and public health. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-015-1278-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Vudriko
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinics and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. .,Central Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. .,National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-Cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan.
| | - James Okwee-Acai
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinics and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Dickson Stuart Tayebwa
- Central Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Joseph Byaruhanga
- Central Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Steven Kakooza
- Central Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Edward Wampande
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinics and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. .,Central Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Robert Omara
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinics and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Jeanne Bukeka Muhindo
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinics and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. .,Drug Information Department, National Drug Authority, P. O. Box 23096, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Robert Tweyongyere
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinics and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. .,Central Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - David Okello Owiny
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinics and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. .,Directorate of Research and Graduate Training, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Takeshi Hatta
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agricultural and Food Research Organization, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856, Japan. .,Present Address: Department of Parasitology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kitasato, Minami-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0374, Japan.
| | - Naotoshi Tsuji
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agricultural and Food Research Organization, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856, Japan. .,Present Address: Department of Parasitology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kitasato, Minami-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0374, Japan.
| | - Rika Umemiya-Shirafuji
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-Cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan.
| | - Xuenan Xuan
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-Cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan.
| | - Masaharu Kanameda
- Central Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. .,Present Address: Japan International Cooperation Agency, Nibancho Center Building, 5-25, Nibancho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 108-8012, Japan.
| | - Kozo Fujisaki
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agricultural and Food Research Organization, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856, Japan.
| | - Hiroshi Suzuki
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada-Cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan.
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES Human migration and concomitant HIV infections are likely to bring about major changes in the epidemiology of zoonotic parasitic infections. Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) control is particularly fraught with intricacies. The primarily zoonotic form, T.b. rhodesiense, and the non-zoonotic T.b. gambiense co-exist in Northern Uganda, leading to a potential geographic and genetic overlap of the two foci. This region also has the highest HIV prevalence in Uganda plus poor food security. We examine the bottlenecks facing the control program in a changed political and economic context. METHOD We searched the literature in July 2015 using three databases: MEDLINE, Google Scholar, and Web of Science. FINDINGS Decentralized zoonotic HAT control for animal reservoirs and vectors compromise sustainability of the control programs. Human transmission potential may be underestimated in a region with other endemic diseases and where an HIV-HAT epidemic, could merge two strains. CONCLUSION Our comprehensive literature review concludes that enhanced collaboration is imperative not only between human and animal health specialists, but also with political science. Multi-sectorial collaborations may need to be nurtured within existing operational national HIV prevention frameworks, with an integrated surveillance framework.
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Okello WO, Muhanguzi D, MacLeod ET, Welburn SC, Waiswa C, Shaw AP. Contribution of draft cattle to rural livelihoods in a district of southeastern Uganda endemic for bovine parasitic diseases: an economic evaluation. