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Born DP, Romann M, Lorentzen J, Zumbach D, Feldmann A, Ruiz-Navarro JJ. Sprinting to the top: comparing quality of distance variety and specialization between swimmers and runners. Front Sports Act Living 2024; 6:1431594. [PMID: 39161627 PMCID: PMC11330820 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2024.1431594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 08/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Objectives To compare performance progression and variety in race distances of comparable lengths (timewise) between pool swimming and track running. Quality of within-sport variety was determined as the performance differences between individual athletes' main and secondary race distances across (top-) elite and (highly-) trained swimmers and runners. Methods A total of 3,827,947 race times were used to calculate performance points (race times relative to the world record) for freestyle swimmers (n = 12,588 males and n = 7,561 females) and track runners (n = 9,230 males and n = 5,841 females). Athletes were ranked based on their personal best at peak performance age, then annual best times were retrospectively traced throughout adolescence. Results Performance of world-class swimmers differentiates at an earlier age from their lower ranked peers (15-16 vs. 17-20 year age categories, P < 0.05), but also plateaus earlier towards senior age compared to runners (19-20 vs. 23 + year age category, P < 0.05), respectively. Performance development of swimmers shows a logarithmic pattern, while runners develop linearly. While swimmers compete in more secondary race distances (larger within-sport variety), runners specialize in either sprint, middle- or long-distance early in their career and compete in only 2, 4 or 3 other race distances, respectively. In both sports, sprinters specialize the most (P < 0.05). Distance-variety of middle-distance swimmers covers more longer rather than sprint race distances. Therefore, at peak performance age, (top-) elite female 200 m swimmers show significantly slower sprint performances, i.e., 50 m (P < 0.001) and 100 m (P < 0.001), but not long-distance performances, i.e., 800 m (P = 0.99) and 1,500 m (P = 0.99). In contrast, (top-) elite female 800 m middle-distance runners show significantly slower performances in all their secondary race distances (P < 0.001). (Top-) elite female athletes specialize more than (highly-) trained athletes in both sports (P < 0.05). Conclusions The comparison to track running and lower ranked swimmers, the early performance plateau towards senior age, and the maintenance of a large within-sport distance variety indicates that (top-) elite sprint swimmers benefit from greater within-sport specialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis-Peter Born
- Swiss Development Hub for Strength and Conditioning in Swimming, Swiss Swimming Federation, Worblaufen, Switzerland
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
- Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Michael Romann
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
- Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Jenny Lorentzen
- Swiss Development Hub for Strength and Conditioning in Swimming, Swiss Swimming Federation, Worblaufen, Switzerland
| | - David Zumbach
- Performance Sport, Swiss Athletics Federation, Ittigen, Switzerland
| | - Andri Feldmann
- Performance Sport, Swiss Athletics Federation, Ittigen, Switzerland
- Institute of Sport Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Jesús J. Ruiz-Navarro
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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Born DP, Lorentzen J, Björklund G, Stöggl T, Romann M. Variation vs. specialization: the dose-time-effect of technical and physiological variety in the development of elite swimmers. BMC Res Notes 2024; 17:48. [PMID: 38355679 PMCID: PMC10865614 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-024-06706-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE It is heavily discussed whether larger variety or specialization benefit elite performance at peak age. Therefore, this study aimed to determine technical (number of different swimming strokes) and physiological (number of different race distances) variety required to become an international-class swimmer (> 750 swimming points) based on 1'522'803 race results. RESULTS Correlation analyses showed lower technical variety in higher ranked swimmers (P < 0.001), yet with small effects (0.11-0.30). However, Poisson distribution revealed dose-time-effects and specified number of swimming strokes required during each age group. Specifically, freestyle swimmers showed highest chances when starting to compete in three to four swimming strokes but reduced their variety to three swimming strokes at the ages of 12/13yrs with another transition to two swimming strokes at the ages of 19/21yrs (female/male swimmers, respectively). Although both sexes showed similar specialization pattern throughout their career, earlier specialization was generally evident in female compared to male swimmers. At peak performance age, freestyle was most frequently combined with butterfly. Swimmers who either kept competing in all five swimming strokes or focused on only one at the beginning of their careers showed lowest probability of becoming an international-class swimmer. Physiological variety increased during junior age but declined again to three race distances towards elite age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis-Peter Born
- Swiss Swimming Federation, Section for High-Performance Sports, Bern, Switzerland.
