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Gaspari S, Akkermans S, Akritidou T, Whelan R, Devine F, Van Impe JFM. Interference of gastrointestinal barriers with antibiotic susceptibility of foodborne pathogens: an in vitro case study of ciprofloxacin and tetracycline against Salmonella enterica and Listeria monocytogenes. Food Res Int 2024; 188:114491. [PMID: 38823842 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) assays are often questioned for their representativeness. Especially when foodborne pathogens are tested, it is of crucial importance to also consider parameters of the human digestive system. Hence, the current study aimed to assess the inhibitory capacity of two antibiotics, ciprofloxacin and tetracycline, against Salmonella enterica and Listeria monocytogenes, under representative environmental conditions. More specifically, aspects of the harsh environment of the human gastrointestinal tract (GIT) were gradually added to the experimental conditions starting from simple aerobic lab conditions into an in vitro simulation of the GIT. In this way, the effects of parameters including the anoxic environment, physicochemical conditions of the GIT (low gastric pH, digestive enzymes, bile acids) and the gut microbiota were evaluated. The latter was simulated by including a representative consortium of selected gut bacteria species. In this study, the MIC of the two antibiotics against the relevant foodborne pathogens were established, under the previously mentioned environmental conditions. The results of S. enterica highlighted the importance of the anaerobic environment when conducting such studies, since the pathogen thrived under such conditions. Inclusion of physicochemical barriers led to exactly opposite results for S. enterica and L. monocytogenes since the former became more susceptible to ciprofloxacin while the latter showed lower susceptibility towards tetracycline. Finally, the inclusion of gut bacteria had a bactericidal effect against L. monocytogenes even in the absence of antibiotics, while gut bacteria protected S. enterica from the effect of ciprofloxacin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sotiria Gaspari
- BioTeC(+), Chemical and Biochemical Process Technology and Control, KU Leuven, Gent, Belgium
| | - Simen Akkermans
- BioTeC(+), Chemical and Biochemical Process Technology and Control, KU Leuven, Gent, Belgium
| | - Theodora Akritidou
- BioTeC(+), Chemical and Biochemical Process Technology and Control, KU Leuven, Gent, Belgium
| | - Rory Whelan
- BioTeC(+), Chemical and Biochemical Process Technology and Control, KU Leuven, Gent, Belgium; School of Biological, Health and Sport Sciences, Technological University Dublin, Ireland
| | - Faye Devine
- BioTeC(+), Chemical and Biochemical Process Technology and Control, KU Leuven, Gent, Belgium; School of Biological, Health and Sport Sciences, Technological University Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jan F M Van Impe
- BioTeC(+), Chemical and Biochemical Process Technology and Control, KU Leuven, Gent, Belgium.
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2
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Akritidou T, Akkermans S, Smet C, Delens V, Van Impe JFM. Effect of food structure and buffering capacity on pathogen survival during in vitro digestion. Food Res Int 2023; 164:112305. [PMID: 36737908 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.112305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Even though a plethora of barriers are employed by the human gastrointestinal tract (GIT) to cope with invading pathogens, foodborne diseases are still a common problem. The survival of food pathogens in the GIT is known to depend on food carrier properties. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of food buffering capacity and food structure on the survival of Salmonella Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes during simulated digestion, following contamination of different food model systems that had different combinations of fat and protein content. The results illustrated the strong protective properties of proteins, acting either as a strong buffering agent or as a physical barrier against gastric acidity, for both pathogens. In comparison, fat manifested a lower buffering capacity and weaker protective effects against the two pathogens. Intriguingly, a low fat content was often linked with increased microbial resistance. Nonetheless, both pathogens survived their transit through the simulated GIT in all cases, with S. Typhimurium exhibiting growth during intestinal digestion and L.monocytogenes demonstrating a healthy residual population at the end of the intestinal phase. These results corroborate the need for a deeper understanding regarding the mechanisms with which food affects bacterial survival in the human GIT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodora Akritidou
- BioTeC+, Chemical and Biochemical Process Technology and Control, Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Simen Akkermans
- BioTeC+, Chemical and Biochemical Process Technology and Control, Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Cindy Smet
- BioTeC+, Chemical and Biochemical Process Technology and Control, Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Valérie Delens
- BioTeC+, Chemical and Biochemical Process Technology and Control, Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jan F M Van Impe
- BioTeC+, Chemical and Biochemical Process Technology and Control, Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Ghent, Belgium.