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:571. [PMID: 26542357 PMCID: PMC4635562 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-1191-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A study was conducted in Tororo District in eastern Uganda to assess the socio-economic contribution of draft cattle to rural livelihoods. The aim of the study was to empirically quantify the economic value of draft cattle thus contributing to understanding the impact of endemic parasitic diseases of cattle on livestock productivity and subsequently household income, labor and food security. Method A total of 205 draft cattle keeping households (n = 205) were randomly selected and structured household questionnaires were administered, focusing on work oxen use, productivity, inputs and outputs. The data obtained was analyzed using standard statistical methods and used to calculate the gross margin from the draft cattle enterprise. Secondary data were obtained from focus group discussions and key informant interviews and these were analyzed using Bayesian methods. Results The study showed that, apart from being labor saving, the use of animal traction is highly profitable with the gross margin per year from the use of draft cattle amounting to 245 United States dollars per work oxen owning household. The cash obtained from hiring out draft animals was equivalent to nearly a quarter of the average local household’s monetary receipts. It also revealed that endemic bovine parasitic diseases such as trypanosomiasis and tick-borne diseases reduced draft cattle output by 20.9 % and potential household income from the use of draft oxen by 32.2 %. Conclusion The presence of endemic cattle diseases in rural Uganda is adversely affecting the productivity of draft cattle, which in turn affects household income, labor and ultimately food security. This study highlights the contribution of draft cattle to rural livelihoods, thus increasing the expected impact of cost-effective control strategies of endemic production limiting livestock diseases in Uganda.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter O Okello
- Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
| | - Dennis Muhanguzi
- Department of Biomolecular and Biolaboratory Sciences, School of Biosecurity, Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Ewan T MacLeod
- Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
| | - Susan C Welburn
- Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
| | - Charles Waiswa
- Department of Biomolecular and Biolaboratory Sciences, School of Biosecurity, Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
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Trypanosoma Infection Rates in Glossina Species in Mtito Andei Division, Makueni County, Kenya. J Parasitol Res 2015; 2015:607432. [PMID: 26617992 PMCID: PMC4649094 DOI: 10.1155/2015/607432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Revised: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT) transmitted cyclically by tsetse fly (Glossina spp.) is a major obstacle to livestock production in the tropical parts of Africa. The objective of this study was to determine the infection rates of trypanosomes in Glossina species in Mtito Andei Division, Makueni County, Kenya. Tsetse fly species, G. longipennis and G. pallidipes, were trapped and DNA was isolated from their dissected internal organs (proboscis, salivary glands, and midguts). The DNA was then subjected to a nested PCR assay using internal transcribed spacer primers and individual trypanosome species were identified following agarose gel electrophoresis. Out of the 117 flies trapped in the area 39 (33.3%) were teneral while 78 (67%) were nonteneral. G. pallidipes constituted the largest percentage of 58% while G. longipennis were 42%. The overall trypanosomes infection rate in all nonteneral Glossina spp. was 11.53% with G. longipennis recording the highest infection rate of 23.08% while G. pallidipes had an infection rate of 5.77%. T. vivax was the most infectious (10.26%) compared to T. congolense (1.28%). Mean apparent densities were strongly positively correlated with infection rates (r = 0.95) confirming the importance of this parameter as an indicator of AAT transmission risk.
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Bardosh KL. Deadly Flies, Poor Profits, and Veterinary Pharmaceuticals: Sustaining the Control of Sleeping Sickness in Uganda. Med Anthropol 2015; 35:338-52. [DOI: 10.1080/01459740.2015.1101461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Okello AL, Welburn SC. The importance of veterinary policy in preventing the emergence and re-emergence of zoonotic disease: examining the case of human african trypanosomiasis in Uganda. Front Public Health 2014; 2:218. [PMID: 25405148 PMCID: PMC4217318 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2014.00218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2014] [Accepted: 10/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapid changes in human behavior, resource utilization, and other extrinsic environmental factors continue to threaten the current distribution of several endemic and historically neglected zoonoses in many developing regions worldwide. There are numerous examples of zoonotic diseases which have circulated within relatively localized geographical areas for some time, before emerging into new regions as a result of changing human, environmental, or behavioral dynamics. While the world’s focus is currently on the Ebola virus gaining momentum in western Africa, another pertinent example of this phenomenon is zoonotic human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), endemic to south and eastern Africa, and spread via infected cattle. In recent years, the ongoing northwards spread of this disease in the country has posed a serious public health threat to the human population of Uganda, increasing the pressure on both individual families and government services to control the disease. Moreover, the emergence of HAT into new areas of Uganda in recent years exemplifies the important role of veterinary policy in mitigating the severe human health and economic impacts of zoonotic disease. The systemic challenges surrounding the development and enforcement of veterinary policy described here are similar across sub-Saharan Africa, highlighting the necessity to consider and support zoonotic disease control in broader human and animal health systems strengthening and associated development programs on the continent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna L Okello
