Silencing of transposons in plant genomes: kick them when they're down

Histone H1 prevents non-CG methylation-mediated small RNA biogenesis in Arabidopsis heterochromatin

Flowering plants utilize small RNA (sRNA) molecules to guide DNA methyltransferases to genomic sequences. This RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM) pathway preferentially targets euchromatic transposable elements. However, RdDM is thought to be recruited by methylation of histone H3 at lysine 9 (H3K9me), a hallmark of heterochromatin. How RdDM is targeted to euchromatin despite an affinity for H3K9me is unclear. Here, we show that loss of histone H1 enhances heterochromatic RdDM, preferentially at nucleosome linker DNA. Surprisingly, this does not require SHH1, the RdDM component that binds H3K9me. Furthermore, H3K9me is dispensable for RdDM, as is CG DNA methylation. Instead, we find that non-CG methylation is specifically associated with sRNA biogenesis, and without H1 sRNA production quantitatively expands to non-CG-methylated loci. Our results demonstrate that H1 enforces the separation of euchromatic and heterochromatic DNA methylation pathways by excluding the sRNA-generating branch of RdDM from non-CG-methylated heterochromatin.

Cells adapt to different roles by turning different groups of genes on and off. One way cells control which genes are on or off is by creating regions of active and inactive DNA, which are created and maintained by different groups of proteins. Genes in active DNA regions can be turned on, while genes in inactive regions are switched off or silenced. Silenced DNA regions also turn off ‘transposable elements’: pieces of DNA that can copy themselves and move to other regions of the genome if they become active. Transposons can be dangerous if they are activated, because they can disrupt genes or regulatory sequences when they move.

There are different types of active and inactive DNA, but it is not always clear why these differences exist, or how they are maintained over time. In plants, such as the commonly-studied weed Arabidopsis thaliana, there are two types of inactive DNA, called E and H, that can silence transposons. In both types, DNA has small chemicals called methyl groups attached to it, which help inactivate the DNA. Type E DNA is methylated by a process called RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM), but RdDM is rarely seen in type H DNA.

Choi, Lyons and Zilberman showed that RdDM is attracted to E and H regions by previously existing methylated DNA. However, in the H regions, a protein called histone H1 blocks RdDM from attaching methyl groups. This helps focus RdDM onto E regions where it is most needed, because E regions contain the types of transposons RdDM is best suited to silence.

When Choi, Lyons and Zilberman examined genetically modified A. thaliana plants that do not produce histone H1, they found that RdDM happened in both E and H regions. There are many more H regions than E regions, so stretching RdDM across both made it less effective at silencing DNA.

This work shows how different DNA silencing processes are focused onto specific genetic regions, helping explain why there are different types of active and inactive DNA within cells. RdDM has been studied as a way to affect crop growth and yield by altering DNA methylation. These results may help such studies by explaining how RdDM is naturally targeted.

Systemic GFP silencing is associated with high transgene expression in Nicotiana benthamiana

Gene silencing in plants using topical dsRNA is a new approach that has the potential to be a sustainable component of the agricultural production systems of the future. However, more research is needed to enable this technology as an economical and efficacious supplement to current crop protection practices. Systemic gene silencing is one key enabling aspect. The objective of this research was to better understand topically-induced, systemic transgene silencing in Nicotiana benthamiana. A previous report details sequencing of the integration site of the Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) transgene in the well-known N. benthamiana GFP16C event. This investigation revealed an inadvertent co-integration of part of a bacterial transposase in this line. To determine the effect of this transgene configuration on systemic silencing, new GFP transgenic lines with or without the transposase sequences were produced. GFP expression levels in the 19 single-copy events and three hemizygous GFP16C lines produced for this study ranged from 50-72% of the homozygous GFP16C line. GFP expression was equivalent to GFP16C in a two-copy event. Local GFP silencing was observed in all transgenic and GFP16C hemizygous lines after topical application of carbon dot-based formulations containing a GFP targeting dsRNA. The GFP16C-like systemic silencing phenotype was only observed in the two-copy line. The partial transposase had no impact on transgene expression level, local GFP silencing, small RNA abundance and distribution, or systemic GFP silencing in the transgenic lines. We conclude that high transgene expression level is a key enabler of topically-induced, systemic transgene silencing in N. benthamiana.