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3
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Effect of gastric pH and bile acids on the survival of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella Typhimurium during simulated gastrointestinal digestion. INNOV FOOD SCI EMERG 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ifset.2022.103161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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4
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Antequera‐Gómez ML, Díaz‐Martínez L, Guadix JA, Sánchez‐Tévar AM, Sopeña‐Torres S, Hierrezuelo J, Doan HK, Leveau JH, de Vicente A, Romero D. Sporulation is dispensable for the vegetable-associated life cycle of the human pathogen Bacillus cereus. Microb Biotechnol 2021; 14:1550-1565. [PMID: 33955675 PMCID: PMC8313275 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.13816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacillus cereus is a common food-borne pathogen that is responsible for important outbreaks of food poisoning in humans. Diseases caused by B. cereus usually exhibit two major symptoms, emetic or diarrheic, depending on the toxins produced. It is assumed that after the ingestion of contaminated vegetables or processed food, spores of enterotoxigenic B. cereus reach the intestine, where they germinate and produce the enterotoxins that are responsible for food poisoning. In our study, we observed that sporulation is required for the survival of B. cereus in leaves but is dispensable in ready-to-eat vegetables, such as endives. We demonstrate that vegetative cells of B. cereus that are originally impaired in sporulation but not biofilm formation are able to reach the intestine and cause severe disorders in a murine model. Furthermore, our findings emphasise that the number of food poisoning cases associated with B. cereus is underestimated and suggest the need to revise the detection protocols, which are based primarily on spores and toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Luisa Antequera‐Gómez
- Departamento de MicrobiologíaInstituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea "La Mayora"Universidad de Málaga‐Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM‐UMA‐CSIC)Universidad de MálagaBulevar Louis Pasteur 31 (Campus Universitario de teatinos)Málaga29071Spain
| | - Luis Díaz‐Martínez
- Departamento de MicrobiologíaInstituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea "La Mayora"Universidad de Málaga‐Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM‐UMA‐CSIC)Universidad de MálagaBulevar Louis Pasteur 31 (Campus Universitario de teatinos)Málaga29071Spain
| | - Juan Antonio Guadix
- Departamento de Biología AnimalFacultad de CienciasUniversidad de Málaga ‐ IBIMACampus de Teatinos s/nMálaga29071Spain
- Centro Andaluz de Nanomedicina y Biotecnología (BIONAND)Junta de AndalucíaUniversidad de MálagaC/ Severo Ochoa 35Campanillas (Málaga)29590Spain
| | - Ana María Sánchez‐Tévar
- Departamento de Biología AnimalFacultad de CienciasUniversidad de Málaga ‐ IBIMACampus de Teatinos s/nMálaga29071Spain
- Centro Andaluz de Nanomedicina y Biotecnología (BIONAND)Junta de AndalucíaUniversidad de MálagaC/ Severo Ochoa 35Campanillas (Málaga)29590Spain
| | - Sara Sopeña‐Torres
- Departamento de MicrobiologíaInstituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea "La Mayora"Universidad de Málaga‐Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM‐UMA‐CSIC)Universidad de MálagaBulevar Louis Pasteur 31 (Campus Universitario de teatinos)Málaga29071Spain
| | - Jesús Hierrezuelo
- Departamento de MicrobiologíaInstituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea "La Mayora"Universidad de Málaga‐Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM‐UMA‐CSIC)Universidad de MálagaBulevar Louis Pasteur 31 (Campus Universitario de teatinos)Málaga29071Spain
| | - Hung K. Doan
- Department of Plant PathologyUniversity of CaliforniaDavisCAUSA
| | | | - Antonio de Vicente
- Departamento de MicrobiologíaInstituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea "La Mayora"Universidad de Málaga‐Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM‐UMA‐CSIC)Universidad de MálagaBulevar Louis Pasteur 31 (Campus Universitario de teatinos)Málaga29071Spain
| | - Diego Romero
- Departamento de MicrobiologíaInstituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea "La Mayora"Universidad de Málaga‐Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM‐UMA‐CSIC)Universidad de MálagaBulevar Louis Pasteur 31 (Campus Universitario de teatinos)Málaga29071Spain