- Division of Pathway Medicine, Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh , Edinburgh , UK
| | - Susan C Welburn
- Division of Pathway Medicine, Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh , Edinburgh , UK
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Bardosh K. Global aspirations, local realities: the role of social science research in controlling neglected tropical diseases. Infect Dis Poverty 2014; 3:35. [PMID: 25320672 PMCID: PMC4197218 DOI: 10.1186/2049-9957-3-35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2014] [Accepted: 09/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) are both drivers and manifestations of poverty and social inequality. Increased advocacy efforts since the mid-2000s have led to ambitious new control and elimination targets set for 2020 by the World Health Organisation. While these global aspirations represent significant policy momentum, there are multifaceted challenges in controlling infectious diseases in resource-poor local contexts that need to be acknowledged, understood and engaged. However a number of recent publications have emphasised the “neglected” status of applied social science research on NTDs. In light of the 2020 targets, this paper explores the social science/NTD literature and unpacks some of the ways in which social inquiry can help support effective and sustainable interventions. Five priority areas are discussed, including on policy processes, health systems capacity, compliance and resistance to interventions, education and behaviour change, and community participation. The paper shows that despite the multifaceted value of having anthropological and sociological perspectives integrated into NTD programmes, contemporary efforts underutilise this potential. This is reflective of the dominance of top-down information flows and technocratic approaches in global health. To counter this tendency, social research needs to be more than an afterthought; integrating social inquiry into the planning, monitoring and evaluating process will help ensure that flexibility and adaptability to local realities are built into interventions. More emphasis on social science perspectives can also help link NTD control to broader social determinants of health, especially important given the major social and economic inequalities that continue to underpin transmission in endemic countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Bardosh
- Centre of African Studies, School of Social and Political Science, College of Humanities and Social Science, The University of Edinburgh, 58 George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9LD UK ; Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB UK
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Mackey TK, Liang BA, Cuomo R, Hafen R, Brouwer KC, Lee DE. Emerging and reemerging neglected tropical diseases: a review of key characteristics, risk factors, and the policy and innovation environment. Clin Microbiol Rev 2014; 27:949-79. [PMID: 25278579 PMCID: PMC4187634 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00045-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In global health, critical challenges have arisen from infectious diseases, including the emergence and reemergence of old and new infectious diseases. Emergence and reemergence are accelerated by rapid human development, including numerous changes in demographics, populations, and the environment. This has also led to zoonoses in the changing human-animal ecosystem, which are impacted by a growing globalized society where pathogens do not recognize geopolitical borders. Within this context, neglected tropical infectious diseases have historically lacked adequate attention in international public health efforts, leading to insufficient prevention and treatment options. This subset of 17 infectious tropical diseases disproportionately impacts the world's poorest, represents a significant and underappreciated global disease burden, and is a major barrier to development efforts to alleviate poverty and improve human health. Neglected tropical diseases that are also categorized as emerging or reemerging infectious diseases are an even more serious threat and have not been adequately examined or discussed in terms of their unique risk characteristics. This review sets out to identify emerging and reemerging neglected tropical diseases and explore the policy and innovation environment that could hamper or enable control efforts. Through this examination, we hope to raise awareness and guide potential approaches to addressing this global health concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim K Mackey
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA Division of Global Public Health, University of California, San Diego, Department of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Bryan A Liang
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Raphael Cuomo
- Joint Doctoral Program in Global Public Health, University of California, San Diego, and San Diego State University, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Ryan Hafen
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA Internal Medicine, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Kimberly C Brouwer
- Division of Global Public Health, University of California, San Diego, Department of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Daniel E Lee
