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Álvarez-Herms J, González-Benito A, Corbi F, Odriozola A. What if gastrointestinal complications in endurance athletes were gut injuries in response to a high consumption of ultra-processed foods? Please take care of your bugs if you want to improve endurance performance: a narrative review. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024; 124:383-402. [PMID: 37839038 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05331-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
To improve performance and recovery faster, athletes are advised to eat more often than usual and consume higher doses of simple carbohydrates, during and after exercise. Sports energetic supplements contain food additives, such as artificial sweeteners, emulsifiers, acidity regulators, preservatives, and salts, which could be harmful to the gut microbiota and impair the intestinal barrier function. The intestinal barrier plays a critical function in bidirectionally regulation of the selective transfer of nutrients, water, and electrolytes, while preventing at the same time, the entrance of harmful substances (selective permeability). The gut microbiota helps to the host to regulate intestinal homeostasis through metabolic, protective, and immune functions. Globally, the gut health is essential to maintain systemic homeostasis in athletes, and to ensure proper digestion, metabolization, and substrate absorption. Gastrointestinal complaints are an important cause of underperformance and dropout during endurance events. These complications are directly related to the loss of gut equilibrium, mainly linked to microbiota dysbiosis and leaky gut. In summary, athletes must be cautious with the elevated intake of ultra-processed foods and specifically those contained on sports nutrition supplements. This review points out the specific nutritional interventions that should be implemented and/or discontinued depending on individual gut functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Álvarez-Herms
- Phymolab (Physiology and Molecular Laboratory), Collado Hermoso, Segovia, Spain.
- Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain.
| | - A González-Benito
- Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain
| | - F Corbi
- Institut Nacional d'Educació Física de Catalunya (INEFC), University of Lleida (UdL), Lleida, Spain
| | - A Odriozola
- Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain
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Knechtle B, Weiss K, Villiger E, Scheer V, Gomes TN, Gajda R, Ouerghi N, Chtourou H, Nikolaidis PT, Rosemann T, Thuany M. The Sex Difference in 6-h Ultra-Marathon Running-The Worldwide Trends from 1982 to 2020. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2022; 58:179. [PMID: 35208503 PMCID: PMC8876730 DOI: 10.3390/medicina58020179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background and Objectives: The 6-h ultra-marathon is the shortest time-limited ultra-marathon race, but little has been investigated regarding this race format. Previously, only the age of peak performance in the context of longer time-limited ultra-marathons was determined. The purpose of this study was to investigate the trends in 6-h ultra-marathon races from 1982 to 2020 for female and male ultra-runners, the participation and performance by countries, the age of peak performance, and the differences in performance regarding countries. Materials and Methods: The sample included 23,203 female ultra-runners, aged 18-83 years, and 87,264 male ultra-runners, aged 18-85 years, who were finishers in a 6-h ultra-marathon held between 1982 and 2020. The age of peak performance was tested using the Kruskal-Wallis test, followed by the Bonferroni Correction. The difference in performance by countries was verified using a linear regression model with the fastest runners from Russia in women, and Tunisia in men, used as reference. Results: Over the years, the men-to-women ratio decreased. The mean age was 43.20 ± 9.30 years for female and 46.09 ± 10.17 years for male runners. Athletes in younger age groups were faster than athletes in older age groups. Most female and male participants originated from Germany. Women from Russia (10.01 ± 1.28 km/h) and men from Tunisia (12.16 ± 1.46 km/h) were the fastest. Conclusions: In summary, in 6-h ultra-marathons held between 1982 and 2020, the participation for both women and men increased, while the men-to-women ratio decreased. The mean age was higher in men compared to women. Most female and male runners originated from Germany, but the fastest women were from Russia, and the fastest men from Tunisia. Future studies need to investigate whether Russian women and Tunisian men are also the best in other distance-limited ultra-marathon races, such as 12-h and 24-h.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland;
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8000 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Katja Weiss
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland;
| | - Elias Villiger
- Klinik für Allgemeine Innere Medizin, Kantonsspital St. Gallen, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland;
| | - Volker Scheer
- Ultra Sports Science Foundation, 69310 Pierre-Benite, France;
- Department Sports and Health, Institute of Sports Medicine, Paderborn University, 33098 Paderborn, Germany
| | - Thayse Natacha Gomes
- Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão 49100-000, Brazil;
| | - Robert Gajda
- Center for Sports Cardiology, Gajda-Med Medical Center in Pułtusk, 06-100 Pułtusk, Poland;
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Prevention, Jan Dlugosz University in Częstochowa, 42-200 Częstochowa, Poland
| | - Nejmeddine Ouerghi
- High Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Kef, University of Jendouba, UR13JS01, Kef 7100, Tunisia;
- Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, Rabta Hospital, University of Tunis El Manar, LR99ES11, Tunis 1007, Tunisia
| | - Hamdi Chtourou
- Institut Supérieur du Sport et de l’Education Physique de Sfax, Université de Sfax, Sfax 3000, Tunisia;
- Activité Physique, Sport et Santé, UR18JS01, Observatoire National du Sport, Tunis 1003, Tunisia
| | | | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8000 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Mabliny Thuany
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal;
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Kruger M, Viljoen A, Cronjé D. Hold your horses! A typology of endurance horse-riding participants. MANAGING SPORT AND LEISURE 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/23750472.2020.1753097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martinette Kruger
- Tourism Research in Economic Environs, and Society (TREES), North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Adam Viljoen
- Tourism Research in Economic Environs, and Society (TREES), North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Daniélle Cronjé
- School of Tourism Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
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Ehlert A, Wilson PB. Does pain sensitivity correlate with gastrointestinal symptoms in runners? An observational survey study. Br J Pain 2021; 16:170-178. [PMID: 35419196 PMCID: PMC8998532 DOI: 10.1177/20494637211028265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Heightened pain sensitivity is common in functional gut disorders, but no research has examined whether it corresponds to exercise-associated gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms. We sought to explore whether scores on a questionnaire of pain sensitivity would correlate with GI symptoms during running. Design: This is a cross-sectional study. Subjects: The study involves 290 (137 male, 153 female) distance runners. Methods: Runners completed a survey inquiring about demographic, anthropometric and training information and rated GI symptoms at rest and during runs. In addition, the Pain Sensitivity Questionnaire (PSQ) was used to quantify pain sensitivity across all items (PSQ-Total) and on items typically rated as minor (PSQ-Minor). Spearman rho correlations were utilized to assess the associations between pain sensitivity and GI symptoms. Partial correlations were used to evaluate the associations after controlling for age, gender, running experience, body mass index and sleep problems. Results: PSQ scores weakly correlated with several GI symptoms at rest (rho = 0.13–0.20; p < 0.05), which remained largely intact in partial correlation analyses (partial rho = 0.12–0.18). PSQ scores weakly correlated with fullness, bloating and gas during runs (rho = 0.12–0.18; p < 0.05); fullness and bloating remained significant in the partial correlation analyses (partial rho = 0.12–0.15). These results were relatively consistent for both the PSQ-Total and PSQ-Minor. Conclusions: Although PSQ scores only weakly correlate with certain GI symptoms among runners, the effect sizes are similar to that of other predictors of GI distress. These results suggest a minor possible role of pain sensitivity in the development of certain GI symptoms in runners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Ehlert
- Human Movement Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
| | - Patrick B Wilson
- Human Movement Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
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Scheer V, Krabak BJ. Musculoskeletal Injuries in Ultra-Endurance Running: A Scoping Review. Front Physiol 2021; 12:664071. [PMID: 33868030 PMCID: PMC8044296 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.664071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Ultra-endurance running (UER) has seen an important increase in participation over the last few decades. Long hours of UER can lead to excessive stress on the body, resulting in musculoskeletal injuries (MSKI). UER is not a uniform sport and events can differ considerably in distance (over 42.195 km), time (e.g., events over 6 h) and multi-day or multi-stage events on various surfaces (e.g., track, on-road, off-road). The aims of this scoping review were therefore: (1) to examine the current evidence of MSKI, providing a synthesis of the most common MSKI by anatomical region and specific diagnosis; (2) categorize MSKI by type of UER activity (competition: time-limited; multi-stage; continuous UER events and training); (3) describe knowledge gaps in the literature and provide advice on potential further research. Our electronic literature search (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science) identified a total of 13 studies (9 in competition, and 4 in training). Anatomical site, diagnosis and rate of injuries differ between competition and training as well as between different UER types. MSKI are observed in 18% of multi-stage events (0.7-1.8 injuries/runner and 7.2 injuries/1000 h). Most MSKI involve the lower leg (35.0%), ankle (16.8%), knee (13.1%) and foot (12.6%), with main diagnosis of medial tibial stress syndrome (30.1%) and patella femoral pain syndrome (PFPS; 7.2%). Single, continuous UER events differ between a 1005 km road race with almost all of the injuries due to overuse, with the main anatomical site of the knee (31%), ankle (28%) and lower leg (14%) and main diagnosis of PFPS (15.6%), compared to a 65 km trail race, with 32.8% of MSKI, mainly on the foot [plantar fasciitis (28.6%)], ankle [sprain (28.6%)] and knee. Timed-UER events (injury rate of 2.1 injuries/athlete) observed most injuries on the ankle (36%) and knee (19%), with the main diagnosis of tendinitis of the foot dorsiflexors (30%). Injuries during training most commonly affect, the back (42%), and knee (40%) and bone stress injuries (22%). Main diagnoses include ankle sprain (18%), iliotibial band injury (16%) and Achilles tendinopathy (11%). Future considerations include examining MSKI in different UER events, environments and surfaces, and on larger study populations. Establishing risk factors, examining sex differences and using a standard reporting system of MSKI in UER are also important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker Scheer
- Ultra Sports Science Foundation, Pierre-Bénite, France
| | - Brian J Krabak
- University of Washington and Seattle Children's Sports Medicine, Seattle, WA, United States
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Scheer V, Costa RJS, Doutreleau S, Knechtle B, Nikolaidis PT, Roberts WO, Stoll O, S Tenforde A, Krabak B. Recommendations on Youth Participation in Ultra-Endurance Running Events: A Consensus Statement. Sports Med 2021; 51:1123-1135. [PMID: 33704697 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01441-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Participation in ultra-endurance running (UER) events continues to grow across ages, including youth athletes. The 50- and 100-km are the most popular distances among youth athletes. Most youth athletes are between 16-18 years; however, some runners younger than 12 years have successfully completed UER events. Parents, athletes, coaches, race directors, and medical professionals often seek advice regarding the safety of youth athletes participating in these events, especially with regard to potential short and long-term health consequences. UER may impact key organ systems during growth and development. We propose a decision-making process, based on current knowledge and the experience of the consensus group that addresses age regulations, medical and psychological well-being, training status and race-specific factors (such as distance, elevation change, remoteness, ambient temperatures, level of medical assistance, and type of provisions provided by the race organizers) to use until evidence of long-term consequences of UER in youth athletes is available. These recommendations are aimed at safe participation in UER events for youth athletes with a proper and individualized assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker Scheer
- Ultra Sports Science Foundation, 109 Boulevard de l'Europe, 69310, Pierre-Benite, France. .,Health Science Department, Universidad a Distancia de Madrid (UDIMA), Madrid, Spain.