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Montone AMI, Capuano F, Mancusi A, Di Maro O, Peruzy MF, Proroga YTR, Cristiano D. Exposure to Bacillus cereus in Water Buffalo Mozzarella Cheese. Foods 2020; 9:E1899. [PMID: 33352642 PMCID: PMC7766095 DOI: 10.3390/foods9121899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacillus cereus is a spoilage bacterium and is recognized as an agent of food poisoning. Two food-borne illnesses are caused by B. cereus: a diarrheal disease, associated with cytotoxin K, hemolysin BL, non-hemolytic enterotoxin and enterotoxin FM, and an emetic syndrome, associated with the cereulide toxin. Owing to the heat resistance of B. cereus and its ability to grow in milk, this organism should be considered potentially hazardous in dairy products. The present study assessed the risk of B. cereus poisoning due to the consumption of water buffalo mozzarella cheese. A total of 340 samples were analyzed to determine B. cereus counts (ISO 7932:2005); isolates underwent molecular characterization to detect the presence of genes encoding toxins. Eighty-nine (26.1%) samples harbored B. cereus strains, with values ranging from 2.2 × 102 to 2.6 × 106 CFU/g. Isolates showed eight different molecular profiles, and some displayed virulence characteristics. Bacterial counts and the toxin profiles of isolates were evaluated both separately and jointly to assess the risk of enteritis due to B. cereus following the consumption of buffalo mozzarella cheese. In conclusion, the results of the present study showed that the risk of poisoning by B. cereus following the consumption of this cheese was moderate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Michela Immacolata Montone
- Department of Food Microbiology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute 2, 80055 Portici (NA), Italy; (A.M.I.M.); (F.C.); (A.M.); (O.D.M.); (D.C.)
| | - Federico Capuano
- Department of Food Microbiology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute 2, 80055 Portici (NA), Italy; (A.M.I.M.); (F.C.); (A.M.); (O.D.M.); (D.C.)
| | - Andrea Mancusi
- Department of Food Microbiology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute 2, 80055 Portici (NA), Italy; (A.M.I.M.); (F.C.); (A.M.); (O.D.M.); (D.C.)
| | - Orlandina Di Maro
- Department of Food Microbiology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute 2, 80055 Portici (NA), Italy; (A.M.I.M.); (F.C.); (A.M.); (O.D.M.); (D.C.)
| | - Maria Francesca Peruzy
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples “Federico II”, Via Delpino 1, 80137 Naples, Italy;
| | - Yolande Thérèse Rose Proroga
- Department of Food Microbiology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute 2, 80055 Portici (NA), Italy; (A.M.I.M.); (F.C.); (A.M.); (O.D.M.); (D.C.)
| | - Daniela Cristiano
- Department of Food Microbiology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute 2, 80055 Portici (NA), Italy; (A.M.I.M.); (F.C.); (A.M.); (O.D.M.); (D.C.)
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6
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Jessberger N, Dietrich R, Granum PE, Märtlbauer E. The Bacillus cereus Food Infection as Multifactorial Process. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E701. [PMID: 33167492 PMCID: PMC7694497 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12110701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The ubiquitous soil bacterium Bacillus cereus presents major challenges to food safety. It is responsible for two types of food poisoning, the emetic form due to food intoxication and the diarrheal form emerging from food infections with enteropathogenic strains, also known as toxico-infections, which are the subject of this review. The diarrheal type of food poisoning emerges after production of enterotoxins by viable bacteria in the human intestine. Basically, the manifestation of the disease is, however, the result of a multifactorial process, including B. cereus prevalence and survival in different foods, survival of the stomach passage, spore germination, motility, adhesion, and finally enterotoxin production in the intestine. Moreover, all of these processes are influenced by the consumed foodstuffs as well as the intestinal microbiota which have, therefore, to be considered for a reliable prediction of the hazardous potential of contaminated foods. Current knowledge regarding these single aspects is summarized in this review aiming for risk-oriented diagnostics for enteropathogenic B. cereus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadja Jessberger
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schönleutnerstr. 8, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.D.); (E.M.)
| | - Richard Dietrich
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schönleutnerstr. 8, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.D.); (E.M.)
| | - Per Einar Granum
- Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003 NMBU, 1432 Ås, Norway;
| | - Erwin Märtlbauer
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Schönleutnerstr. 8, 85764 Oberschleißheim, Germany; (R.D.); (E.M.)