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA Pediatrics Department, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA
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Bardosh K, Inthavong P, Xayaheuang S, Okello AL. Controlling parasites, understanding practices: the biosocial complexity of a One Health intervention for neglected zoonotic helminths in northern Lao PDR. Soc Sci Med 2014; 120:215-23. [PMID: 25261615 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2014] [Revised: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 09/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A parasitological survey in northern Lao PDR showed a remote ethnic minority village to be hyper-endemic for Taenia solium, a Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) that impacts human and pig health. An intervention combining human Mass Drug Administration (MDA) with porcine vaccination and antihelmintic treatment was then implemented, targeting both T. solium and other soil-transmitted helminths. To understand the biosocial complexity of this integrated One Health intervention, we conducted a rapid ethnographic study exploring the transmission dynamics of T. solium and locally acceptable long-term control options. Informed by two years of project work in the village, this included six focus group discussions, 35 semi-structured interviews, a latrine survey, a school-based education meeting, participant observation and many unstructured interviews conducted over two weeks in October 2013. We found that risk behaviours were mediated by various social determinants including limited market access, interrelationships between alcohol, ancestral sacrifices and the consumption of raw pork, seasonal variations and poor latrine coverage. Only sixteen percent of households had latrines, attributed to the unacceptability of dry latrines, lack of water access, poor building techniques and poverty. Whilst women could explain T. solium transmission, most men and children could not, revealing that distributed posters/leaflets relied too heavily on text and ambiguous images. Compliance with MDA was high due to trust between project staff and village leaders. However understandings of pharmacology, minor side effects, human migration and children's fear of worms may lead to resistance in future programmes. Our research highlights the complexities of controlling T. solium and other soil-transmitted helminths in a remote ethnic minority village and the need to integrate biomedical and participatory approaches. Although we showcase the heuristic value of using rapid ethnography to inform intervention strategies as part of a One Health/NTD agenda, we also identify several possible paradoxes and conundrums in embedding locally-grounded biosocial analysis into NTD programmes. These need to be acknowledged and negotiated by multidisciplinary teams.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Bardosh
- School of Social and Political Science, The University of Edinburgh, 58 George Square, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
| | - Phouth Inthavong
- National Animal Health Laboratory, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Department of Livestock and Fisheries, Luang Prabang Road, Ban Huanmouang, Vientiane Capital, Lao Democratic People's Republic
| | - Sivilai Xayaheuang
- CSIRO Animal, Food and Health Sciences, Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL) Regional Programme, 5 Portarlington Road, East Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Anna L Okello
- National Animal Health Laboratory, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Department of Livestock and Fisheries, Luang Prabang Road, Ban Huanmouang, Vientiane Capital, Lao Democratic People's Republic; CSIRO Animal, Food and Health Sciences, Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL) Regional Programme, 5 Portarlington Road, East Geelong, Victoria, Australia
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Muhanguzi D, Picozzi K, Hatendorf J, Thrusfield M, Welburn SC, Kabasa JD, Waiswa C. Collateral benefits of restricted insecticide application for control of African trypanosomiasis on Theileria parva in cattle: a randomized controlled trial. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:432. [PMID: 25199409 PMCID: PMC4262232 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tick and tsetse-borne diseases (TTBDs) constrain livestock production in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Of this community of endemic diseases, East coast fever (T.parva) is the most important tick-borne disease (TBD) accounting for 70% of all losses due to TBDS in this region where control efforts target either tsetse or TBDs and seldom both. In those instances where simultaneous pyrethroid insecticide TTBD control is implemented, collateral benefits of tsetse control on TBD control have not been quantified. In the interest of guiding future TTBD control efforts, the effect of restricting pyrethroid insecticides to the legs, belly and ears (RAP) of cattle for tsetse and trypanosomiasis control on T.parva prevalence in crop-livestock production systems in Tororo district, south-eastern Uganda was determined. Methods We randomly allocated 16 villages to diminazene diaceturate (DA) and 3 graded RAP (25%, 50% and 75% of village herd sprayed respectively) treatment regimens. All cattle were ear-tagged, treated with diminazene diaceturate (DA) and those in regimens 2-4 received monthly graded RAP. Blood samples taken fourteen days post DA treatment and once three monthly were analysed by molecular techniques for T.parva. Results In total, 8,975 samples from 3,084 animals were analysed. Prevalence of T.parva varied between 1-3% in different treatment regimens. RAP regimens were associated with slightly lower average risk of infection compared to DA. However, the confidence interval was broad and the result was not statistically significant. There was no evidence of a dose response relationship between graded RAP and T.parva prevalence. These findings are discussed herein with regard to endemic stability development to different TBDs. Conclusions We found only a slight effect of RAP on T.parva infection. Since sample size determination was based on trypanosomes incidence, the study was underpowered given the low T.parva prevalence. While the findings need to be confirmed in future studies, the observed slight reduction in the risk of infection with T.parva might not compromise endemic stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Muhanguzi