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Hauptstrasse 247, 2532, Magglingen, Switzerland.
| | - Jenny Lorentzen
- Computing in Science, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Glenn Björklund
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Thomas Stöggl
- Red Bull Athlete Performance Center, Thalgau, Austria
| | - Michael Romann
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Hauptstrasse 247, 2532, Magglingen, Switzerland
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Mujika I, Pyne DB, Wu PPY, Ng K, Crowley E, Powell C. Next-Generation Models for Predicting Winning Times in Elite Swimming Events: Updated Predictions for the Paris 2024 Olympic Games. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023; 18:1269-1274. [PMID: 37487585 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate statistical models developed for predicting medal-winning performances for international swimming events and generate updated performance predictions for the Paris 2024 Olympic Games. METHODS The performance of 2 statistical models developed for predicting international swimming performances was evaluated. The first model employed linear regression and forecasting to examine performance trends among medal winners, finalists, and semifinalists over an 8-year period. A machine-learning algorithm was used to generate time predictions for each individual event for the Paris 2024 Olympic Games. The second model was a Bayesian framework and comprised an autoregressive term (the previous winning time), moving average (past 3 events), and covariates for stroke, gender, distance, and type of event (World Championships vs Olympic Games). To examine the accuracy of the predictions from both models, the mean absolute error was determined between the predicted times for the Budapest 2022 World Championships and the actual results from said championships. RESULTS The mean absolute error for prediction of swimming performances was 0.80% for the linear-regression machine-learning model and 0.85% for the Bayesian model. The predicted times and actual times from the Budapest 2022 World Championships were highly correlated (r = .99 for both approaches). CONCLUSIONS These models, and associated predictions for swimming events at the Paris 2024 Olympic Games, provide an evidence-based performance framework for coaches, sport-science support staff, and athletes to develop and evaluate training plans, strategies, and tactics, as well as informing resource allocation to athletes, based on their potential for the Paris 2024 Olympic Games.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iñigo Mujika
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country, Leioa,Basque Country
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago,Chile
| | - David B Pyne
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, Bruce, ACT,Australia
| | - Paul Pao-Yen Wu
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD,Australia
- Centre for Data Science, Brisbane, QLD,Australia
| | - Kwok Ng
- Physical Activity for Health Research Cluster, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick,Ireland
- Faculty of Education, University of Turku, Rauma,Finland
- School of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu,Finland
| | - Emmet Crowley
- Biomechanics Research Unit, Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick,Ireland
- Sport and Human Performance Research Centre, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick,Ireland
| | - Cormac Powell
- Physical Activity for Health Research Cluster, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick,Ireland
- Sport and Human Performance Research Centre, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick,Ireland
- High Performance Unit, Sport Ireland, Sport Ireland Campus, Dublin,Ireland
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González-Ravé JM, del Castillo JA, del Cerro JS, Hermosilla F, Pyne DB. Competition and Training Strategies for Developing World Class 200- and 400-m Individual Medley Swimmers. J Hum Kinet 2023; 89:161-169. [PMID: 38053969 PMCID: PMC10694713 DOI: 10.5114/jhk/167381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Swimming performance achieved in 50-m, 100-m and 200-m events in each swimming stroke can have an influence on the final performance in individual medley (IM) events. We attempted to quantify the relative contributions of performance in individual stroke events to top-10 world ranked IM competition performance. We examined competition results of top-10 world ranked IM swimmers (90 males and 90 females) between 2012 and 2018. A general linear model was developed to examine association between the 200-m and 400-mIM and predictor variables of competition performance in other 50-m, 100-m, and 200-m events. The main predictor variable for 200-mIM medalist status was having scored more than 900 FINA points in at least one 100-m event. Scoring more than 800 FINA points in at least two 200-mIM events, and more than 900 FINA points in at least one 100-m event, was important for success in the 400-mIM. Top-10 world ranked 200-mIM and 400-mIM swimmers require a world class standard in one or more individual stroke event(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- José María González-Ravé
- Faculty of Sports Sciences, Sports Training Laboratory, University of Castilla La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | | | | | - Francisco Hermosilla
- Faculty of Sports Sciences, Sports Training Laboratory, University of Castilla La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
- Department of Physical Activity and Sports Science, Alfonso X El Sabio University, Madrid, Spain
- Faculty of Life and Nature Sciences, Nebrija University, Madrid, Spain
| | - David B. Pyne
- Faculty of Health, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce, Australia
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Gender and Age Patterns in NSGA Swim Competitions. J Aging Res 2022; 2022:8459520. [PMID: 35899186 PMCID: PMC9314169 DOI: 10.1155/2022/8459520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We estimate two common nonlinear models (quadratic and semilog) and one new model (exponential) of the time-age relationship in 500-yard freestyle swim times in the U.S. National Senior Games (ages 50 and up) in six biennial NSGA competitions (2009, 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017, and 2019) for 468 men and 587 women. We use OLS and quantile regression (25%, 50%, and 75%) separately for each gender. The semilog model predicts faster times than the quadratic or exponential models. Our hypothesis that women slow down faster than men after age 50 is supported by both models as well as by our unique within-gender comparisons. Our findings of a nonlinear performance decline agree with studies of elite swimmers (Olympic, FINA). Our first-time study of NSGA data provides new guidelines to inform senior competitors. Our findings will assist trainers and community organizations that support NSGA competitions to promote a healthy senior lifestyle.