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7
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Webb MD, Barker GC, Goodburn KE, Peck MW. Risk presented to minimally processed chilled foods by psychrotrophic Bacillus cereus. Trends Food Sci Technol 2019; 93:94-105. [PMID: 31764911 PMCID: PMC6853023 DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Spores of psychrotrophic Bacillus cereus may survive the mild heat treatments given to minimally processed chilled foods. Subsequent germination and cell multiplication during refrigerated storage may lead to bacterial concentrations that are hazardous to health. SCOPE AND APPROACH This review is concerned with the characterisation of factors that prevent psychrotrophic B. cereus reaching hazardous concentrations in minimally processed chilled foods and associated foodborne illness. A risk assessment framework is used to quantify the risk associated with B. cereus and minimally processed chilled foods. KEY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS Bacillus cereus is responsible for two types of food poisoning, diarrhoeal (an infection) and emetic (an intoxication); however, no reported outbreaks of food poisoning have been associated with B. cereus and correctly stored commercially-produced minimally processed chilled foods. In the UK alone, more than 1010 packs of these foods have been sold in recent years without reported illness, thus the risk presented is very low. Further quantification of the risk is merited, and this requires additional data. The lack of association between diarrhoeal food poisoning and correctly stored commercially-produced minimally processed chilled foods indicates that an infectious dose has not been reached. This may reflect low pathogenicity of psychrotrophic strains. The lack of reported association of psychrotrophic B. cereus with emetic illness and correctly stored commercially-produced minimally processed chilled foods indicates that a toxic dose of the emetic toxin has not been formed. Laboratory studies show that strains form very small quantities of emetic toxin at chilled temperatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin D. Webb
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, UK
| | - Gary C. Barker
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, UK
| | - Kaarin E. Goodburn
- Chilled Food Associates, c/o 3 Weekley Wood Close, Kettering, NN14 1UQ, UK
| | - Michael W. Peck
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, UK
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Riol CD, Dietrich R, Märtlbauer E, Jessberger N. Consumed Foodstuffs Have a Crucial Impact on the Toxic Activity of Enteropathogenic Bacillus cereus. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1946. [PMID: 30174669 PMCID: PMC6107707 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteropathogenic Bacillus cereus cause diarrhea due to the production of enterotoxins in the intestine. To start this process, spores have to be ingested together with contaminated food and survive the stomach passage. In this study, the influence of consumed foodstuffs on spore survival as well as on cytotoxicity toward colon epithelial cells was investigated. Spore survival of 20 enteropathogenic and apathogenic B. cereus strains during simulated stomach passage was highly strain-specific and did not correlate with the toxic potential. Survival of three tested strains was strain-specifically altered by milk products. Whereas milk, a follow-on formula and rice pudding had only little influence, spores seemed to be protected by milk products with high fat content such as whipped cream and mascarpone. Furthermore, tested milk products decreased the toxic activity of three B. cereus strains toward CaCo-2 cells. Investigating the individual components, lactoferrin, a skim milk powder and vitamins C, B5 and A showed the most inhibiting effects. On the other hand, biotin, vitamin B3 and another skim milk powder even enhanced cytotoxicity. Further studies suggested that these inhibiting effects result only partially from inhibiting cell binding, but rather from blocking the interaction between the single enterotoxin components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Da Riol
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Richard Dietrich
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Erwin Märtlbauer
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Nadja Jessberger
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
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Xie T, Rotstein D, Sun C, Fang H, Frucht DM. Gastric pH and Toxin Factors Modulate Infectivity and Disease Progression After Gastrointestinal Exposure to Bacillus anthracis. J Infect Dis 2017; 216:1471-1475. [PMID: 28968672 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jix487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Gastrointestinal (GI) anthrax is the most prevalent form of naturally acquired Bacillus anthracis infection, which is associated with exposure to vegetative bacteria in infected meat (carnivores) or to fermented rumen contents (herbivores). We assessed whether key host and pathogen factors modulate infectivity and progression of infection using a mouse model of GI infection. Gastric acid neutralization increases infectivity, but 30%-40% of mice succumb to infection without neutralization. Mice either fed or fasted before exposure showed similar infectivity rates. Finally, the pathogen's anthrax lethal factor is required to establish lethal infection, whereas its edema factor modulates progression and dissemination of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Xie