- Department of Biomolecular and Biolaboratory Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P,O, Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
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Kabi F, Masembe C, Muwanika V, Kirunda H, Negrini R. Geographic distribution of non-clinical Theileria parva infection among indigenous cattle populations in contrasting agro-ecological zones of Uganda: implications for control strategies. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:414. [PMID: 25175844 PMCID: PMC4261563 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Non-clinical Theileria parva infection among indigenous cattle occurs upon recovery from primary disease during the first year of life. Continuous exposure to infection through contaminated tick infestations with absence of clinical disease gives rise to endemic stability. Endemic stable populations may become sources of infection if contaminated tick vectors are shared with susceptible exotic cattle. This study aimed at establishing a nationwide distribution of non-clinical T. parva infection among indigenous cattle populations to inform novel control strategies. METHODS The occurrence of non-clinical T. parva infection among apparently healthy 925 indigenous cattle from 209 herds spread out in 10 agro-ecological zones (AEZs) was determined using a nested PCR assay. The influence of AEZ, breed, sex, age and farmers' ranking of ECF importance were interrogated for influence of non-clinical parasite occurrence. RESULTS The overall prevalence of non-clinical T. parva infection was 30% (278/925). A gradual increase of non-clinical T. parva infection was observed ranging from 17% (95% CI: 0.03-0.23) to 43% (95% CI: 0.3-0.55) in the North Eastern Savannah Grasslands (NESG) to the Western Highland Ranges (WHR) respectively. A similarly associated 18% (95% CI: 0.07-0.28) and 35% (95% CI: 0.3-0.39) non-clinical parasite prevalence was observed among the East African shorthorn Zebu (EASZ) and Ankole cattle respectively. Average herd level non-clinical T. parva prevalence was 28%, ranging from zero to 100%. The likelihood of non-clinical T. parva infection was 35.5% greater in the western highlands compared to the northeastern semi-arid AEZs. CONCLUSIONS Non-clinical T. parva occurs countrywide, structured along patterns of AEZ and breed gradients. These findings may guide policy formulation, deployment of integrated control strategies and local cattle improvement programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrick Kabi
- Department of Environmental Management, Molecular Genetics Laboratory, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Makerere University, P,O, Box 7062/7298 Kampala, Uganda.
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Franco AO, Gomes MGM, Rowland M, Coleman PG, Davies CR. Controlling malaria using livestock-based interventions: a one health approach. PLoS One 2014; 9:e101699. [PMID: 25050703 PMCID: PMC4106824 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0101699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2013] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Where malaria is transmitted by zoophilic vectors, two types of malaria control strategies have been proposed based on animals: using livestock to divert vector biting from people (zooprophylaxis) or as baits to attract vectors to insecticide sources (insecticide-treated livestock). Opposing findings have been obtained on malaria zooprophylaxis, and despite the success of an insecticide-treated livestock trial in Pakistan, where malaria vectors are highly zoophilic, its effectiveness is yet to be formally tested in Africa where vectors are more anthropophilic. This study aims to clarify the different effects of livestock on malaria and to understand under what circumstances livestock-based interventions could play a role in malaria control programmes. This was explored by developing a mathematical model and combining it with data from Pakistan and Ethiopia. Consistent with previous work, a zooprophylactic effect of untreated livestock is predicted in two situations: if vector population density does not increase with livestock introduction, or if livestock numbers and availability to vectors are sufficiently high such that the increase in vector density is counteracted by the diversion of bites from humans to animals. Although, as expected, insecticide-treatment of livestock is predicted to be more beneficial in settings with highly zoophilic vectors, like South Asia, we find that the intervention could also considerably decrease malaria transmission in regions with more anthropophilic vectors, like Anopheles arabiensis in Africa, under specific circumstances: high treatment coverage of the livestock population, using a product with stronger or longer lasting insecticidal effect than in the Pakistan trial, and with small (ideally null) repellency effect, or if increasing the attractiveness of treated livestock to malaria vectors. The results suggest these are the most appropriate conditions for field testing insecticide-treated livestock in an Africa region with moderately zoophilic vectors, where this intervention could contribute to the integrated control of malaria and livestock diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana O. Franco