| | - Ricardo J S Costa
- Department of Nutrition Dietetics and Food, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | | | - Beat Knechtle
- Medbase St. Gallen am Vadianplatz, St. Gallen, Switzerland.,Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - William O Roberts
- Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Oliver Stoll
- Institute of Sport Science, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Adam S Tenforde
- Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Brian Krabak
- University of Washington and Seattle Children's Sports Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
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BESSON THIBAULT, ROSSI JÉRÉMY, LE ROUX MALLOUF THIBAULT, MARECHAL MATTHIEU, DOUTRELEAU STÉPHANE, VERGES SAMUEL, MILLET GUILLAUMEY. Fatigue and Recovery after Single-Stage versus Multistage Ultramarathon Running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2020; 52:1691-1698. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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8
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Scheer V, Di Gangi S, Villiger E, Rosemann T, Nikolaidis PT, Knechtle B. Participation and Performance Analysis in Children and Adolescents Competing in Time-Limited Ultra-Endurance Running Events. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17051628. [PMID: 32138338 PMCID: PMC7084740 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17051628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Ultra-endurance running is of increasing popularity in the adult population, mainly due to master runners older than 35 years of age. However, youth runners younger than 19 years of age are also competing in ultra-endurance events, and an increase has been observed in distance-limited events, but no data is available on time-limited ultra-endurance events in this age group. This study investigated participation and performance trends in time-limited ultra-endurance races, including multi-day events, in runners younger than 19 years of age. Between the period 1990 and 2018, the most popular events recorded a total of 214 finishes (from 166 unique finishers (UF)) for 6-h events, 247 (212 UF) for 12-h events, and 805 (582 UF) for 24-h events, respectively. The majority of athletes originated from Europe and North America. Only a minority participated in multi-day events. Overall, speed increased with age, but the overall performance speed decreased across calendar years for 6- and 24-h events as participation numbers grew. In summary, in youth ultra-endurance runners, differences were observed regarding participation and performance across the different time-limited events, the age of the athletes and their country of origin
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker Scheer
- Ultra Sports Science Foundation, 69130 Pierre-Bénite, France;
- Health Science Department, Universidad a Distancia de Madrid (UDIMA), 28400 Collado Villaba, Madrid, Spain
| | - Stefania Di Gangi
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zürich, Switzerland; (S.D.G.); (E.V.); (T.R.)
| | - Elias Villiger
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zürich, Switzerland; (S.D.G.); (E.V.); (T.R.)
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zürich, Switzerland; (S.D.G.); (E.V.); (T.R.)
| | | | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zürich, Switzerland; (S.D.G.); (E.V.); (T.R.)
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +41-71-226-93-00
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Nikolaidis PT, Cuk I, Clemente-Suárez VJ, Villiger E, Knechtle B. Number of finishers and performance of age group women and men in long-distance running: comparison among 10km, half-marathon and marathon races in Oslo. Res Sports Med 2020; 29:56-66. [PMID: 32046506 DOI: 10.1080/15438627.2020.1726745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to examine the number of finishers and performance trends in 10 km, half-marathon and marathon races in Oslo. Data (total 115,725 finishers; women, n = 50,595; men, n = 65,130) from 10 km, half-marathon and marathon races in Oslo from 2008 to 2018 were analysed considering number, sex, age and running speed of finishers. The total men-to-women ratio was the smallest in the 10 km race (0.60) and the largest in the marathon (3.86) (p < 0.01, φ = 0.28). In both women and men, the slowest running speed was shown in the older age groups (p < 0.01). Based on the findings of the present study, it was concluded that relatively more women finished a 10 km and less a half-marathon and a marathon. Our results indicated that the sex difference in performance was attenuated in the longer race distances and older age groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pantelis Theodoros Nikolaidis
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory , Nikaia, Greece.,School of Health and Caring Sciences, University of West Attica , Athens, Greece
| | - Ivan Cuk
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Management, Singidunum University , Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez
- Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid , Madrid, España.,Grupo de Investigación en Cultura, Educación y Sociedad, Universidad de la Costa , Barranquilla, Colombia
| | - Elias Villiger
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich , Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich , Zurich, Switzerland.,Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz , St. Gallen, Switzerland
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Goddard K, Roberts CM, Anderson L, Woodford L, Byron-Daniel J. Mental Toughness and Associated Personality Characteristics of Marathon des Sables Athletes. Front Psychol 2019; 10:2259. [PMID: 31636592 PMCID: PMC6787285 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mental toughness (MT) is commonly referred to as an important prerequisite for sustained athletic achievement. The increased research focus on MT has led to the development of a consistent debate centered around whether the construct is a unidimensional or multidimensional trait, and whether it can be differentiated from similar constructs such as hardiness. In order to move toward more clarity of MT, the present study is exploratory in nature, using athletes who have competed in the Marathon des Sables (MdS) ultra-endurance event. The MdS is a timed 250 km race in the Sahara Desert that takes place over 6 days in temperatures exceeding 40°C. Forty two British MdS competitors were recruited via the United Kingdom organizing company. Each participant completed the NEO PI-R as a measure of the five major domains of personality, as well as the six traits or facets that define each domain. Additionally, they completed the Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ). The MdS sample's NEO PI-R results were compared against general population norms, and results showed a distinct ultra-endurance athlete profile characterized by significantly higher levels of extraversion and openness to experience. Additionally, the MdS sample's SMTQ scores were higher than the normed sample consisting of a collection of athletes representing multiple sports. Finally, linear regression analyses indicated a convergence between the two measures, supporting the argument that MT may in fact be measured by a general personality questionnaire such as the NEO PI-R.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith Goddard
- Zeus Ltd., Performance Psychology, Bradford-on-Avon, United Kingdom
| | - Claire-Marie Roberts
- Department of Psychology, University of the West of England, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Liam Anderson
- Department of Psychology, University of the West of England, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Lindsay Woodford
- Department of Psychology, University of the West of England, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - James Byron-Daniel
- Department of Psychology, University of the West of England, Bristol, United Kingdom
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Different Predictor Variables for Women and Men in Ultra-Marathon Running-The Wellington Urban Ultramarathon 2018. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16101844. [PMID: 31137635 PMCID: PMC6571892 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16101844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Ultra-marathon races are increasing in popularity. Women are now 20% of all finishers, and this number is growing. Predictors of performance have been examined rarely for women in ultra-marathon running. This study aimed to examine the predictors of performance for women and men in the 62 km Wellington Urban Ultramarathon 2018 (WUU2K) and create an equation to predict ultra-marathon race time. For women, volume of running during training per week (km) and personal best time (PBT) in 5 km, 10 km, and half-marathon (min) were all associated with race time. For men, age, body mass index (BMI), years running, running speed during training (min/km), marathon PBT, and 5 km PBT (min) were all associated with race time. For men, ultra-marathon race time might be predicted by the following equation: (r² = 0.44, adjusted r² = 0.35, SE = 78.15, degrees of freedom (df) = 18) ultra-marathon race time (min) = −30.85 ± 0.2352 × marathon PBT + 25.37 × 5 km PBT + 17.20 × running speed of training (min/km). For women, ultra-marathon race time might be predicted by the following equation: (r² = 0.83, adjusted r2 = 0.75, SE = 42.53, df = 6) ultra-marathon race time (min) = −148.83 + 3.824 × (half-marathon PBT) + 9.76 × (10 km PBT) − 6.899 × (5 km PBT). This study should help women in their preparation for performance in ultra-marathon and adds to the bulk of knowledge for ultra-marathon preparation available to men.
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12
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Corrion K, Morales V, Bergamaschi A, Massiera B, Morin JB, d’Arripe-Longueville F. Psychosocial factors as predictors of dropout in ultra-trailers. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0206498. [PMID: 30395613 PMCID: PMC6218041 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Although research on the physiological and psychological factors of endurance performance has been extensive, the factors related to dropping out of ultra-trail races have not been well documented. The aim of this study was to examine psychosocial factors as predictors of dropout in ultra-trail runners. METHODS Two hundred and twenty-one volunteer athletes completed a survey that included measures of: (a) motivational variables (self-determined motivation, basic needs satisfaction, achievement goals), (b) theory of planned behavior constructs (attitudes, subjective norms, self-efficacy and intention to finish the race), and (c) coping strategies in sport. RESULTS The results showed that finishers had higher scores for self-efficacy and intention to finish the race than withdrawers, whereas withdrawers had higher scores for avoidance coping. Multiple logistic regression showed that the number of started and finished ultra-trail races (OR, 0.44; 95% CI 0.22-0.88; p<0.02), self-efficacy (OR, 2.03; 95% CI 1.06-3.89; p<0.04), intention to finish the race (OR, 0.34; 95% CI 0.16-0.71; p<0.004), mastery-approach goals (OR, 0.56; 95% CI 0.31-1.00; p<0.05), and coping strategies of seeking social support (OR, 0.43; 95% CI 0.26-0.71; p<0.001) were associated with a lower risk of race dropout, whereas avoidance coping strategies (OR, 2.26; 95% CI 1.46-3.52; p<0.001) were associated with an increased dropout rate. CONCLUSION Interventions promoting self-efficacy constructs and specific coping strategies might contribute to preventing dropout in ultra-trailers.