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Born DP, Schönfelder M, Logan O, Olstad BH, Romann M. Performance Development of European Swimmers Across the Olympic Cycle. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:894066. [PMID: 35755613 PMCID: PMC9231649 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.894066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The aims of the study were to (1) quantify the performance development of race times and key performance indicators of European swimmers across the last Olympic cycle (from 2016 to 2021) and (2) provide reference values for long-course swimming pool events for both sexes from 50 m to 1,500 m including butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, freestyle, and individual medley. Individual events from the 2016 and 2021 European swimming championships were included. Specifically, 246 men (age: 24.2 ± 3.4 years, FINA points: 890 ± 40) and 256 women races (age: 24.2 ± 4, FINA points: 879 ± 38) of the finalists were recorded and key performance indicators and split times analyzed. Performance differences in finalists of the 2016 and 2021 European championships were determined by an independent t-test and Cohen's d effect size. Reference values were retrieved from 2021 European championship finalists and are provided for all key performance indicators. Race times improved significantly (P < 0.05) or showed moderate (d = 0.5–1) to large effect sizes (d > 1) in 14 (men) and 6 (women) out of 16 events. Improvements were primarily evident in 100 m and 200 m events for males, as well as BR and sprint events for female swimmers. While start times improved in 15 (men) and 14 (women) events, turn times remained inconclusive in both sexes. Generally, breakout distances increased. Clean swimming velocities were faster in 12 (men) and 5 (women) events. In particular, for alternating swimming strokes, i.e., backstroke and freestyle, effect sizes indicated improved swimming efficiency with an inverse relationship between reduced stroke rate and increased distance per stroke. Coaches and performance analysts may use the present reference values as comparative data for race analyses and to specifically prepare swimmers for the various race sections. Data on the performance development should be used to analyze swimmers' potential and set goals for the various events and the next Olympic cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis-Peter Born
- Swiss Swimming Federation, Section for High-Performance Sports, Bern, Switzerland.,Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Michel Schönfelder
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Oliver Logan
- British Swimming Federation, Sportpark, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
| | - Bjørn Harald Olstad
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Michael Romann
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
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Elite Badminton Is Getting Older: Ages of the Top 100 Ranked Badminton Players from 1994 to 2020. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182211779. [PMID: 34831537 PMCID: PMC8625445 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182211779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Revised: 11/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the evolution of the age of badminton players in the top 100 of the World Ranking for men and women from 1994 to 2020. Data were collected from badminton players participating in the top 100 World Rankings (4800 entries: 1233 players; 595 men and 638 women) from 1994 to 2020. The mean age of the top 100 and the average highest ranking of the players were analysed for both genders. The mean age of the male players in the World Ranking increased from 23.7 ± 3.2 years in 1994 to 26.3 ± 4.4 years in 2020 (p < 0.001) and in female players, from 22.8 ± 3.8 years in 1994 to 24.7 ± 3.3 years in 2020 (p < 0.001). In addition, women recorded a younger age at entry into the top 100 and when reaching their best ranking. Additionally, there has been a clear increase in Asian players in the top 100 of the World Ranking in recent years, reaching over 60%. These data could be used to develop and organise training plans in this sport, optimising and maximising players’ performance.