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Mark Rowland
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Paul G. Coleman
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Clive R. Davies
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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Bardosh K, Sambo M, Sikana L, Hampson K, Welburn SC. Eliminating rabies in Tanzania? Local understandings and responses to mass dog vaccination in Kilombero and Ulanga districts. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2935. [PMID: 24945697 PMCID: PMC4063706 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 04/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND With increased global attention to neglected diseases, there has been a resurgence of interest in eliminating rabies from developing countries through mass dog vaccination. Tanzania recently embarked on an ambitious programme to repeatedly vaccinate dogs in 28 districts. To understand community perceptions and responses to this programme, we conducted an anthropological study exploring the relationships between dogs, society, geography and project implementation in the districts of Kilombero and Ulanga, Southern Tanzania. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Over three months in 2012, we combined the use of focus groups, semi-structured interviews, a household questionnaire and a population-based survey. Willingness to participate in vaccination was mediated by fear of rabies, high medical treatment costs and the threat of dog culling, as well as broader notions of social responsibility. However, differences between town, rural and (agro-) pastoralist populations in livelihood patterns and dog ownership impacted coverage in ways that were not well incorporated into project planning. Coverage in six selected villages was estimated at 25%, well below official estimates. A variety of problems with campaign mobilisation, timing, the location of central points, equipment and staff, and project organisation created barriers to community compliance. Resource-limitations and institutional norms limited the ability for district staff to adapt implementation strategies. CONCLUSIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE In the shadows of resource and institutional limitations in the veterinary sector in Africa, top-down interventions for neglected zoonotic diseases likes rabies need to more explicitly engage with project organisation, capacity and community participation. Greater attention to navigating local realities in planning and implementation is essential to ensuring that rabies, and other neglected diseases, are controlled sustainably.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Bardosh
- Centre of African Studies, School of Social and Political Science, College of Humanities and Social Science, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Maganga Sambo
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences Thematic Group, Ifakara Health Institute, Ifakara, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Lwitiko Sikana
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences Thematic Group, Ifakara Health Institute, Ifakara, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Katie Hampson
- Boyd Orr Centre for Population and Ecosystem Health, Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Susan C. Welburn
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Abbas RZ, Zaman MA, Colwell DD, Gilleard J, Iqbal Z. Acaricide resistance in cattle ticks and approaches to its management: The state of play. Vet Parasitol 2014; 203:6-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2013] [Revised: 03/02/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Muhanguzi D, Picozzi K, Hatendorf J, Thrusfield M, Welburn SC, Kabasa JD, Waiswa C. Prevalence and spatial distribution of Theileria parva in cattle under crop-livestock farming systems in Tororo District, Eastern Uganda. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:91. [PMID: 24589227 PMCID: PMC3973879 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-91] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tick-borne diseases (TBDs) present a major economic burden to communities across East Africa. Farmers in East Africa must use acaracides to target ticks and prevent transmission of tick-borne diseases such as anaplasmosis, babesiosis, cowdriosis and theileriosis; the major causes of cattle mortality and morbidity. The costs of controlling East Coast Fever (ECF), caused by Theileria parva, in Uganda are significant and measures taken to control ticks, to be cost-effective, should take into account the burden of disease. The aim of the present work was to estimate the burden presented by T. parva and its spatial distribution in a crop-livestock production system in Eastern Uganda. Methods A cross sectional study was carried out to determine the prevalence and spatial distribution of T. parva in Tororo District, Uganda. Blood samples were taken from all cattle (n: 2,658) in 22 randomly selected villages across Tororo District from September to December 2011. Samples were analysed by PCR and T. parva prevalence and spatial distribution determined. Results The overall prevalence of T. parva was found to be 5.3%. Herd level prevalence ranged from 0% to 21% with majority of the infections located in the North, North-Eastern and South-Eastern parts of Tororo District. No statistically significant differences in risk of infection were found between age classes, sex and cattle breed. Conclusions T. parva infection is widely distributed in Tororo District, Uganda. The prevalence and distribution of T. parva is most likely determined by spatial distribution of R. appendiculatus, restricted grazing of calves and preferential tick control targeting draft animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Muhanguzi