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Changes in Pain and Nutritional Intake Modulate Ultra-Running Performance: A Case Report. Sports (Basel) 2018; 6:sports6040111. [PMID: 30287789 PMCID: PMC6316849 DOI: 10.3390/sports6040111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Ultra-endurance running provides numerous physiological, psychological, and nutritional challenges to the athlete and supporting practitioners. We describe the changes in physiological status, psychological condition, and nutritional intake over the course of two 100-mile running races, with differing outcomes: non-completion and completion. Athlete perception of pain, freshness, and motivation differed between events, independent of rating of perceived exertion. Our data suggest that the integration of multiple sensations (freshness, motivation, hunger, pain, and thirst) produce performance. Increases in carbohydrate feeding (+5 g·h−1) and protein intake (+0.3 g·kg−1) also likely contributed to successful completion of a 100-mile race, by reducing the fractional utilization of maximal oxygen uptake and satiating hunger, respectively. Nutritional data support the notion that the gut is a trainable, and critical organ with respect to ultra-endurance performance. Finally, we propose future research to investigate the rate at which peak feeding occurs throughout ultra-endurance events, as this may further serve to personalize sports nutrition strategies.
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Alcock R, McCubbin A, Camões-Costa V, Costa RJS. Case Study: Providing Nutritional Support to an Ultraendurance Runner in Preparation for a Self-Sufficient Multistage Ultramarathon: Rationed Versus Full Energy Provisions. Wilderness Environ Med 2018; 29:508-520. [PMID: 30249353 DOI: 10.1016/j.wem.2018.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Revised: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
To assess the impact of rationed versus full estimated energy provisions on markers of physiological strain in response to a simulated 250 km multistage ultramarathon (MSUM), on two separate occasions, the ultraendurance runner performed a laboratory simulated MSUM, with rationed (RP: 3303±75 kcal⋅day-1) and full (FP: 7156±359 kcal⋅day-1) provisions. Total daily energy expenditure was determined using dual-method indirect calorimetry. Resting metabolic rate, iDXA, and body water were measured at baseline, day 3, and post-MSUM. Blood, urine, and feces were collected, and mood state was measured, d 1 to 5 (before and after running) to determine various physiological strain indices. Heart rate, RPE, thermal comfort, gastrointestinal symptoms, and non-protein oxidation rates were measured every 30 min during running. Data were analyzed using single-subject design analysis and interpreted using Cohen's effect size. Energy expenditure was lower on RP (6943±145 kcal⋅day-1) than FP (7486±143 kcal⋅day-1) (Cohen's δ=-3.1). More pronounced exertional strain (RPE δ=1.2, thermal conform δ=0.6, rectal temperature δ=1.0, and plasma cortisol concentration δ=1.7) was observed on RP as the MSUM progressed. Total carbohydrate and fat oxidation during running decreased (0.76 vs. 1.82 g⋅min-1; δ=-3.9) and increased (0.91 vs. 0.54 g⋅min-1; δ=3.7), respectively, more profoundly on RP as the MSUM progressed. Gastrointestinal symptoms were modestly lower in RP (δ=-0.26). Exercise-induced leukocytosis, cytokinaemia, and neutrophil responses were higher on RP. Iron status markers were trivial. Higher mood disturbance and fatigue were reported on RP. The ultraendurance runner presented greater physiological and psychophysiological disturbances, in response to a laboratory simulated MSUM, on rationed energy provisions, despite the lighter pack-weight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah Alcock
- Sports Nutrition, Australian Institute of Sport, Australian Sports Commission, Bruce, Australia (Ms Alcock)
| | - Alan McCubbin
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics & Food, Monash University, Victoria, Australia (Mr McCubbin and Drs Camões-Costa and Costa)
| | - Vera Camões-Costa
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics & Food, Monash University, Victoria, Australia (Mr McCubbin and Drs Camões-Costa and Costa); Health & Aging Research Group, Swinburne University of Technology, Victoria, Australia (Dr Camões-Costa)
| | - Ricardo J S Costa
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics & Food, Monash University, Victoria, Australia (Mr McCubbin and Drs Camões-Costa and Costa).
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15
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Costa RJS, Hoffman MD, Stellingwerff T. Considerations for ultra-endurance activities: part 1- nutrition. Res Sports Med 2018; 27:166-181. [PMID: 30056753 DOI: 10.1080/15438627.2018.1502188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Ultra-endurance activities (≥ 4h) present unique challenges that, beyond fatigue, may be exacerbated by sub-optimal nutrition during periods of increased requirements and compromised gastrointestinal function. The causes of fatigue during ultra-endurance exercise are multi-factorial. However, mechanisms can potentially include central or peripheral fatigue, thermal stress, dehydration, and/or endogenous glycogen store depletion; of which optimising nutrition and hydration can partially attenuate. If exercise duration is long enough (e.g. ≥ 10h) and exercise intensity low enough (e.g. 45-60% of maximal oxygen uptake), it is bio-energetically plausible that ketogenic adaptation may enhance ultra-endurance performance, but this requires scientific substantiation. Conversely, the scientific literature has consistently demonstrated that daily dietary carbohydrates (3-12g/kg/day) and carbohydrate intake (30-110g/h) during ultra-endurance events can enhance performance at individually tolerable intake rates. Considering gastrointestinal symptoms are common in ultra-endurance activities, effective dietary prevention and management strategies may provide functional, histological, systemic, and symptomatic benefits. Taken together, a well-practiced and individualized fuelling approach is required to optimize performance in ultra-endurance events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo J S Costa
- a Department of Nutrition Dietetics and Food , Monash University , Notting Hill, Victoria , Australia
| | - Martin D Hoffman
- b Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Service, Department of Veterans Affairs , Northern California Health Care System , Sacramento , CA , USA.,c Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation , University of California Davis Medical Center , Sacramento , CA , USA.,d Ultra Sports Science Foundation , El Dorado CA , USA
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16
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Knechtle B, Nikolaidis PT. Physiology and Pathophysiology in Ultra-Marathon Running. Front Physiol 2018; 9:634. [PMID: 29910741 PMCID: PMC5992463 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
In this overview, we summarize the findings of the literature with regards to physiology and pathophysiology of ultra-marathon running. The number of ultra-marathon races and the number of official finishers considerably increased in the last decades especially due to the increased number of female and age-group runners. A typical ultra-marathoner is male, married, well-educated, and ~45 years old. Female ultra-marathoners account for ~20% of the total number of finishers. Ultra-marathoners are older and have a larger weekly training volume, but run more slowly during training compared to marathoners. Previous experience (e.g., number of finishes in ultra-marathon races and personal best marathon time) is the most important predictor variable for a successful ultra-marathon performance followed by specific anthropometric (e.g., low body mass index, BMI, and low body fat) and training (e.g., high volume and running speed during training) characteristics. Women are slower than men, but the sex difference in performance decreased in recent years to ~10–20% depending upon the length of the ultra-marathon. The fastest ultra-marathon race times are generally achieved at the age of 35–45 years or older for both women and men, and the age of peak performance increases with increasing race distance or duration. An ultra-marathon leads to an energy deficit resulting in a reduction of both body fat and skeletal muscle mass. An ultra-marathon in combination with other risk factors, such as extreme weather conditions (either heat or cold) or the country where the race is held, can lead to exercise-associated hyponatremia. An ultra-marathon can also lead to changes in biomarkers indicating a pathological process in specific organs or organ systems such as skeletal muscles, heart, liver, kidney, immune and endocrine system. These changes are usually temporary, depending on intensity and duration of the performance, and usually normalize after the race. In longer ultra-marathons, ~50–60% of the participants experience musculoskeletal problems. The most common injuries in ultra-marathoners involve the lower limb, such as the ankle and the knee. An ultra-marathon can lead to an increase in creatine-kinase to values of 100,000–200,000 U/l depending upon the fitness level of the athlete and the length of the race. Furthermore, an ultra-marathon can lead to changes in the heart as shown by changes in cardiac biomarkers, electro- and echocardiography. Ultra-marathoners often suffer from digestive problems and gastrointestinal bleeding after an ultra-marathon is not uncommon. Liver enzymes can also considerably increase during an ultra-marathon. An ultra-marathon often leads to a temporary reduction in renal function. Ultra-marathoners often suffer from upper respiratory infections after an ultra-marathon. Considering the increased number of participants in ultra-marathons, the findings of the present review would have practical applications for a large number of sports scientists and sports medicine practitioners working in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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17
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Minuzzi LG, Teixeira AM, Carvalho HM, Costa RJD, Rama L. DAILY HEMATOLOGIC ASSESSMENT DURING A 230-KM MULTISTAGE ULTRAMARATHON. REV BRAS MED ESPORTE 2018. [DOI: 10.1590/1517-869220182403171999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Introduction: The popularity of ultra-endurance events is increasing worldwide. However, information about hematological parameters during repeated bouts of long-duration running, such as stages during a multi-stage ultramarathon (MSUM) is scarce. Objective: The purpose of the study was to monitor daily hematologic assessment in a 230-km multistage ultramarathon (MSUM) in hot environmental conditions. Methods: Eleven male and three female (n = 14) ultra-endurance runners entered this MSUM, which was conducted over five stages, covering a total distance of 230 km in hot ambient conditions. Peripheral blood samples were collected before and after each stage to determine leukocyte and erythrocytes parameters. Results: Multilevel modelling considering all measurement points showed an increase for whole blood leukocyte and granulocyte counts at five stages of the MSUM and for monocytes until Stage 3 of the race. For erythrocyte parameters, decreases across stages were observed in hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit responses when computing/considering all measurement points. Conclusions: The results indicate that MSUM in a hot environment leads to a greater impact on leukocyte population responses and platelet variation in the initial stages of the race. We suggest that athletes may have a decrease in immune function in the early stages of the MSUM, probably with some transient risk of infectious. Nevertheless, a physiological adaptation to physical exertion and heat mitigates these changes in the subsequent stages of MSUM. Level of Evidence III; Case-control study.