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Hołub M, Stanula A, Baron J, Głyk W, Rosemann T, Knechtle B. Predicting Breaststroke and Butterfly Stroke Results in Swimming Based on Olympics History. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18126621. [PMID: 34202950 PMCID: PMC8296408 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18126621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Here we describe historic variations in Olympic breaststroke and butterfly performance and predict swimming results for the 2021 Olympic Games in Tokyo. The results of the finalists, winners, and last participants in the women’s and men’s finals were analyzed, and a mathematical predictive model was created. The predicted times for the future Olympics were presented. Swimming performance among Olympians has been steadily improving, with record times of 18.51 s for female finalists in the 100 m butterfly (a 24.63% improvement) and 31.33 s for male finalists in the 200 m butterfly (21.44%). The results in all analyzed groups showed improvement in athletic performance, and the gap between the finalists has narrowed. Women Olympians’ performances have improved faster than men’s, reducing the gap between genders. We conclude that swimming performance among Olympians is continuing to improve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maciej Hołub
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (M.H.); (A.S.); (J.B.); (W.G.)
| | - Arkadiusz Stanula
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (M.H.); (A.S.); (J.B.); (W.G.)
| | - Jakub Baron
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (M.H.); (A.S.); (J.B.); (W.G.)
| | - Wojciech Głyk
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (M.H.); (A.S.); (J.B.); (W.G.)
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland;
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Correspondence:
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Post AK, Koning RH, Stoter IK, Visscher C, Elferink-Gemser MT. Interim Performance Progression (IPP) During Consecutive Season Best Performances of Talented Swimmers. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:579008. [PMID: 33345144 PMCID: PMC7739762 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.579008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: The main goal of the present study was to investigate the interim performance progression (IPP) of talented swimmers. Part of this group ultimately made it to the top (referred to as elite swimmers) whereas others did not make it to the top (referred to as high-competitive swimmers). Rather than investigating performance progression based solely on season best performances, we included the first swim performance of the season in the metrics of IPP. Knowledge about the IPP of talented swimmers from and toward their season best performances relative to the first swim performance of the season will enhance our understanding of changes in season best performances during the talent trajectory and provide valuable insights for talent development and selection processes in competitive swimming. Methods: Fifteen thousand nine hundred and forty four swim performances (first swim performances of the season and season best performances) between 1993 and 2019 of 3,199 talented swimmers (of whom 556 reached elite level and 2,643 reached high-competitive level) were collected from Swimrankings and related to the prevailing world record of the corresponding sex. The pattern of IPP was represented by two phases: phase A and phase B. Phase A reflected the performance progression between the previous season best performance and the first swim performance of the current season (PPA) and phase B reflected the performance progression between the first swim performance of the current season and the season best performance of the current season (PPB). Depending on the normality check, we used independent sample t-tests or Mann Whitney tests to establish significant differences in PPA and PPB between elite and high competitive swimmers per age category per sex (p < 0.05). Results: Without denying individual differences, male elite swimmers improved more during phase B from age 15 till 24 compared to high-competitive swimmers (20.5% vs. 13.1%, respectively, p < 0.05). Female elite swimmers improved more during phase B from age 13 till 23 compared to high-competitive swimmers (21.1% vs. 14.6%, respectively, p < 0.05). Except for age 14 in males, there were no significant differences between performance groups in PPA. Conclusion: Talented swimmers who ultimately made it to the top (elite swimmers) are characterized with different patterns of IPP compared to talented swimmers who did not make it to the top (high-competitive swimmers). After puberty, elite and high-competitive swimmers performed in general ~1% slower at the start of their season compared to their previous season best performance (PPA). However, elite swimmers improved more in the period between their first swim performance of the season and their season best performance (PPB) from age 13 (females) and age 15 (males) onwards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aylin K Post
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Ruud H Koning
- Department of Economics, Econometrics & Finance, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Inge K Stoter
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Chris Visscher
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Marije T Elferink-Gemser
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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Variation in competition performance, number of races, and age: Long-term athlete development in elite female swimmers. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242442. [PMID: 33206722 PMCID: PMC7673509 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