Transcriptional activity of PIF and Pong-like Class II transposable elements in Triticeae

Background

Transposable elements are major contributors to genome size and variability, accounting for approximately 70–80% of the maize, barley, and wheat genomes. PIF and Pong-like elements belong to two closely-related element families within the PIF/Harbinger superfamily of Class II (DNA) transposons. Both elements contain two open reading frames; one encodes a transposase (ORF2) that catalyzes transposition of the functional elements and their related non-autonomous elements, while the function of the second is still debated. In this work, we surveyed for PIF- and Pong-related transcriptional activity in 13 diploid Triticeae species, all of which have been previously shown to harbor extensive within-genome diversity of both groups of elements.

Results

The results revealed that PIF elements have considerable transcriptional activity in Triticeae, suggesting that they can escape the initial levels of plant cell control and are regulated at the post-transcriptional level. Phylogenetic analysis of 156 PIF cDNA transposase fragments along with 240 genomic partial transposase sequences showed that most, if not all, PIF clades are transcriptionally competent, and that multiple transposases coexisting within a single genome have the potential to act simultaneously. In contrast, we did not detect any transcriptional activity of Pong elements in any sample.

Conclusions

The lack of Pong element transcription shows that even closely related transposon families can exhibit wide variation in their transposase transcriptional activity within the same genome.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-017-1028-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Epigenomic diversification within the genus Lupinus

Deciphering the various chemical modifications of both DNA and the histone compound of chromatin not only leads to a better understanding of the genome-wide organisation of epigenetic landmarks and their impact on gene expression but may also provide some insights into the evolutionary processes. Although both histone modifications and DNA methylation have been widely investigated in various plant genomes, here we present the first study for the genus Lupinus. Lupins, which are members of grain legumes (pulses), are beneficial for food security, nutrition, health and the environment. In order to gain a better understanding of the epigenetic organisation of genomes in lupins we applied the immunostaining of methylated histone H3 and DNA methylation as well as whole-genome bisulfite sequencing. We revealed variations in the patterns of chromatin modifications at the chromosomal level among three crop lupins, i.e. L. angustifolius (2n = 40), L. albus (2n = 50) and L. luteus (2n = 52), and the legume model plant Medicago truncatula (2n = 16). Different chromosomal patterns were found depending on the specific modification, e.g. H3K4me2 was localised in the terminal parts of L. angustifolius and M. truncatula chromosomes, which is in agreement with the results that have been obtained for other species. Interestingly, in L. albus and L. luteus this modification was limited to one arm in the case of all of the chromosomes in the complement. Additionally, H3K9me2 was detected in all of the analysed species except L. luteus. DNA methylation sequencing (CG, CHG and CHH contexts) of aforementioned crop but also wild lupins such as L. cosentinii (2n = 32), L. digitatus (2n = 36), L. micranthus (2n = 52) and L. pilosus (2n = 42) supported the range of interspecific diversity. The examples of epigenetic modifications illustrate the diversity of lupin genomes and could be helpful for elucidating further epigenetic changes in the evolution of the lupin genome.

The impact of the Tekay chromoviral elements on genome organisation and evolution of Anemone s.l. (Ranunculaceae)