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18
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Costa RJS, Snipe RMJ, Kitic CM, Gibson PR. Systematic review: exercise-induced gastrointestinal syndrome-implications for health and intestinal disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2017; 46:246-265. [PMID: 28589631 DOI: 10.1111/apt.14157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 238] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2017] [Revised: 03/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND "Exercise-induced gastrointestinal syndrome" refers to disturbances of gastrointestinal integrity and function that are common features of strenuous exercise. AIM To systematically review the literature to establish the impact of acute exercise on markers of gastrointestinal integrity and function in healthy populations and those with chronic gastrointestinal conditions. METHODS Search literature using five databases (PubMed, EBSCO, Web of Science, SPORTSdiscus, and Ovid Medline) to review publications that focused on the impact of acute exercise on markers of gastrointestinal injury, permeability, endotoxaemia, motility and malabsorption in healthy populations and populations with gastrointestinal diseases/disorders. RESULTS As exercise intensity and duration increases, there is considerable evidence for increases in indices of intestinal injury, permeability and endotoxaemia, together with impairment of gastric emptying, slowing of small intestinal transit and malabsorption. The addition of heat stress and running mode appears to exacerbate these markers of gastrointestinal disturbance. Exercise stress of ≥2 hours at 60% VO2max appears to be the threshold whereby significant gastrointestinal perturbations manifest, irrespective of fitness status. Gastrointestinal symptoms, referable to upper- and lower-gastrointestinal tract, are common and a limiting factor in prolonged strenuous exercise. While there is evidence for health benefits of moderate exercise in patients with inflammatory bowel disease or functional gastrointestinal disorders, the safety of more strenuous exercise has not been established. CONCLUSIONS Strenuous exercise has a major reversible impact on gastrointestinal integrity and function of healthy populations. The safety and health implications of prolonged strenuous exercise in patients with chronic gastrointestinal diseases/disorders, while hypothetically worrying, has not been elucidated and requires further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J S Costa
- Department of Nutrition Dietetics & Food, Monash University, Notting Hill, Victoria, Australia
| | - R M J Snipe
- Department of Nutrition Dietetics & Food, Monash University, Notting Hill, Victoria, Australia
| | - C M Kitic
- Sport Performance Optimisation Research Team, School of Health Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - P R Gibson
- Department of Gastroenterology- The Alfred Hospital, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Chlíbková D, Nikolaidis PT, Rosemann T, Knechtle B, Bednář J. Reported Hydration Beliefs and Behaviors without Effect on Plasma Sodium in Endurance Athletes. Front Physiol 2017; 8:259. [PMID: 28512433 PMCID: PMC5411442 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 04/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: Little information is available on the association of hydration beliefs and behaviors in endurance athletes and exercise-associated hyponatremia (EAH). The aim of the present study was to determine hydration beliefs and behaviors in endurance athletes. Method: A 100 and 38 recreational athletes [107 mountain bikers (MTBers) and 31 runners] competing in seven different endurance and ultra-endurance races completed pre- and post-race questionnaires, and a subgroup of 113 (82%) participants (82 MTBers and 31 runners) also provided their blood samples. Result: More than half of the participants had some pre-race (59%), mid-race (58%), and post-race (55%) drinking plan. However, the participants simultaneously reported that temperature (66%), thirst (52%), and plan (37%) affected their drinking behavior during the race. More experienced (years of active sport: p = 0.002; number of completed races: p < 0.026) and trained (p = 0.024) athletes with better race performance (p = 0.026) showed a more profound knowledge of EAH, nevertheless, this did not influence their planned hydration, reported fluid intake, or post-race plasma sodium. Thirteen (12%) hyponatremic participants did not differ in their hydration beliefs, race behaviors, or reported fluid intake from those without post-race EAH. Compared to MTBers, runners more often reported knowledge of the volumes of drinks offered at fluid stations (p < 0.001) and information on how much to drink pre-race (p < 0.001), yet this was not associated with having a drinking plan (p > 0.05). MTBers with hydration information planned more than other MTBers (p = 0.004). In comparison with runners, more MTBers reported riding with their own fluids (p < 0.001) and planning to drink at fluid stations (p = 0.003). On the whole, hydration information was positively associated with hydration planning (n = 138) (p = 0.003); nevertheless, the actual reported fluid intake did not differ between the group with and without hydration information, or with and without a pre-race drinking plan (p > 0.05). Conclusion: In summary, hydration beliefs and behaviors in the endurance athletes do not appear to affect the development of asymptomatic EAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Chlíbková
- Centre of Sports Activities, Brno University of TechnologyBrno, Czechia
| | | | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of ZurichZurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of ZurichZurich, Switzerland.,Gesundheitszentrum St. GallenSt. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Josef Bednář
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Brno University of TechnologyBrno, Czechia
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20
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Martinez S, Aguilo A, Rodas L, Lozano L, Moreno C, Tauler P. Energy, macronutrient and water intake during a mountain ultramarathon event: The influence of distance. J Sports Sci 2017; 36:333-339. [PMID: 28322630 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2017.1306092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Adequate dietary strategies are essential for the successful participation in ultra-endurance races. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the energy and water intakes of participants during three different mountain ultra-endurance runs. The study took place at the "Ultra Mallorca Serra de Tramuntana" (Mallorca, Spain), an ultra-endurance mountain event with runners participating either in a 44-km (Marathon, n = 51), a 67-km (Trail, n = 109) or a 112-km (Ultra, n = 53) run competition. Participants in the study answered a questionnaire focused on the nutritional intake within an hour after finishing the competition. Mean energy intake during the competitions was 183 kcal · h¯1, with an average carbohydrate intake of 31 g · h¯1 (52.1% of participants consumed less than 30 g · h¯1). No significant differences between competitions were found in these parameters. However, a higher percentage of energy from lipids in participants in the Trail and the Ultra was found (P = 0.034). Furthermore, significant differences were observed in water intake per hour of competition (P = 0.039), with the lowest value for the intake during the Ultra competition. In conclusion, the majority of the participants in the study present low carbohydrate intakes. However, fluid intake seems to be adequate. Different distances did not significantly influence the participants' nutritional strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Martinez
- a Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Antoni Aguilo
- a Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Lluis Rodas
- b Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Fundamental Biology and Health Sciences, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Leticia Lozano
- a Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Carlos Moreno
- a Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Pedro Tauler
- b Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Fundamental Biology and Health Sciences, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
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21
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Knechtle B, Nikolaidis PT. The age of the best ultramarathon performance - the case of the "Comrades Marathon". Res Sports Med 2017; 25:132-143. [PMID: 28114817 DOI: 10.1080/15438627.2017.1282357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to determine the age of the fastest running speed in 202,370 runners (34,090 women and 168,280 men) competing in the "Comrades Marathon" between 1994 and 2015 using non-linear regression analysis (second order polynomial function). When all runners were considered in 1-year age intervals, the fastest running speed (9.61 ± 1.65 km/h) was achieved at the age of 29.89 years in men, whereas women achieved it at the age of 35.96 years 8.60 ± 1.10 km/h. When the fastest runners were considered in 1-year intervals, the fastest running speed (16.65 km/h) was achieved in men at the age of 36.38 years. For the fastest women, the age of the fastest running speed (13.89 km/h) was 32.75 years. To summarize, for all runners, men achieved the best ultramarathon performance ~6 years earlier than women. When the fastest runners were considered, however, men achieved the best performance ~4 years later than women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- a Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen , St. Gallen , Switzerland.,b Institute of Primary Care , University of Zurich , Zurich , Switzerland
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22
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Willmott AGB, Hayes M, Waldock KAM, Relf RL, Watkins ER, James CA, Gibson OR, Smeeton NJ, Richardson AJ, Watt PW, Maxwell NS. Short-term heat acclimation prior to a multi-day desert ultra-marathon improves physiological and psychological responses without compromising immune status. J Sports Sci 2016; 35:2249-2256. [PMID: 27935427 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1265142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Multistage, ultra-endurance events in hot, humid conditions necessitate thermal adaptation, often achieved through short term heat acclimation (STHA), to improve performance by reducing thermoregulatory strain and perceptions of heat stress. This study investigated the physiological, perceptual and immunological responses to STHA prior to the Marathon des Sables. Eight athletes (age 42 ± 4 years and body mass 81.9 ± 15.0 kg) completed 4 days of controlled hyperthermia STHA (60 min·day‒1, 45°C and 30% relative humidity). Pre, during and post sessions, physiological and perceptual measures were recorded. Immunological measures were recorded pre-post sessions 1 and 4. STHA improved thermal comfort (P = 0.02), sensation (P = 0.03) and perceived exertion (P = 0.04). A dissociated relationship between perceptual fatigue and Tre was evident after STHA, with reductions in perceived Physical (P = 0.04) and General (P = 0.04) fatigue. Exercising Tre and HR did not change (P > 0.05) however, sweat rate increased 14% (P = 0.02). No changes were found in white blood cell counts or content (P > 0.05). Four days of STHA facilitates effective perceptual adaptations, without compromising immune status prior to an ultra-endurance race in heat stress. A greater physiological strain is required to confer optimal physiological adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley G B Willmott
- a Environmental Extremes Laboratory, Centre for Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine (SESAME), Sport and Exercise Science Consultancy Unit (SESCU) , University of Brighton , Eastbourne , UK
| | - Mark Hayes
- a Environmental Extremes Laboratory, Centre for Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine (SESAME), Sport and Exercise Science Consultancy Unit (SESCU) , University of Brighton , Eastbourne , UK
| | - Kirsty A M Waldock
- a Environmental Extremes Laboratory, Centre for Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine (SESAME), Sport and Exercise Science Consultancy Unit (SESCU) , University of Brighton , Eastbourne , UK
| | - Rebecca L Relf
- a Environmental Extremes Laboratory, Centre for Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine (SESAME), Sport and Exercise Science Consultancy Unit (SESCU) , University of Brighton , Eastbourne , UK
| | - Emily R Watkins
- a Environmental Extremes Laboratory, Centre for Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine (SESAME), Sport and Exercise Science Consultancy Unit (SESCU) , University of Brighton , Eastbourne , UK
| | - Carl A James