- College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P,O, Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
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Hamill LC, Kaare MT, Welburn SC, Picozzi K. Domestic pigs as potential reservoirs of human and animal trypanosomiasis in Northern Tanzania. Parasit Vectors 2013; 6:322. [PMID: 24499540 PMCID: PMC3843548 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pig keeping is becoming increasingly common across sub-Saharan Africa. Domestic pigs from the Arusha region of northern Tanzania were screened for trypanosomes using PCR-based methods to examine the role of pigs as a reservoir of human and animal trypanosomiasis. METHODS A total of 168 blood samples were obtained from domestic pigs opportunistically sampled across four districts in Tanzania (Babati, Mbulu, Arumeru and Dodoma) during December 2004. A suite of PCR-based methods was used to identify the species and sub-species of trypanosomes including: Internally Transcribed Sequence to identify multiple species; species specific PCR to identify T. brucei s. l. and T. godfreyi and a multiplex PCR reaction to distinguish T. b. rhodesiense from T. brucei s. l. RESULTS Of the 168 domestic pigs screened for animal and human infective trypanosome DNA, 28 (16.7%) were infected with one or more species of trypanosome; these included: six pigs infected with Trypanosoma vivax (3.6%); three with Trypanosoma simiae (1.8%); two with Trypanosoma congolense (Forest) (1%) and four with Trypanosoma godfreyi (2.4%). Nineteen pigs were infected with Trypanosoma brucei s. l. (10.1%) of which eight were identified as carrying the human infective sub-species Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (4.8%). CONCLUSION These results show that in Tanzania domestic pigs may act as a significant reservoir for animal trypanosomiasis including the cattle pathogens T. vivax and T. congolense, the pig pathogen T. simiae, and provide a significant reservoir for T. b. rhodesiense, the causative agent of acute Rhodesian sleeping sickness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise C Hamill
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Magai T Kaare
- Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Susan C Welburn
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Kim Picozzi
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
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Selby R, Bardosh K, Picozzi K, Waiswa C, Welburn SC. Cattle movements and trypanosomes: restocking efforts and the spread of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness in post-conflict Uganda. Parasit Vectors 2013; 6:281. [PMID: 24289452 PMCID: PMC3851531 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The northwards spread of acute T. b. rhodesiense sleeping sickness in Uganda has been linked to cattle movements associated with restocking following the end to military conflict in 2006. This study examined the number of cattle traded from T. b. rhodesiense endemic districts, the prevalence of the parasite in cattle being traded and the level of trypanocidal treatment at livestock markets. Methods Between 2008 and 2009 interviews were carried out with government veterinarians from 20 districts in Uganda, 18 restocking organisations and numerous livestock traders and veterinarians. Direct observations, a review of movement permit records (2006 to 2008) and blood sampling of cattle (n = 1758) for detection of parasites were also conducted at 10 livestock markets in T. b. rhodesiense endemic districts. Results Records available from 8 out of 47 identified markets showed that 39.5% (5,238/13,267) of the inter-district cattle trade between mid-2006 and mid-2008 involved movement from endemic areas to pathogen-free districts. PCR analysis showed a prevalence of 17.5% T. brucei s.l. (n = 307/1758 [95% CI: 15.7-19.2]) and 1.5% T. b. rhodesiense (n = 26/1758 [95% CI: 0.9-2.0]) from these same markets. In a two-year period, between late-2006 to late-2008, an estimated 72,321 to 86,785 cattle (57, 857 by 18 restocking organisations and 10,214 to 24,679 by private traders) were imported into seven pathogen-free northern districts, including districts that were endemic for T. b. gambiense. Between 281 and 1,302 of these cattle were likely to have carried T. b. rhodesiense. While governmental organisations predominantly adhered to trypanocidal treatment, most Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and private traders did not. Inadequate market infrastructure, poor awareness, the need for payment for drug treatments, and the difficulty in enforcing a policy of treatment at point of sale contributed to non-compliance. Conclusion With increasing private trade, preventing the spread of Rhodesian sleeping sickness in Uganda requires government support to ensure mandatory trypanocidal treatment at livestock markets, investment in market infrastructure and possible drug subsidy. Mapping the northern reaches of T. b. rhodesiense in livestock and preparation of risk assessments for cattle trading could mitigate future outbreaks.
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