While talent development and the contributing factors to success are hardly discussed among the experts in the field, the aim of the study was to investigate annual variation in competition performance (AVCP), number of races per year, and age, as potential success factors for international swimming competitions. Data from 40’277 long-course races, performed by all individual female starters (n = 253) at the 2018 European Swimming Championships (2018EC) for all 10 years prior to these championships, were analyzed. Relationships between 2018EC ranking and potential success factors, i.e., AVCP, number of races per year, and age, were determined using Pearson’s correlation coefficient and multiple linear regression analysis. While AVCP was not related to ranking, higher ranked swimmers at the 2018EC swam more races during each of the ten years prior to the championships (P < 0.001). Additionally, older athletes were more successful (r = -0.42, P < 0.001). The regression model explained highly significant proportions (P < 0.001) and 43%, 34%, 35%, 49% of total variance in the 2018EC ranking for 50m, 100m, 200m, and 400m races, respectively. As number of races per year (β = -0.29 –-0.40) had a significant effect on ranking of 50-400m races, and age (β = -0.40 –-0.61) showed a significant effect on ranking over all race distances, number of races per year and age may serve as success factors for international swimming competitions. The larger number of races swum by higher ranked female swimmers may have aided long-term athlete development regarding technical, physiological, and mental skill acquisitions. As older athletes were more successful, female swimmers under the age of peak performance, who did not reach semi-finals or finals, may increase their chances of success in following championships with increased experience.
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Sex Differences in Swimming Disciplines-Can Women Outperform Men in Swimming? INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17103651. [PMID: 32456109 PMCID: PMC7277665 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17103651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, the interest of female dominance in long-distance swimming has grown where several newspaper articles have been published speculating about female performance and dominance—especially in open-water ultra-distance swimming. The aim of this narrative review is to review the scientific literature regarding the difference between the sexes for all swimming strokes (i.e., butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, freestyle and individual medley), different distances (i.e., from sprint to ultra-distances), extreme conditions (i.e., cold water), different ages and swimming integrated in multi-sports disciplines, such as triathlon, in various age groups and over calendar years. The influence of various physiological, psychological, anthropometrical and biomechanical aspects to potentially explain the female dominance was also discussed. The data bases Scopus and PUBMED were searched by April 2020 for the terms ’sex–difference–swimming’. Long-distance open-water swimmers and pool swimmers of different ages and performance levels were mainly investigated. In open-water long-distance swimming events of the ’Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming’ with the ’Catalina Channel Swim’, the ’English Channel Swim’ and the ’Manhattan Island Marathon Swim’, women were about 0.06 km/h faster than men. In master swimmers (i.e., age groups 25–29 to 90–94 years) competing in the FINA (Fédération Internationale de Natation) World Championships in pool swimming in freestyle, backstroke, butterfly, breaststroke, individual medley and in 3000-m open-water swimming, women master swimmers appeared able to achieve similar performances as men in the oldest age groups (i.e., older than 75–80 years). In boys and girls aged 5–18 years—and listed in the all-time top 100 U.S. freestyle swimming performances from 50 m to 1500 m—the five fastest girls were faster than the five fastest boys until the age of ~10 years. After the age of 10 years, and until the age of 17 years, however, boys were increasingly faster than girls. Therefore, women tended to decrease the existing sex differences in specific age groups (i.e., younger than 10 years and older than 75–80 years) and swimming strokes in pool-swimming or even to overperform men in long-distance open-water swimming (distance of ~30 km), especially under extreme weather conditions (water colder than ~20 °C). Two main variables may explain why women can swim faster than men in open-water swimming events: (i) the long distance of around 30 km, (ii) and water colder than ~20 °C. Future studies may investigate more detailed (e.g., anthropometry) the very young (<10 years) and very old (>75–80 years) age groups in swimming