- b National Sports Institute (Institut Sukan Negara) , National Sport Complex , Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia
| | - Oliver R Gibson
- c Centre for Human Performance, Exercise and Rehabilitation , Brunel University London , London , UK
| | - Nicholas J Smeeton
- a Environmental Extremes Laboratory, Centre for Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine (SESAME), Sport and Exercise Science Consultancy Unit (SESCU) , University of Brighton , Eastbourne , UK
| | - Alan J Richardson
- a Environmental Extremes Laboratory, Centre for Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine (SESAME), Sport and Exercise Science Consultancy Unit (SESCU) , University of Brighton , Eastbourne , UK
| | - Peter W Watt
- a Environmental Extremes Laboratory, Centre for Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine (SESAME), Sport and Exercise Science Consultancy Unit (SESCU) , University of Brighton , Eastbourne , UK
| | - Neil S Maxwell
- a Environmental Extremes Laboratory, Centre for Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine (SESAME), Sport and Exercise Science Consultancy Unit (SESCU) , University of Brighton , Eastbourne , UK
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23
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Costa RJS, Snipe R, Camões-Costa V, Scheer V, Murray A. The Impact of Gastrointestinal Symptoms and Dermatological Injuries on Nutritional Intake and Hydration Status During Ultramarathon Events. SPORTS MEDICINE-OPEN 2016; 2:16. [PMID: 26767151 PMCID: PMC4701764 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-015-0041-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Background Debilitating gastrointestinal symptoms (GIS) and dermatological injuries (DI) are common during and after endurance events and have been linked to performance decrements, event withdrawal, and issues requiring medical attention. The study aimed to determine whether GIS and DI affect food and fluid intake, and nutritional and hydration status, of ultramarathon runners during multi-stage (MSUM) and 24-h continuous (24 h) ultramarathons. Methods Ad libitum food and fluid intakes of ultramarathon runners (MSUM n = 54; 24 h n = 22) were recorded throughout both events and analysed by dietary analysis software. Body mass and urinary ketones were determined, and blood samples were taken, before and immediately after running. A medical log was used to monitor symptoms and injuries throughout both events. Results GIS were reported by 85 and 73 % of ultramarathon runners throughout MSUM and 24 h, respectively. GIS during MSUM were associated with reduced total daily, during, and post-stage energy and macronutrient intakes (p < 0.05), whereas GIS during 24 h did not alter nutritional variables. Throughout the MSUM 89 % of ultramarathon runners reported DI. DI during MSUM were associated with reduced carbohydrate (p < 0.05) intake during running and protein intake post-stage (p < 0.05). DI during 24 h were low; thus, comparative analyses were not possible. Daily, during running, and post-stage energy, macronutrient and water intake variables were observed to be lower with severity of GIS and DI (p < 0.05) throughout the MSUM only. Conclusions GIS during the MSUM, but not the 24 h, compromised nutritional intake. DI presence and severity also compromised nutrient intake during running and recovery in the MSUM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo J S Costa
- Department of Nutrition & Dietetics, Monash University, Notting Hill, Victoria Australia
| | - Rhiannon Snipe
- Department of Nutrition & Dietetics, Monash University, Notting Hill, Victoria Australia
| | - Vera Camões-Costa
- Department of Nutrition & Dietetics, Monash University, Notting Hill, Victoria Australia
| | - Volker Scheer
- British Forces Germany Health Services, Paderborn, Germany
| | - Andrew Murray
- Centre of Sports & Exercise, Edinburgh University, Edinburgh, UK
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24
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Knechtle B, Rosemann T, Zingg MA, Stiefel M, Rüst CA. Pacing strategy in male elite and age group 100 km ultra-marathoners. Open Access J Sports Med 2015; 6:71-80. [PMID: 25848325 PMCID: PMC4376307 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s79568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Pacing strategy has been investigated in elite 100 km and elite 161 km (100 mile) ultra-marathoners, but not in age group ultra-marathoners. This study investigated changes in running speed over segments in male elite and age group 100 km ultra-marathoners with the assumption that running speed would decrease over segments with increasing age of the athlete. Running speed during segments in male elite and age group finishers for 5-year age groups (ie, 18-24 to 65-69 years) in the 100 km Lauf Biel in Switzerland was investigated during the 2000-2009 period. Average running speed over segment time station (TS) TS1-TS2 (56.1 km) was compared with running speed Start-TS1 (38 km) and Start-TS3 (76.7 km) and running speed TS2-TS3 was compared with running speed Start-Finish. For the top ten athletes in each edition, running speed decreased from 2000 to 2009 for TS1-TS2 and TS2-TS3 (P<0.0001) but not in TS3-Finish (P>0.05). During TS1-TS2, athletes were running at 98.0%±2.1% of the running speed of Start-TS1. In TS2-TS3, they were running at 94.6%±3.4% of the running speed of TS1-TS2. In TS3-Finish, they were running at 95.5%±3.8% of running speed in TS2-TS3. For age group athletes, running speed decreased in TS1-TS2 and TS2-TS3. In TS3-Finish, running speed remained unchanged with the exception of the age group 40-44 years for which running speed increased. Running speed showed the largest decrease in the age group 18-24 years. To summarize, the top ten athletes in each edition maintained their running speed in the last segment (TS3-Finish) although running speed decreased over the first two segments (TS1-TS2 and TS2-TS3). The best pacers were athletes in the age group 40-44 years, who were able to achieve negative pacing in the last segment (TS3-Finish) of the race. The negative pacing in the last segment (TS3-Finish) was likely due to environmental conditions, such as early dawn and the flat circuit in segment TS3-Finish of the race.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ; Gesundheitszentrum St Gallen, St Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Matthias A Zingg
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Stiefel
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph A Rüst
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Zingg MA, Knechtle B, Rosemann T, Rüst CA. Performance differences between sexes in 50-mile to 3,100-mile ultramarathons. Open Access J Sports Med 2015; 6:7-21. [PMID: 25653567 PMCID: PMC4309798 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s76490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Anecdotal reports have assumed that women would be able to outrun men in long-distance running. The aim of this study was to test this assumption by investigating the changes in performance difference between sexes in the best ultramarathoners in 50-mile, 100-mile, 200-mile, 1,000-mile, and 3,100-mile events held worldwide between 1971 and 2012. The sex differences in running speed for the fastest runners ever were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance with subsequent Tukey–Kramer posthoc analysis. Changes in sex difference in running speed of the annual fastest were analyzed using linear and nonlinear regression analyses, correlation analyses, and mixed-effects regression analyses. The fastest men ever were faster than the fastest women ever in 50-mile (17.5%), 100-mile (17.4%), 200-mile (9.7%), 1,000-mile (20.2%), and 3,100-mile (18.6%) events. For the ten fastest finishers ever, men were faster than women in 50-mile (17.1%±1.9%), 100-mile (19.2%±1.5%), and 1,000-mile (16.7%±1.6%) events. No correlation existed between sex difference and running speed for the fastest ever (r2=0.0039, P=0.91) and the ten fastest ever (r2=0.15, P=0.74) for all distances. For the annual fastest, the sex difference in running speed decreased linearly in 50-mile events from 14.6% to 8.9%, remained unchanged in 100-mile (18.0%±8.4%) and 1,000-mile (13.7%±9.1%) events, and increased in 3,100-mile events from 12.5% to 16.9%. For the annual ten fastest runners, the performance difference between sexes decreased linearly in 50-mile events from 31.6%±3.6% to 8.9%±1.8% and in 100-mile events from 26.0%±4.4% to 24.7%±0.9%. To summarize, the fastest men were ~17%–20% faster than the fastest women for all distances from 50 miles to 3,100 miles. The linear decrease in sex difference for 50-mile and 100-mile events may suggest that women are reducing the sex gap for these distances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias A Zingg
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ; Gesundheitszentrum St Gallen, St Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph A Rüst
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Romer T, Rüst CA, Zingg MA, Rosemann T, Knechtle B. Age and ultra-marathon performance - 50 to 1,000 km distances from 1969 - 2012. SPRINGERPLUS 2014; 3:693. [PMID: 25520912 PMCID: PMC4258195 DOI: 10.1186/2193-1801-3-693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
We investigated age and performance in distance-limited ultra-marathons held from 50 km to 1,000 km. Age of peak running speed and running speed of the fastest competitors from 1969 to 2012 in 50 km, 100 km, 200 km and 1,000 km ultra-marathons were analyzed using analysis of variance and multi-level regression analyses. The ages of the ten fastest women ever were 40 ± 4 yrs (50 km), 34 ± 7 yrs (100 km), 42 ± 6 yrs (200 km), and 41 ± 5 yrs (1,000 km). The ages were significantly different between 100 km and 200 km and between 100 km and 1,000 km. For men, the ages of the ten fastest ever were 34 ± 6 yrs (50 km), 32 ± 4 yrs (100 km), 44 ± 4 yrs (200 km), and 47 ± 9 yrs (1,000 km). The ages were significantly younger in 50 km compared to 100 km and 200 km and also significantly younger in 100 km compared to 200 km and 1,000 km. The age of the annual ten fastest women decreased in 50 km from 39 ± 8 yrs (1988) to 32 ± 4 yrs (2012) and in men from 35 ± 5 yrs (1977) to 33 ± 5 yrs (2012). In 100 km events, the age of peak running speed of the annual ten fastest women and men remained stable at 34.9 ± 3.2 and 34.5 ± 2.5 yrs, respectively. Peak running speed of top ten runners increased in 50 km and 100 km in women (10.6 ± 1.0 to 15.3 ± 0.7 km/h and 7.3 ± 1.5 to 13.0 ± 0.2 km/h, respectively) and men (14.3 ± 1.2 to 17.5 ± 0.6 km/h and 10.2 ± 1.2 to 15.1 ± 0.2 km/h, respectively). In 200 km and 1,000 km, running speed remained unchanged. In summary, the best male 1,000 km ultra-marathoners were ~15 yrs older than the best male 100 km ultra-marathoners and the best female 1,000 km ultra-marathoners were ~7 yrs older than the best female 100 km ultra-marathoners. The age of the fastest 50 km ultra-marathoners decreased across years whereas it remained unchanged in 100 km ultra-marathoners. These findings may help athletes and coaches to plan an ultra-marathoner's career. Future studies are needed on the mechanisms by which the fastest runners in the long ultra-marathons tend to be older than those in shorter ultra-marathons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Romer
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland
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Rüst CA, Zingg MA, Rosemann T, Knechtle B. Will the age of peak ultra-marathon performance increase with increasing race duration? BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2014; 6:36. [PMID: 25337390 PMCID: PMC4204392 DOI: 10.1186/2052-1847-6-36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Background Recent studies found that the athlete’s age of the best ultra-marathon performance was higher than the athlete’s age of the best marathon performance and it seemed that the athlete’s age of peak ultra-marathon performance increased in distance-limited races with rising distance. Methods We investigated the athlete’s age of peak ultra-marathon performance in the fastest finishers in time-limited ultra-marathons from 6 hrs to 10 d. Running performance and athlete’s age of the fastest women and men competing in 6 hrs, 12 hrs, 24 hrs, 48 hrs, 72 hrs, 144 hrs (6 d) and 240 hrs (10 d) were analysed for races held between 1975 and 2012 using analysis of variance and multi-level regression analysis. Results The athlete’s ages of the ten fastest women ever in 6 hrs, 12 hrs, 24 hrs, 48 hrs, 72 hrs, 6 d and 10 d were 41 ± 9, 41 ± 6, 42 ± 5, 46 ± 5, 44 ± 6, 42 ± 4, and 37 ± 4 yrs, respectively. The athlete’s age of the ten fastest women was different between 48 hrs and 10 d. For men, the athlete’s ages were 35 ± 6, 37 ± 9, 39 ± 8, 44 ± 7, 48 ± 3, 48 ± 8 and 48 ± 6 yrs, respectively. The athlete’s age of the ten fastest men in 6 hrs and 12 hrs was lower than the athlete’s age of the ten fastest men in 72 hrs, 6 d and 10 d, respectively. Conclusion The athlete’s age of peak ultra-marathon performance did not increase with rising race duration in the best ultra-marathoners. For the fastest women ever in time-limited races, the athlete’s age was lowest in 10 d (~37 yrs) and highest in 48 hrs (~46 yrs). For men, the athlete’s age of the fastest ever in 6 hrs (~35 yrs) and 12 hrs (~37 yrs) was lower than the athlete’s age of the ten fastest in 72 hrs (~48 yrs), 6 d (~48 yrs) and 10 d (~48 yrs). The differences in the athlete’s age of peak performance between female and male ultra-marathoners for the different race durations need further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ; Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland ; Facharzt FMH für Allgemeinmedizin, Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland
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Knechtle B. Relationship of anthropometric and training characteristics with race performance in endurance and ultra-endurance athletes. Asian J Sports Med 2014; 5:73-90. [PMID: 25834701 PMCID: PMC4374609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/17/2013] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A variety of anthropometric and training characteristics have been identified as predictor variables for race performance in endurance and ultra-endurance athletes. Anthropometric characteristics such as skin-fold thicknesses, body fat, circumferences and length of limbs, body mass, body height, and body mass index were bi-variately related to race performance in endurance athletes such as swimmers in pools and in open water, in road and mountain bike cyclists, and in runners and triathletes over different distances. Additionally, training variables such as volume and speed were also bi-variately associated with race performance. Multi-variate regression analyses including anthropometric and training characteristics reduced the predictor variables mainly to body fat and speed during training units. Further multi-variate regression analyses including additionally the aspects of previous experience such as personal best times showed that mainly previous best time in shorter races were the most important predictors for ultra-endurance race times. Ultra-endurance athletes seemed to prepare differently for their races compared to endurance athletes where ultra-endurance athletes invested more time in training and completed more training kilometers at lower speed compared to endurance athletes. In conclusion, the most important predictor variables for ultra-endurance athletes were a fast personal best time in shorter races, a low body fat and a high speed during training units.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland,Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland,Corresponding Author: Facharzt FMH für Allgemeinmedizin Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen Vadianstrasse 26 9001 St. Gallen Switzerland
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Perturbed energy balance and hydration status in ultra-endurance runners during a 24 h ultra-marathon. Br J Nutr 2014; 112:428-37. [PMID: 24818799 DOI: 10.1017/s0007114514000907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The present study aimed to assess the adequacy of energy, macronutrients and water intakes of ultra-endurance runners (UER) competing in a 24 h ultra-marathon (distance range: 122-208 km). The ad libitum food and fluid intakes of the UER (n 25) were recorded throughout the competition and analysed using dietary analysis software. Body mass (BM), urinary ketone presence, plasma osmolality (POsmol) and volume change were determined at pre- and post-competition time points. Data were analysed using appropriate t tests, with significance set at P <0·05. The total energy intake and expenditure of the UER were 20 (sd 12) and 55 (sd 11) MJ, respectively (control (CON) (n 17): 12 (sd 1) and 14 (sd 5) MJ, respectively). The protein, carbohydrate and fat intakes of the UER were 1·1 (sd 0·4), 11·3 (sd 7·0) and 1·5 (sd 0·7) g/kg BM, respectively. The rate of carbohydrate intake during the competition was 37 (sd 24) g/h. The total water intake of the UER was 9·1 (sd 4·0) litres (CON: 2·1 (sd 1·0) litres), while the rate of water intake was 378 (sd 164) ml/h. Significant BM loss occurred at pre- to post-competition time points (P =0·001) in the UER (1·6 (sd 2·0) %). No significant changes in POsmol values were observed at pre- (285 (sd 11) mOsmol/kg) to post-competition (287 (sd 10) mOsmol/kg) time points in the UER and were lower than those recorded in the CON group (P <0·05). However, plasma volume (PV) increased at post-competition time points in the UER (10·2 (sd 9·7) %; P <0·001). Urinary ketones were evident in the post-competition samples of 90 % of the UER. Energy deficit was observed in all the UER, with only one UER achieving the benchmark recommendations for carbohydrate intake during endurance exercise. Despite the relatively low water intake rates recorded in the UER, hypohydration does not appear to be an issue, considering increases in PV values observed in the majority (80 %) of the UER. Population-specific dietary recommendations may be beneficial and warranted.
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Zingg MA, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R, Knechtle B. Runners in their forties dominate ultra-marathons from 50 to 3,100 miles. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 2014; 69:203-11. [PMID: 24626948 PMCID: PMC3935130 DOI: 10.6061/clinics/2014(03)11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2013] [Revised: 09/18/2013] [Accepted: 09/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study investigated performance trends and the age of peak running speed in ultra-marathons from 50 to 3,100 miles. METHODS The running speed and age of the fastest competitors in 50-, 100-, 200-, 1,000- and 3,100-mile events held worldwide from 1971 to 2012 were analyzed using single- and multi-level regression analyses. RESULTS The number of events and competitors increased exponentially in 50- and 100-mile events. For the annual fastest runners, women improved in 50-mile events, but not men. In 100-mile events, both women and men improved their performance. In 1,000-mile events, men became slower. For the annual top ten runners, women improved in 50- and 100-mile events, whereas the performance of men remained unchanged in 50- and 3,100-mile events but improved in 100-mile events. The age of the annual fastest runners was approximately 35 years for both women and men in 50-mile events and approximately 35 years for women in 100-mile events. For men, the age of the annual fastest runners in 100-mile events was higher at 38 years. For the annual fastest runners of 1,000-mile events, the women were approximately 43 years of age, whereas for men, the age increased to 48 years of age. For the annual fastest runners of 3,100-mile events, the age in women decreased to 35 years and was approximately 39 years in men. CONCLUSION The running speed of the fastest competitors increased for both women and men in 100-mile events but only for women in 50-mile events. The age of peak running speed increased in men with increasing race distance to approximately 45 years in 1,000-mile events, whereas it decreased to approximately 39 years in 3,100-mile events. In women, the upper age of peak running speed increased to approximately 51 years in 3,100-mile events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Alexander Zingg
- University of Zurich, Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, Zurich, Switzerland, University of Zurich, Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Alexander Rüst
- University of Zurich, Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, Zurich, Switzerland, University of Zurich, Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- University of Zurich, Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, Zurich, Switzerland, University of Zurich, Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Lepers
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, INSERM U1093, Dijon, France, University of Burgundy, Faculty of Sport Sciences, INSERM U1093, Dijon, France
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland, Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
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Zingg MA, Karner-Rezek K, Rosemann T, Knechtle B, Lepers R, Rüst CA. Will women outrun men in ultra-marathon road races from 50 km to 1,000 km? SPRINGERPLUS 2014; 3:97. [PMID: 24616840 PMCID: PMC3945434 DOI: 10.1186/2193-1801-3-97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Accepted: 02/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
It has been assumed that women would be able to outrun men in ultra-marathon running. The present study investigated the sex differences in running speed in ultra-marathons held worldwide from 50 km to 1,000 km. Changes in running speeds and the sex differences in running speeds in the annual fastest finishers in 50 km, 100 km, 200 km and 1,000 km events held worldwide from 1969–2012 were analysed using linear, non-linear and multi-level regression analyses. For the annual fastest and the annual ten fastest finishers, running speeds increased non-linearly in 50 km and 100 km, but not in 200 km and 1,000 km where running speeds remained unchanged for the annual fastest. The sex differences decreased non-linearly in 50 km and 100 km, but not in 200 and 1,000 km where the sex difference remained unchanged for the annual fastest. For the fastest women and men ever, the sex difference in running speed was lowest in 100 km (5.0%) and highest in 50 km (15.4%). For the ten fastest women and men ever, the sex difference was lowest in 100 km (10.0 ± 3.0%) and highest in 200 km (27.3 ± 5.7%). For both the fastest (r2 = 0.003, p = 0.82) and the ten fastest finishers ever (r2 = 0.34, p = 0.41) in 50 km, 100 km, 200 km and 1,000 km, we found no correlation between sex difference in performance and running speed. To summarize, the sex differences in running speeds decreased non-linearly in 50 km and 100 km but remained unchanged in 200 km and 1,000 km, and the sex differences in running speeds showed no change with increasing length of the race distance. These findings suggest that it is very unlikely that women will ever outrun men in ultra-marathons held from 50 km to 100 km.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Alexander Zingg
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Klaus Karner-Rezek
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Lepers
- INSERM U1093, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
| | - Christoph Alexander Rüst
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Zingg MA, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R, Knechtle B. Analysis of swimming performance in FINA World Cup long-distance open water races. EXTREME PHYSIOLOGY & MEDICINE 2014; 3:2. [PMID: 24382200 PMCID: PMC3877866 DOI: 10.1186/2046-7648-3-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Background Age and peak performance in ultra-endurance athletes have been mainly investigated in long-distance runners and triathletes, but not for long-distance swimmers. The present study investigated the age and swimming performance of elite ultra-distance swimmers competing in the 5-, 10- and 25-km Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) World Cup swimming events. Methods The associations of age and swimming speed in elite male and female swimmers competing in World Cup events of 5-, 10- and 25-km events from 2000 to 2012 were analysed using single and multi-level regression analyses. Results During the studied period, the swimming speed of the annual top ten women decreased significantly from 4.94 ± 0.20 to 4.77 ± 0.09 km/h in 5 km and from 4.60 ± 0.04 to 4.44 ± 0.08 km/h in 25 km, while it significantly increased from 4.57 ± 0.01 to 5.75 ± 0.01 km/h in 10 km. For the annual top ten men, peak swimming speed decreased significantly from 5.42 ± 0.04 to 5.39 ± 0.02 km/h in 5 km, while it remained unchanged at 5.03 ± 0.32 km/h in 10 km and at 4.94 ± 0.35 km/h in 25 km. The age of peak swimming speed for the annual top ten women remained stable at 22.5 ± 1.2 years in 5 km, at 23.4 ± 0.9 years in 10 km and at 23.8 ± 0.9 years in 25 km. For the annual top ten men, the age of peak swimming speed increased from 23.7 ± 2.8 to 28.0 ± 5.1 years in 10 km but remained stable at 24.8 ± 1.0 years in 5 km and at 27.2 ± 1.1 years in 25 km. Conclusion Female long-distance swimmers competing in FINA World Cup races between 2000 and 2012 improved in 10 km but impaired in 5 and 25 km, whereas men only impaired in 5 km. The age of peak performance was younger in women (approximately 23 years) compared to men (about 25–27 years).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Beat Knechtle
- Facharzt FMH für Allgemeinmedizin, Gesundheitszentrum St, Gallen, Vadianstrasse 26, St, Gallen, 9001 Switzerland.