- Office of Biotechnology Products, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research
| | - David Rotstein
- Division of Compliance, Center for Veterinary Medicine, US Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, Maryland
| | - Chen Sun
- Office of Biotechnology Products, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research
| | - Hui Fang
- Office of Biotechnology Products, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research
| | - David M Frucht
- Office of Biotechnology Products, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research
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Bernardeau M, Lehtinen MJ, Forssten SD, Nurminen P. Importance of the gastrointestinal life cycle of Bacillus for probiotic functionality. JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2017; 54:2570-2584. [PMID: 28740315 PMCID: PMC5502041 DOI: 10.1007/s13197-017-2688-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 03/18/2017] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Bacillus spp. are widely used in animal production for their probiotic properties. In many animal species, feed supplementation with specific Bacillus strains can provide numerous benefits including improvement in digestibility, the gut microbiota and immune modulation, and growth performance. Bacilli are fed to animals as spores that can sustain the harsh feed processing and long storage. However, the spores are metabolically quiescent and it is widely accepted that probiotics should be in a metabolically active state to perform certain probiotic functions like secretion of antimicrobial compounds and enzymes, synthesis of short chain fatty acids, and competition for essential nutrients. These functions should become active in the host gastrointestinal tract (GIT) soon after digestion of spores in order to contribute to microbiota and host metabolism. Considering that bacterial spores are metabolically dormant and many health benefits are provided by vegetative cells, it is of particular interest to discuss the life cycle of Bacillus in animal GIT. This review aims to capture the main characteristics of spores and vegetative cells and to discuss the latest knowledge in the life cycle of beneficial Bacillus in various intestinal environments. Furthermore, we review how the life cycle may influence probiotic functions of Bacillus and their benefits for human and animal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Bernardeau
- DuPont-Danisco, Industrial Biosciences, Animal Nutrition, Marlborough, UK
- Normandy University, ABTE, 14032 Caen, France
| | | | | | - P. Nurminen
- DuPont Nutrition and Health, Kantvik, Finland
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Schmid D, Rademacher C, Kanitz EE, Frenzel E, Simons E, Allerberger F, Ehling-Schulz M. Elucidation of enterotoxigenic Bacillus cereus outbreaks in Austria by complementary epidemiological and microbiological investigations, 2013. Int J Food Microbiol 2016; 232:80-6. [PMID: 27257745 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2016.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Revised: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 05/08/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Identifying Bacillus cereus as the causative agent of a foodborne outbreak still poses a challenge. We report on the epidemiological and microbiological investigation of three outbreaks of food poisoning (A, B, and C) in Austria in 2013. A total of 44% among 32 hotel guests (A), 22% among 63 employees (B) and 29% among 362 residents of a rehab clinic (C) fell sick immediately after meal consumption. B. cereus isolated from left overs or retained samples from related foods were characterized by toxin gene profiling, and molecular typing using panC sequencing and M13-PCR typing (in outbreak A and C). We identified two B. cereus strains in outbreak A, and six B. cereus strains, each in outbreak B and C; we also found Staphylococcus aureus and staphylococcal enterotoxins in outbreak A. The panC sequence based phylogenetic affiliation of the B. cereus strains, together with findings of the retrospective cohort analyses, helped determining their etiological role. Consumption of a mashed potatoes dish in outbreak A (RR: ∞), a pancake strips soup in outbreak B (RR 13.0; 95% CI 1.8-93.0) and for outbreak C of a fruit salad (RR 1.50; 95% CI 1.09-2.00), deer ragout (RR: 1.99; 95% CI 1.23-3.22) and a cranberry/pear (RR 2.46; 95% CI 1.50-4.03)were associated with increased risk of falling sick. An enterotoxigenic strain affiliated to the phylogenetic group with the highest risk of food poisoning was isolated from the crème spinach and the strawberry buttermilk, and also from the stool samples of the one B. cereus positive outbreak case-patient, who ate both. Our investigation of three food poisoning outbreaks illustrates the added value of a combined approach by using epidemiological, microbiological and genotyping methods in identifying the likely outbreak sources and the etiological B. cereus strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Schmid
- Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety, Währinger Straße 25a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Corinna Rademacher
- Functional Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Elisabeth Eva Kanitz
- Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety, Währinger Straße 25a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Elrike Frenzel