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Post AK, Koning RH, Visscher C, Elferink-Gemser MT. Multigenerational performance development of male and female top-elite swimmers-A global study of the 100 m freestyle event. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2019; 30:564-571. [PMID: 31725946 PMCID: PMC7028091 DOI: 10.1111/sms.13599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The present study investigated longitudinally the performance development of a multigenerational sample of competitive swimmers. The aim of the study was to provide unique insight into the junior toward senior performance development of those few who reached top-elite level. Season Best Times (SBT) of 100 m freestyle performance of international swimmers, (1.305 males, aged 12-26 and 1.841 females, aged 12-24) competing in at least five seasons between 1993 and 2018, were corrected for the prevailing world record (WR). Swim performance was defined as a relative measure: relative Season Best Time=(SBT/WR) × 100. Based on rSBT, four performance groups were defined: top-elite, elite, sub-elite, and high-competitive. RESULTS Univariate analyses of variance showed that male top-elite swimmers outperformed high-competitive swimmers from the age of 12, sub-elite swimmers from the age of 14 and elite swimmers from the age of 18 while female top-elite swimmers outperformed high-competitive and sub-elite swimmers from the age of 12 and elite swimmers from the age of 14 (P < .05). Frequency analysis showed that male top-elite swimmers for the first time achieved top-elite level between the 17 and 24 years old (mean age of 21) while female top-elite swimmers started to perform at top-elite level between the 14 and 24 years old (mean age of 18). CONCLUSION Male and female top-elite swimmers are characterized by a high-performance level from 12 years on and progressively outperform swimmers from similar age. However, this goes together with a large variety in the individual pathways toward top-elite level within and between sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aylin K Post
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ruud H Koning
- Department of Economics, Econometrics & Finance, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Chris Visscher
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marije T Elferink-Gemser
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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Kundert AML, Di Gangi S, Nikolaidis PT, Knechtle B. Jumping and throwing performance in the World Masters' Athletic Championships 1975-2016. Res Sports Med 2018; 27:374-411. [PMID: 30318929 DOI: 10.1080/15438627.2018.1528975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Participation and performance of elite age group athletes from 35-39 to 95-99 years competing in World Masters Athletics (WMA) Championships 1975-2016 were examined for throwing (discus, hammer, javelin and shot put) and jumping (high jump, long jump, pole vault and triple jump) events. Overall, 21,723 observations from 8,974 master athletes were analysed. A mixed regression model with sex, age group, calendar year and interactions terms (sex-age group; sex-year) defined as fixed effects was performed for each event separately. Performances over time were increasing overall for each event, with a cubic trend. Compared with women, men had better performances (e.g. in triple jump the estimated difference was 3.378 meters, p < 0.001). However, women improved their performance more than men across calendar years. Performances declined with age for each event (e.g. in triple jump, compared with age group 45-49 years, performance in age group 35-39 years was 1.041 meter better and in age group 85-89 years was 5.342 meter worse). In summary, performance in jumping and throwing events of WMA Championships improved across calendar years, whereas the decline of performance with age was dependent on sex and event.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stefania Di Gangi
- a Institute of Primary Care , University of Zurich , Zurich , Switzerland
| | | | - Beat Knechtle
- a Institute of Primary Care , University of Zurich , Zurich , Switzerland.,c Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz , St. Gallen , Switzerland
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14
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15
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Knechtle B, Nikolaidis PT, Rosemann T, Rüst CA. Performance Trends in Master Butterfly Swimmers Competing in the FINA World Championships. J Hum Kinet 2017; 57:199-211. [PMID: 28713472 PMCID: PMC5504592 DOI: 10.1515/hukin-2017-0061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Performance trends in elite butterfly swimmers are well known, but less information is available regarding master butterfly swimmers. We investigated trends in participation, performance and sex differences in 9,606 female and 13,250 male butterfly race times classified into five-year master groups, from 25-29 to 90-94 years, competing in the FINA World Masters Championships between 1986 and 2014. Trends in participation were analyzed using linear regression analysis. Trends in performance changes were investigated using mixed-effects regression analyses with sex, distance and a calendar year as fixed variables. We also considered interaction effects between sex and distance. Participation increased in master swimmers older than ~30-40 years. The men-to-women ratio remained unchanged across calendar years and master groups, but was lower in 200 m compared to 50 m and 100 m. Men were faster than women from 25-29 to 85-89 years (p < 0.05), although not for 90-94 years. Sex and distance showed a significant interaction in all master groups from 25-29 to 90-94 years for 200m (p < 0.05). For 50 m and 100 m, a significant sex × distance interaction was observed from 25-29 to 75-79 years (p < 0.05), but not in the older groups. In 50 m, women reduced the sex difference in master groups 30-34 to 60-64 years (p < 0.05). In 100 m, women decreased the gap to men in master groups 35-39 to 55-59 years (p < 0.05). In 200 m, the sex difference was reduced in master groups 30-34 to 40-44 years (p < 0.05). In summary, women and men improved performance at all distances, women were not slower compared to men in the master group 90-94 years; moreover, women reduced the gap to men between ~30 and ~60 years, although not in younger or older master groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland.,Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Pantelis T Nikolaidis