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Whyte G. Age, sex and (the) race: gender and geriatrics in the ultra-endurance age. EXTREME PHYSIOLOGY & MEDICINE 2014; 3:1. [PMID: 24380378 PMCID: PMC3877880 DOI: 10.1186/2046-7648-3-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Accepted: 11/15/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Ultra-endurance challenges were once the stuff of legend isolated to the daring few who were driven to take on some of the greatest physical endurance challenges on the planet. With a growing fascination for major physical challenges during the nineteenth century, the end of the Victorian era witnessed probably the greatest ultra-endurance race of all time; Scott and Amundsen’s ill-fated race to the South Pole. Ultra-endurance races continued through the twentieth century; however, these events were isolated to the elite few. In the twenty-first century, mass participation ultra-endurance races have grown in popularity. Endurance races once believed to be at the limit of human durability, i.e. marathon running, are now viewed as middle-distance races with the accolade of true endurance going to those willing to travel significantly further in a single effort or over multiple days. The recent series of papers in Extreme Physiology & Medicine highlights the burgeoning research data from mass participation ultra-endurance events. In support of a true ‘mass participation’ ethos Knetchtle et al. reported age-related changes in Triple and Deca Iron-ultra-triathlon with an upper age of 69 years! Unlike their shorter siblings, the ultra-endurance races appear to present larger gender differences in the region of 20% to 30% across distance and modality. It would appear that these gender differences remain for multi-day events including the ‘Marathon des Sables’; however, this gap may be narrower in some events, particularly those that require less load bearing (i.e. swimming and cycling), as evidenced from the ‘Ultraman Hawaii’ and ‘Swiss Cycling Marathon’, and shorter (a term I used advisedly!) distances including the Ironman Triathlon where differences are similar to those of sprint and endurance distances i.e. c. 10%. The theme running through this series of papers is a continual rise in participation to the point where major events now require selection races to remain within reasonable limits. With the combination of distance and environment placing a significant physiological bordering on pathophysiological burden on the participants of such events, one question remains: Are we destined for another Scott vs. Amundsen? How long is too long?
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg Whyte
- Research Institute for Sport & Exercise Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, England.
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Cejka N, Rüst CA, Lepers R, Onywera V, Rosemann T, Knechtle B. Participation and performance trends in 100-km ultra-marathons worldwide. J Sports Sci 2013; 32:354-66. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2013.825729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Rüst CA, Knechtle B, Eichenberger E, Rosemann T, Lepers R. Finisher and performance trends in female and male mountain ultramarathoners by age group. Int J Gen Med 2013; 6:707-18. [PMID: 23986647 PMCID: PMC3754490 DOI: 10.2147/ijgm.s46984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background This study examined changes according to age group in the number of finishers and running times for athletes in female and male mountain ultramarathoners competing in the 78 km Swiss Alpine Marathon, the largest mountain ultramarathon in Europe and held in high alpine terrain. Methods The association between age and performance was investigated using analysis of variance and both single and multilevel regression analyses. Results Between 1998 and 2011, a total of 1,781 women and 12,198 men finished the Swiss Alpine Marathon. The number of female finishers increased (r2 = 0.64, P = 0.001), whereas the number of male finishers (r2 = 0.18, P = 0.15) showed no change. The annual top ten men became older and slower, whereas the annual top ten women became older but not slower. Regarding the number of finishers in the age groups, the number of female finishers decreased in the age group 18–24 years, whereas the number of finishers increased in the age groups 30–34, 40–44, 45–49, 50–54, 55–59, 60–64, and 70–74 years. In the age groups 25–29 and 35–39 years, the number of finishers showed no changes across the years. In the age group 70–74 years, the increase in number of finishers was linear. For all other age groups, the increase was exponential. For men, the number of finishers decreased in the age groups 18–24, 25–29, 30–34, and 35–39 years. In the age groups 40–44, 45–49, 50–54, 55–59, 60–64, 70–74, and 75–79 years, the number of finishers increased. In the age group 40–44 years, the increase was linear. For all other age groups, the increase was exponential. Female finishers in the age group 40–44 years became faster over time. For men, finishers in the age groups 18–24, 25–29, 30–34, 40–44, and 45–49 years became slower. Conclusion The number of women older than 30 years and men older than 40 years increased in the Swiss Alpine Marathon. Performance improved in women aged 40–44 years but decreased in male runners aged 18–49 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Alexander Rüst
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Meili D, Knechtle B, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R. Participation and performance trends in 'Ultraman Hawaii' from 1983 to 2012. EXTREME PHYSIOLOGY & MEDICINE 2013; 2:25. [PMID: 23916227 PMCID: PMC3751086 DOI: 10.1186/2046-7648-2-25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Accepted: 05/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Participation and performance trends have been investigated in a single stage Ironman triathlon such as the 'Ironman Hawaii,' but not for a multi-stage ultra-triathlon such as the 'Ultraman Hawaii' covering a total distance of 515 km. The aims of this study were to analyze (1) changes in participation and performance, (2) sex-related differences in overall and split time performances, and (3) the age of peak performance in Ultraman Hawaii. METHODS Age and race times including split times for 98 women and 570 men who successfully finished Ultraman Hawaii (day 1 with 10-km swimming and 145-km cycling, day 2 with 276-km cycling, and day 3 with 84-km running) between 1983 and 2012 were analyzed. Changes in variables over time of annual winners and annual top three women and men were investigated using simple linear regression analyses. RESULTS The number of female finishers increased (r2 = 0.26, p < 0.01), while the number of male finishers remained stable (r2 = 0.03, p > 0.05). Overall race times decreased for both female (r2 = 0.28, p < 0.01) and male (r2 = 0.14, p < 0.05) winners and for both the annual top three women (r2 = 0.36, p < 0.01) and men (r2 = 0.14, p = 0.02). The sex difference in performance decreased over time from 24.3% to 11.5% (r2 = 0.39, p < 0.01). For the split disciplines, the time performance in cycling on day 1 (r2 = 0.20, p < 0.01) and day 2 decreased significantly for men (r2 = 0.41, p < 0.01) but for women only on day 2 (r2 = 0.45, p < 0.01). Split times showed no changes in swimming and running. The age of the annual winners increased from 28 to 47 years for men (r2 = 0.35, p < 0.01) while it remained stable at 32 ± 6 years for women (r2 < 0.01, p > 0.05). The age of the annual top three finishers increased from 33 ± 6 years to 48 ± 3 years for men (p < 0.01) and from 29 ± 7 years to 49 ± 2 years for women (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS Both the annual top three women and men improved performance in Ultraman Hawaii during the 1983-2012 period although the age of the annual top three women and men increased. The sex-related difference in performance decreased over time to reach approximately 12% similar to the reports of other endurance and ultra-endurance events. Further investigations are required to better understand the limiting factors of the multi-activities ultra-endurance events taking place over several days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimirela Meili
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Pestalozzistrasse 24, Zurich 8091, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Pestalozzistrasse 24, Zurich 8091, Switzerland
- Facharzt FMH für Allgemeinmedizin, Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, Vadianstrasse 26, St. Gallen 9001, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Alexander Rüst
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Pestalozzistrasse 24, Zurich 8091, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Pestalozzistrasse 24, Zurich 8091, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Lepers
- INSERM U1093, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, UFR STAPS, BP 27877, Dijon Cedex 21078, France
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Jampen SC, Knechtle B, Rüst CA, Lepers R, Rosemann T. Increase in finishers and improvement of performance of masters runners in the Marathon des Sables. Int J Gen Med 2013; 6:427-38. [PMID: 23776392 PMCID: PMC3681330 DOI: 10.2147/ijgm.s45265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim The aim of the study was to examine finisher and performance trends of ultrarunners in the Marathon des Sables, the world’s largest multistage ultramarathon. Methods The age and running speed was analyzed for 6945 finishes of 909 women and 6036 men between 2003 and 2012 at the Marathon des Sables covering about 240 km in the Moroccan desert. Results The number of finishes increased significantly for both women and men from 2003–2012. The annual number of finishes increased in age groups: 30–34 years (r2 = 0.50; P = 0.021), 45–49 years (r2 = 0.81; P = 0.0004), and 50–54 years (r2 = 0.46; P = 0.029) for women and in all age groups older than 35 years for men (35–39 years: r2 = 0.64, P = 0.0054; 40–44 years: r2 = 0.67, P = 0.0036; 45–49 years: r2 = 0.77, P = 0.0007; 50–54 years: r2 = 0.72, P = 0.0018; 55–59 years: r2 = 0.42, P = 0.041; and 60–64 years: r2 = 0.67, P = 0.0038). The fastest running speed was achieved by runners in the age group of 35–39 years for both sexes. The mean age of overall finishers was 41.0 ± 9.1 years for women and 41.3 ± 9.5 years for men. For men, running speed improved for athletes in the age group of 35–39 years (r2 = 0.44; P = 0.036) and of 40–44 years (r2 = 0.51; P = 0.019), while it decreased for athletes in the age group of 30–34 years (r2 = 0.66, P = 0.0039). For women, running speed remained stable during the study period for athletes in all age groups. Conclusion These data suggest that the number of finishers of masters runners older than 40 years increased for both sexes at the Marathon des Sables, as has been previously observed for single-stage ultramarathons. In contrast to women, men aged 35 to 44 years improved running speed during the study period. Future studies are needed to investigate the reasons for the growing numbers of masters athletes in endurance sports and their improvement in performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Carolin Jampen