- Functional Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Erica Simons
- Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety, Währinger Straße 25a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Franz Allerberger
- Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety, Währinger Straße 25a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Monika Ehling-Schulz
- Functional Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
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12
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Bacillus cereus NVH 0500/00 Can Adhere to Mucin but Cannot Produce Enterotoxins during Gastrointestinal Simulation. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 82:289-96. [PMID: 26497468 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02940-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Adhesion to the intestinal epithelium could constitute an essential mechanism of Bacillus cereus pathogenesis. However, the enterocytes are protected by mucus, a secretion composed mainly of mucin glycoproteins. These may serve as nutrients and sites of adhesion for intestinal bacteria. In this study, the food poisoning bacterium B. cereus NVH 0500/00 was exposed in vitro to gastrointestinal hurdles prior to evaluation of its attachment to mucin microcosms and its ability to produce nonhemolytic enterotoxin (Nhe). The persistence of mucin-adherent B. cereus after simulated gut emptying was determined using a mucin adhesion assay. The stability of Nhe toward bile and pancreatin (intestinal components) in the presence of mucin agar was also investigated. B. cereus could grow and simultaneously adhere to mucin during in vitro ileal incubation, despite the adverse effect of prior exposure to a low pH or intestinal components. The final concentration of B. cereus in the simulated lumen at 8 h of incubation was 6.62 ± 0.87 log CFU ml(-1). At that point, the percentage of adhesion was approximately 6%. No enterotoxin was detected in the ileum, due to either insufficient bacterial concentrations or Nhe degradation. Nevertheless, mucin appears to retain B. cereus and to supply it to the small intestine after simulated gut emptying. Additionally, mucin may play a role in the protection of enterotoxins from degradation by intestinal components.
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Berthold-Pluta A, Pluta A, Garbowska M. The effect of selected factors on the survival of Bacillus cereus in the human gastrointestinal tract. Microb Pathog 2015; 82:7-14. [PMID: 25794697 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2015.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Revised: 10/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Bacillus cereus is a Gram-positive bacterium widely distributed in soil and vegetation. This bacterial species can also contaminate raw or processed foods. Pathogenic B. cereus strains can cause a range of infections in humans, as well as food poisoning of an emetic (intoxication) or diarrheal type (toxico-infection). Toxico-infections are due to the action of the Hbl toxin, Nhe toxin, and cytotoxin K produced by the microorganism in the gastrointestinal tract. This occurs once the spores or vegetative B. cereus cells survive the pH barrier of the stomach and reach the small intestine where they produce toxins in sufficient amounts. This article discusses the effect of various factors on the survival of B. cereus in the gastrointestinal tract, including low pH and the presence of digestive enzymes in the stomach, bile salts in the small intestine, and indigenous microflora in the lower parts of the gastrointestinal tract. Additional aspects also reported to affect B. cereus survival and virulence in the gastrointestinal tract include the interaction of the spores and vegetative cells with enterocytes. In vitro studies revealed that both vegetative B. cereus and spores can survive in the gastrointestinal tract suggesting that the biological form of the microorganism may have less influence on the occurrence of the symptoms of infection than was once believed. It is most likely the interaction between the pathogen and enterocytes that is necessary for the diarrheal form of B. cereus food poisoning to develop. The adhesion of B. cereus to the intestinal epithelium allows the bacterium to grow and produce enterotoxins in the proximity of the epithelium. Recent studies suggest that the human intestinal microbiota inhibits the growth of vegetative B. cereus cells considerably.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Berthold-Pluta
- Division of Milk Biotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Microbiology and Food Evaluation, Faculty of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159C St, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Antoni Pluta
- Division of Milk Biotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Microbiology and Food Evaluation, Faculty of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159C St, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Monika Garbowska
- Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology, Inter-Department Problem Group for Dairy Industries, Rakowiecka St 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland
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Rolny IS, Minnaard J, Racedo SM, Pérez PF. Murine model of Bacillus cereus gastrointestinal infection. J Med Microbiol 2014; 63:1741-1749. [PMID: 25231625 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.079939-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacillus cereus is a spore-forming micro-organism responsible for foodborne illness. In this study, we focus on the host response following intragastric challenge with a pathogenic B. cereus strain (B10502) isolated from a foodborne outbreak. C57BL/6J female mice were infected by gavage with strain B10502. Controls were administered with PBS. Infection leads to significant modification in relevant immune cells in the spleen, Peyer's patches (PP) and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN). These findings correlated with an increase in the size of PP as compared with uninfected controls. Histological studies showed that B. cereus infection increased the ratio of intestinal goblet cells and induces mononuclear cell infiltrates in spleen at 5 days post-infection. Evaluation of cytokine mRNA expression demonstrated a significant increase in IFN-γ in MLN after 2 days of infection. The present work demonstrates that infection of mice with vegetative B. cereus is self-limited. Our findings determined relevant cell populations that were involved in the control of the pathogen through modification of the ratio and/or activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivanna S Rolny
- Cátedra de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Calle 47 y 115-B1900AJI, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Jessica Minnaard
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Criotecnología de Alimentos (CONICET-CCT La Plata), Calle 47 y 116-B1900AJI, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Silvia M Racedo
- Cátedra de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Calle 47 y 115-B1900AJI, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Pablo F Pérez
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Criotecnología de Alimentos (CONICET-CCT La Plata), Calle 47 y 116-B1900AJI, La Plata, Argentina.,Cátedra de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Calle 47 y 115-B1900AJI, La Plata, Argentina
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Assessment of synergistic combination potential of probiotic and bacteriophage against antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus exposed to simulated intestinal conditions. Arch Microbiol 2014; 196:719-27. [DOI: 10.1007/s00203-014-1013-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2014] [Revised: 06/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Ceuppens S, Boon N, Uyttendaele M. Diversity of Bacillus cereus group strains is reflected in their broad range of pathogenicity and diverse ecological lifestyles. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2013; 84:433-50. [PMID: 23488744 DOI: 10.1111/1574-6941.12110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2012] [Revised: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 03/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacillus cereus comprises a highly versatile group of bacteria, which are of particular interest because of their capacity to cause disease. Emetic food poisoning is caused by the toxin cereulide produced during the growth of emetic B. cereus in food, while diarrhoeal food poisoning is the result of enterotoxin production by viable vegetative B. cereus cells in the small intestine, probably in the mucus layer and/or attached to the host's intestinal epithelium. The numbers of B. cereus causing disease are highly variable, depending on diverse factors linked to the host (age, diet, physiology and immunology), bacteria (cellular form, toxin genes and expression) and food (nutritional composition and meal characteristics). Bacillus cereus group strains show impressive ecological diversity, ranging from their saprophytic life cycle in soil to symbiotic (commensal and mutualistic) lifestyles near plant roots and in guts of insects and mammals to various pathogenic ones in diverse insect and mammalian hosts. During all these different ecological lifestyles, their toxins play important roles ranging from providing competitive advantages within microbial communities to inhibition of specific pathogenic organisms for their host and accomplishment of infections by damaging their host's tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siele Ceuppens
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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Markland SM, Farkas DF, Kniel KE, Hoover DG. Pathogenic psychrotolerant sporeformers: an emerging challenge for low-temperature storage of minimally processed foods. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2013; 10:413-9. [PMID: 23536982 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2012.1355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporeforming bacteria are a significant problem in the food industry as they are ubiquitous in nature and capable of resisting inactivation by heat and chemical treatments designed to inactivate them. Beyond spoilage issues, psychrotolerant sporeformers are becoming increasingly recognized as a potential hazard given the ever-expanding demand for refrigerated processed foods with extended shelf-life. In these products, the sporeforming pathogens of concern are Bacillus cereus, Bacillus weihenstephanensis, and Clostridium botulinum type E. This review article examines the foods, conditions, and organisms responsible for the food safety issue caused by the germination and outgrowth of psychrotolerant sporeforming pathogens in minimally processed refrigerated foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M Markland
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, USA
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