- Department of Physical and Cultural Education, Hellenic Army Academy, Athens, Greece
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph A Rüst
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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16
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García-Hermoso A, Saavedra JM, Arellano R, Navarro F. Relationship between swim start wall contact time and final performance in backstroke events in international swimming championships. INT J PERF ANAL SPOR 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/24748668.2017.1331573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Antonio García-Hermoso
- Laboratorio de Ciencias de la Actividad Física, el Deporte y la Salud, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile
| | - Jose M. Saavedra
- Physical Activity, Physical Education, Health and Sport Research Centre (PAPESH), Sports Science Department, School of Science and Engineering, Reykjavik University, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Raúl Arellano
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Fernando Navarro
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Sport Performance Research Group, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
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17
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Unterweger CM, Knechtle B, Nikolaidis PT, Rosemann T, Rüst CA. Increased participation and improved performance in age group backstroke master swimmers from 25-29 to 100-104 years at the FINA World Masters Championships from 1986 to 2014. SPRINGERPLUS 2016; 5:645. [PMID: 27330911 PMCID: PMC4870475 DOI: 10.1186/s40064-016-2209-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 04/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Participation and performance trends in age group athletes have been investigated for different sport disciplines, but not for master swimmers. The knowledge on this topic is still missing for a particular stroke such as backstroke. Changes in participation and performance of male and female age group backstroke swimmers (≥25 years) competing in 50, 100 and 200 m pool swimming at the FINA World Masters Championships held between 1986 and 2014 were investigated using mixed-effects regression analyses. The overall participation was n = 26,217 including n = 13,708 women and n = 12,509 men. In 50 m, female (age groups 85–89 years; p = 0.002) and male participation (age groups 55–59; p = 0.030 and 80–84 years; p = 0.002) increased, while female participation decreased in age groups 55–59 (p = 0.010) and 60–64 years (p = 0.050). In 100 and 200 m, participation increased in age groups 45–49, 50–54, 65–69, 70–74, 80–84 years. Swimmers in age groups 25–29 to 95–99 years improved performance over all distances. Women were slower than men in age groups 25–29 to 80–84 years, but not in age groups 85–89 to 95–99 years over all distances. In 50 m and 100 m, the sex difference decreased in age groups 40–44 (p = 0.007 and p = 0.005), 45–49 (p = 0.017 and p = 0.034), 50–54 (p = 0.002 and p = 0.040), to 55–59 years (p = 0.002 and p = 0.004). In 200 m, the sex difference decreased in age groups 40–44 (p = 0.044) and 90–94 (p = 0.011), but increased in age group 25–29 years (p = 0.006). In summary, in age group backstroke swimmers, (1) participation increased or remained unchanged (except women in age groups 55–59 and 60–64 years in 50 m), (2) swimming performance improved in all age groups from 25–29 to 95–99 years over all distances, (3) men were faster than women in age groups 25–29 to 80–84 years (except age groups 85–89 to 95–99 years) over time and all distances.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ; Facharzt FMH für Allgemeinmedizin, Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Pantelis T Nikolaidis
- Department of Physical and Cultural Education, Hellenica Army Academy, Athens, Greece
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph A Rüst
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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18
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The Age in Swimming of Champions in World Championships (1994⁻2013) and Olympic Games (1992⁻2012): A Cross-Sectional Data Analysis. Sports (Basel) 2016; 4:sports4010017. [PMID: 29910265 PMCID: PMC5968937 DOI: 10.3390/sports4010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2015] [Revised: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: We investigated the age of swimming champions in all strokes and race distances in World Championships (1994–2013) and Olympic Games (1992–2012); (2) Methods: Changes in age and swimming performance across calendar years for 412 Olympic and world champions were analysed using linear, non-linear, multi-level regression analyses and MultiLayer Perceptron (MLP); (3) Results: The age of peak swimming performance remained stable in most of all race distances for world champions and in all race distances for Olympic champions. Longer (i.e., 200 m and more) race distances were completed by younger (~20 years old for women and ~22 years old for men) champions than shorter (i.e., 50 m and 100 m) race distances (~22 years old for women and ~24 years old for men). There was a sex difference in the age of champions of ~2 years with a mean age of ~21 and ~23 years for women and men, respectively. Swimming performance improved in most race distances for world and Olympic champions with a larger trend of increase in Olympic champions; (4) Conclusion: Swimmers at younger ages (<20 years) may benefit from training and competing in longer race distances (i.e., 200 m and longer) before they change to shorter distances (i.e., 50 m and 100 m) when they become older (>22 years).