We studied the highly abundant chromoviral Tekay clade in species from three sister genera - Anemone, Pulsatilla and Hepatica (Ranunculaceae). With this clade, we performed a concomitant survey of its phylogenetic diversity, chromosomal organisation and transcriptional activity in Anemone s.l. in order to investigate dynamics of the Tekay elements at a finer scale than previously achieved in this or any other flowering clade. The phylogenetic tree built from Tekay sequences conformed to expected evolutionary relationships of the species; exceptions being A. nemorosa and A. sylvestris, which appeared more closely related that expected, and we invoke hybridisation events to explain the observed topology. The separation of elements into six clusters could be explained by episodic bursts of activity since divergence from a common ancestor at different points in their respective evolutionary histories. In Anemone s.l. the Tekay elements do not have a preferential position on chromosomes, i.e. they can have a: (i) centromeric/pericentromeric position; (ii) interstitial position in DAPI-positive AT-rich heterochromatic regions; can be (iii) dispersed throughout chromosomes; or even (iv) be absent from large heterochromatic blocks. Widespread transcriptional activity of the Tekay elements in Anemone s.l. taxa indicate that some copies of Tekay elements could still be active in this plant group, contributing to genome evolution and speciation within Anemone s.l. Identification of Tekay elements in Anemone s.l. provides valuable information for understanding how different localisation patterns might help to facilitate plant genome organisation in a structural and functional manner.

An epigenetic toolkit allows for diverse genome architectures in eukaryotes

Genome architecture varies considerably among eukaryotes in terms of both size and structure (e.g. distribution of sequences within the genome, elimination of DNA during formation of somatic nuclei). The diversity in eukaryotic genome architectures and the dynamic processes are only possible due to the well-developed epigenetic toolkit, which probably existed in the Last Eukaryotic Common Ancestor (LECA). This toolkit may have arisen as a means of navigating the genomic conflict that arose from the expansion of transposable elements within the ancestral eukaryotic genome. This toolkit has been coopted to support the dynamic nature of genomes in lineages across the eukaryotic tree of life. Here we highlight how the changes in genome architecture in diverse eukaryotes are regulated by epigenetic processes, such as DNA elimination, genome rearrangements, and adaptive changes to genome architecture. The ability to epigenetically modify and regulate genomes has contributed greatly to the diversity of eukaryotes observed today.

The Arabidopsis genus: An emerging model to elucidate the molecular basis of interspecific differences in transposable element activity

Arabidopsis thaliana is a model plant species and its molecular dissection has greatly contributed to our understanding of the systems preventing genome invasion by transposable elements (TE). Recent advances suggest that A. thaliana may be more efficient than its congener A. lyrata at controlling TE expression and proliferation. The comparative analysis of TE transcription in A. thaliana and A. lyrata, which differ by 40% in genome size, may help understand how silencing mechanisms contribute to the evolution of transposition rate, an important factor controlling genome size variation in plants and animals.

DNA methylation as a system of plant genomic immunity

Transposons are selfish genetic sequences that can increase their copy number and inflict substantial damage on their hosts. To combat these genomic parasites, plants have evolved multiple pathways to identify and silence transposons by methylating their DNA. Plants have also evolved mechanisms to limit the collateral damage from the antitransposon machinery. In this review, we examine recent developments that have elucidated many of the molecular workings of these pathways. We also highlight the evidence that the methylation and demethylation pathways interact, indicating that plants have a highly sophisticated, integrated system of transposon defense that has an important role in the regulation of gene expression.

Transcriptional dynamics of LTR retrotransposons in early generation and ancient sunflower hybrids

Hybridization and abiotic stress are natural agents hypothesized to influence activation and proliferation of transposable elements in wild populations. In this report, we examine the effects of these agents on expression dynamics of both quiescent and transcriptionally active sublineages of long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposons in wild sunflower species with a notable history of transposable element proliferation. For annual sunflower species Helianthus annuus and H. petiolaris, neither early generation hybridization nor abiotic stress, alone or in combination, induced transcriptional activation of quiescent sublineages of LTR retrotransposons. These treatments also failed to further induce expression of sublineages that are transcriptionally active; instead, expression of active sublineages in F1 and backcross hybrids was nondistinguishable from, or intermediate relative to, parental lines, and abiotic stress generally decreased normalized expression relative to controls. In contrast to findings for early generation hybridization between H. annuus and H. petiolaris, ancient sunflower hybrid species derived from these same two species and which have undergone massive proliferation events of LTR retrotransposons display 2× to 6× higher expression levels of transcriptionally active sublineages relative to parental sunflower species H. annuus and H. petiolaris. Implications and possible explanations for these findings are discussed.