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Teutsch U, Knechtle B, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R. Age group athletes in inline skating: decrease in overall and increase in master athlete participation in the longest inline skating race in Europe - the Inline One-Eleven. Int J Gen Med 2013; 6:345-55. [PMID: 23690697 PMCID: PMC3656816 DOI: 10.2147/ijgm.s45004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Participation and performance trends in age group athletes have been investigated in endurance and ultraendurance races in swimming, cycling, running, and triathlon, but not in long-distance inline skating. The aim of this study was to investigate trends in participation, age, and performance in the longest inline race in Europe, the Inline One-Eleven over 111 km, held between 1998 and 2009. METHODS The total number, age distribution, age at the time of the competition, and race times of male and female finishers at the Inline One-Eleven were analyzed. RESULTS Overall participation increased until 2003 but decreased thereafter. During the 12-year period, the relative participation in skaters younger than 40 years old decreased while relative participation increased for skaters older than 40 years. The mean top ten skating time was 199 ± 9 minutes (range: 189-220 minutes) for men and 234 ± 17 minutes (range: 211-271 minutes) for women, respectively. The gender difference in performance remained stable at 17% ± 5% across years. CONCLUSION To summarize, although the participation of master long-distance inline skaters increased, the overall participation decreased across years in the Inline One-Eleven. The race times of the best female and male skaters stabilized across years with a gender difference in performance of 17% ± 5%. Further studies should focus on the participation in the international World Inline Cup races.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uwe Teutsch
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Zingg MA, Knechtle B, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R. Analysis of participation and performance in athletes by age group in ultramarathons of more than 200 km in length. Int J Gen Med 2013; 6:209-20. [PMID: 23589700 PMCID: PMC3625029 DOI: 10.2147/ijgm.s43454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Participation and performance trends for athletes by age group have been investigated for marathoners and ultramarathoners competing in races up to 161 km, but not for longer distances of more than 200 km. Methods Participation and performance trends in athletes by age group in the Badwater (217 km) and Spartathlon (246 km) races were compared from 2000 to 2012. Results The number of female and male finishers increased in both races across years (P < 0.05). The age of the annual five fastest men decreased in Badwater from 42.4 ± 4.2 years to 39.8 ± 5.7 years (r2 = 0.33, P = 0.04). For women, the age remained unchanged at 42.3 ± 3.8 years in Badwater (P > 0.05). In Spartathlon, the age of the annual five fastest finishers was unchanged at 39.7 ± 2.4 years for men and 44.6 ± 3.2 years for women (P > 0.05). In Badwater, running speed increased in men from 7.9 ± 0.7 km/hour to 8.7 ± 0.6 km/hour (r2 = 0.51, P < 0.01) and in women from 5.4 ± 1.1 km/hour to 6.6 ± 0.5 km/hour (r2 = 0.61, P < 0.01). In Spartathlon, running speed remained unchanged at 10.8 ± 0.7 km/hour in men and 8.7 ± 0.5 km/hour in women (P > 0.05). In Badwater, the number of men in age groups 30–34 years (r2 = 0.37, P = 0.03) and 40–44 years (r2 = 0.75, P < 0.01) increased. In Spartathlon, the number of men increased in the age group 40–44 years (r2 = 0.33, P = 0.04). Men in age groups 30–34 (r2 = 0.64, P < 0.01), 35–39 (r2 = 0.33, P = 0.04), 40–44 (r2 = 0.34, P = 0.04), and 55–59 years (r2 = 0.40, P = 0.02) improved running speed in Badwater. In Spartathlon, no change in running speed was observed. Conclusion The fastest finishers in ultramarathons more than 200 km in distance were 40–45 years old and have to be classified as “master runners” by definition. In contrast to reports of marathoners and ultramarathoners competing in races of 161 km in distance, the increase in participation and the improvement in performance by age group were less pronounced in ultramarathoners competing in races of more than 200 km.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias A Zingg
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Sigg K, Knechtle B, Rüst CA, Knechtle P, Lepers R, Rosemann T. Sex difference in Double Iron ultra-triathlon performance. EXTREME PHYSIOLOGY & MEDICINE 2013; 2:12. [PMID: 23849631 PMCID: PMC3710139 DOI: 10.1186/2046-7648-2-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2012] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The present study examined the sex difference in swimming (7.8 km), cycling (360 km), running (84 km), and overall race times for Double Iron ultra-triathletes. METHODS Sex differences in split times and overall race times of 1,591 men and 155 women finishing a Double Iron ultra-triathlon between 1985 and 2012 were analyzed. RESULTS The annual number of finishes increased linearly for women and exponentially for men. Men achieved race times of 1,716 ± 243 min compared to 1,834 ± 261 min for women and were 118 ± 18 min (6.9%) faster (p < 0.01). Men finished swimming within 156 ± 63 min compared to women with 163 ± 31 min and were 8 ± 32 min (5.1 ± 5.0%) faster (p < 0.01). For cycling, men (852 ± 196 min) were 71 ± 70 min (8.3 ± 3.5%) faster than women (923 ± 126 min) (p < 0.01). Men completed the run split within 710 ± 145 min compared to 739 ± 150 min for women and were 30 ± 5 min (4.2 ± 3.4%) faster (p = 0.03). The annual three fastest men improved race time from 1,650 ± 114 min in 1985 to 1,339 ± 33 min in 2012 (p < 0.01). Overall race time for women remained unchanged at 1,593 ± 173 min with an unchanged sex difference of 27.1 ± 8.6%. In swimming, the split times for the annual three fastest women (148 ± 14 min) and men (127 ± 20 min) remained unchanged with an unchanged sex difference of 26.8 ± 13.5%. In cycling, the annual three fastest men improved the split time from 826 ± 60 min to 666 ± 18 min (p = 0.02). For women, the split time in cycling remained unchanged at 844 ± 54 min with an unchanged sex difference of 25.2 ± 7.3%. In running, the annual fastest three men improved split times from 649 ± 77 min to 532 ± 16 min (p < 0.01). For women, however, the split times remained unchanged at 657 ± 70 min with a stable sex difference of 32.4 ± 12.5%. CONCLUSIONS To summarize, the present findings showed that men were faster than women in Double Iron ultra-triathlon, men improved overall race times, cycling and running split times, and the sex difference remained unchanged across years for overall race time and split times. The sex differences for overall race times and split times were higher than reported for Ironman triathlon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Sigg
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Facharzt FMH für Allgemeinmedizin, Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, Vadianstrasse 26, St. Gallen, 9011, Switzerland
| | - Christoph A Rüst
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Romuald Lepers
- INSERM U1093, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Shoak MA, Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R. Participation and performance trends in ultracycling. Open Access J Sports Med 2013; 4:41-51. [PMID: 24379708 PMCID: PMC3871902 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s40142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Participation and performance trends have been investigated in ultramarathons and ultratriathlons but not in ultracycling. The aim of the present study was to investigate (1) participation and performance trends in ultraendurance cyclists, (2) changes in cycling speed over the years, and (3) the age of the fastest male and female ultraendurance cyclists. Methods Participation and performance trends in the 5000 km Race Across America (RAAM) and in two RAAM-qualifier races – the 818 km Furnace Creek 508 in the United States and the 715 km Swiss Cycling Marathon in Europe – were investigated using linear regression analyses and analyses of variance. Results On average, ~41% of participants did not finish either the RAAM or the Furnace Creek 508, whereas ~26% did not finish the Swiss Cycling Marathon. Female finishers accounted for ~11% in both the RAAM and the Furnace Creek 508 but only ~3% in the Swiss Cycling Marathon. The mean cycling speed of all finishers remained unchanged during the studied periods. The winner’s average speed was faster for men than for women in the RAAM (22.6 ± 1.1 km · h−1 versus 18.4 ± 1.7 km · h−1, respectively; average speed difference between male and female winners, 25.0% ± 11.9%), the Swiss Cycling Marathon (30.8 ± 0.8 km · h−1 versus 24.4 ± 1.9 km · h−1, respectively; average speed difference between male and female winners, 27.8% ± 9.4%), and the Furnace Creek 508 (27.4 ± 1.6 km · h−1 versus 23.4 ± 3.0 km · h−1, respectively; average speed difference between male and female winners, 18.4% ± 13.9%). In both the Furnace Creek 508 and the Swiss Cycling Marathon, ~46% of the finishers were aged between 35 and 49 years. The mean age of winners, both male and female, across the years in the Furnace Creek 508 and in the Swiss Cycling Marathon was 37 ± 10 years. Conclusion These findings in ultracycling races showed that (1) ~26%–40% of starters were unable to finish, (2) the percentage of female finishers was ~3%–11%, (3) the gender difference in performance was ~18%–28%, and (4) ~46% of the successful finishers were master athletes. Future studies need to investigate the reasons for the low female participation and focus on the age-related performance decline in other ultraendurance events in order to confirm that master athletes are predisposed to ultraendurance performances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohannad Abou Shoak
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ; Gesundheitszentrum St Gallen, St Gallen, Switzerland
| | | | - Christoph Alexander Rüst
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Lepers
- INSERM U1093, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
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Rüst CA, Knechtle B, Rosemann T. Women achieve peak freestyle swim speed at earlier ages than men. Open Access J Sports Med 2012; 3:189-99. [PMID: 24198602 PMCID: PMC3781914 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s38174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The age of peak swim performance has been investigated for freestyle swimmers for distances ranging from 50 m to 1500 m among swimmers aged 19 to 99 years. However, studies have yet to investigate the 10 to 19 year-old age group. The aims of the present study were (1) to investigate the age range of peak freestyle swim speed, and (2) to find differences in age range and peak freestyle swim speed between male and female freestyle swimmers from 50 m to 1500 m at a national level. Methods The changes in age range and peak freestyle swim speed among Swiss elite freestyle swimmers aged 0–9 years and 70–79 years who were ranked on the Swiss high score list between 2006 and 2010 were analyzed using linear regression analyses and analysis of variance. Results Men were fastest at ages 22–23 years for 100 m and 200 m; at ages 24–25 years for 400 m and 800 m; and at 26–27 years for 50 m and 1500 m. Women achieved peak freestyle swim speed at ages 20–21 years for all distances with the exception of 800 m. In the 800 m, women were fastest at ages 26–27 years. The difference in peak freestyle swim speed decreased with increasing swim distance from 50 m to 800 m (ie, 13.1% ± 1.3% in 50 m; 13.2% ± 0.9% in 100 m; 10.8% ± 0.9% in 200 m; 7.9% ± 1.3% in 400 m; and 4.2% ± 2.0% in 800 m). For 1500 m, however, the gender difference increased to 6.4% ± 2.3%. Conclusion These findings suggest that peak freestyle swim speed is achieved at lower age ranges in women when compared to men at 50 m to 1500 m, but not at 800 m. The gender difference in peak freestyle swim speed decreased with increasing swim distance from 50 m to 800 m, but not for 1500 m. These data should be confirmed with swimmers at an international level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Alexander Rüst
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Knechtle B, Eichenberger E, Rüst CA, Lepers R, Rosemann T, Onywera VO. The aspect of nationality and performance in a mountain ultra-marathon - the ‘Swiss Alpine Marathon’. JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT AND EXERCISE 2012. [DOI: 10.4100/jhse.2012.74.03] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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