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Knechtle B, Nikolaidis PT, König S, Rosemann T, Rüst CA. Performance trends in master freestyle swimmers aged 25-89 years at the FINA World Championships from 1986 to 2014. AGE (DORDRECHT, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 38:18. [PMID: 26833033 PMCID: PMC5005862 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-016-9880-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Performance trends in elite freestyle swimmers are well known, but not for master freestyle swimmers. We investigated trends in participation, performance, and sex difference in performance of 65,584 freestyle master swimmers from 25-29 to 85-89 years competing in FINA World Masters Championships between 1986 and 2014. The men-to-women ratio was calculated for each age group, and the trend across age groups was analyzed using single linear regression analysis. Trends in performance changes were investigated using a mixed-effects regression model with sex, distance, and calendar year as fixed variables. Participation increased in women and men in older age groups (i.e., 40 years and older). Women and men improved race times across years in all age groups and distances. For age groups 25-29 to 75-79 years, women were slower than men, but not for age groups 80-84 to 85-89 years. In 50, 100, and 200 m, women reduced the sex difference from 1986 to 2014 in age groups 30-34 to 75-79 years. In 400 m, women reduced the gap to men across time in age groups 40-44, 45-49, and 55-59 years. In 800 m, sex difference became reduced across time in age groups 55-59 and 70-74 years. In summary, participation increased from 1986 to 2014 in women and men in older age groups, women and men improved across time performance in all distances, and women were not slower compared to men in age groups 80-84 to 85-89 years. We expect a continuous trend in increasing participation and improved performance in master freestyle swimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001, St. Gallen, Switzerland.
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Pantelis T Nikolaidis
- Department of Physical and Cultural Education, Hellenic Army Academy, Athens, Greece
| | - Stefan König
- Department of Surgery, Cantonal Hospital of St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph A Rüst
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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20
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Elmenshawy AR, Machin DR, Tanaka H. A rise in peak performance age in female athletes. AGE (DORDRECHT, NETHERLANDS) 2015; 37:9795. [PMID: 26022534 PMCID: PMC4446456 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-015-9795-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2015] [Accepted: 05/15/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
It was reported in 1980s that ages at which peak performance was observed had remained remarkably stable in the past century, although absolute levels of athletic performance increased dramatically for the same time span. The emergence of older (masters) athletes in the past few decades has changed the demographics and age-spectrum of Olympic athletes. The primary aim of the present study was to determine whether the ages at which peak performance was observed had increased in the recent decades. The data spanning 114 years from the first Olympics (1898) to the most recent Olympics (2014) were collected using the publically available data. In the present study, ages at which Olympic medals (gold, silver, and bronze) were won were used as the indicators of peak performance age. Track and field, swimming, rowing, and ice skating events were analyzed. In men, peak performance age did not change significantly in most of the sporting events (except in 100 m sprint running). In contrast, peak performance ages in women have increased significantly since 1980s and consistently in all the athletic events examined. Interestingly, as women's peak performance age increased, they became similar to men's peak ages in many events. In the last 20-30 years, ages at which peak athletic performance is observed have increased in women but not in men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed R. Elmenshawy
- Cardiovascular Aging Research Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, The University of Texas at Austin, 2109 San Jacinto Blvd, D3700, Austin, TX 78712 USA
| | - Daniel R. Machin
- Cardiovascular Aging Research Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, The University of Texas at Austin, 2109 San Jacinto Blvd, D3700, Austin, TX 78712 USA
| | - Hirofumi Tanaka
- Cardiovascular Aging Research Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, The University of Texas at Austin, 2109 San Jacinto Blvd, D3700, Austin, TX 78712 USA
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