The copy number of rice CACTA DNA transposons carrying MIR820 does not correlate with MIR820 expression

MiR820 is a small RNA species (22 and 24 nucleotides), produced from transcripts originated from a region inside CACTA DNA transposons in rice. Because MIR820 is a transposon gene, its expression may depend on the transposon copy number. Here, we investigated the copy number of MIR820 and its expression levels in various cultivars and wild species of rice. We found no correlation between copy number and expression level, suggesting that MIR820 transcription is regulated not by the copy dosage but by the epigenetic state of each copy.

Role of transposon-derived small RNAs in the interplay between genomes and parasitic DNA in rice

RNA silencing is a defense system against “genomic parasites” such as transposable elements (TE), which are potentially harmful to host genomes. In plants, transcripts from TEs induce production of double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) and are processed into small RNAs (small interfering RNAs, siRNAs) that suppress TEs by RNA–directed DNA methylation. Thus, the majority of TEs are epigenetically silenced. On the other hand, most of the eukaryotic genome is composed of TEs and their remnants, suggesting that TEs have evolved countermeasures against host-mediated silencing. Under some circumstances, TEs can become active and increase in copy number. Knowledge is accumulating on the mechanisms of TE silencing by the host; however, the mechanisms by which TEs counteract silencing are poorly understood. Here, we show that a class of TEs in rice produces a microRNA (miRNA) to suppress host silencing. Members of the microRNA820 (miR820) gene family are located within CACTA DNA transposons in rice and target a de novo DNA methyltransferase gene, OsDRM2, one of the components of epigenetic silencing. We confirmed that miR820 negatively regulates the expression of OsDRM2. In addition, we found that expression levels of various TEs are increased quite sensitively in response to decreased OsDRM2 expression and DNA methylation at TE loci. Furthermore, we found that the nucleotide sequence of miR820 and its recognition site within the target gene in some Oryza species have co-evolved to maintain their base-pairing ability. The co-evolution of these sequences provides evidence for the functionality of this regulation. Our results demonstrate how parasitic elements in the genome escape the host's defense machinery. Furthermore, our analysis of the regulation of OsDRM2 by miR820 sheds light on the action of transposon-derived small RNAs, not only as a defense mechanism for host genomes but also as a regulator of interactions between hosts and their parasitic elements.

Transposons, which are sometimes referred to as “genomic parasites,” are a major component of eukaryotic genomes. Because transposon activity is often detrimental to host genome stability, most transposons are silenced by the host's defense machinery. The mechanisms of transposon silencing, such as RNA silencing, have been well investigated, but virtually nothing is known about the strategies that transposons have evolved to avoid silencing. In this paper, we demonstrate that a microRNA (miRNA) produced from a transposon suppresses the host's silencing machinery. Generally, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) produced from transposons trigger silencing of those transposon loci; however, in this case, transposons escape host silencing by producing miRNA. Our analysis provides evidence for a novel mechanism by which transposons reduce host silencing, and it elucidates the front line of host genome–parasitic DNA interaction through the action of two types of small RNAs, siRNA and miRNA, produced from transposons.

RNA polymerase V-dependent small RNAs in Arabidopsis originate from small, intergenic loci including most SINE repeats

In plants, heterochromatin is maintained by a small RNA-based gene silencing mechanism known as RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM). RdDM requires the non-redundant functions of two plant-specific DNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RNAP), RNAP IV and RNAP V. RNAP IV plays a major role in siRNA biogenesis, while RNAP V may recruit DNA methylation machinery to target endogenous loci for silencing. Although small RNA-generating regions that are dependent on both RNAP IV and RNAP V have been identified previously, the genomic loci targeted by RNAP V for siRNA accumulation and silencing have not been described extensively. To characterize the RNAP V-dependent, heterochromatic siRNA-generating regions in the Arabidopsis genome, we deeply sequenced the small RNA populations of wild-type and RNAP V null mutant (nrpe1) plants. Our results showed that RNAP V-dependent siRNA-generating loci are associated predominately with short repetitive sequences in intergenic regions. Suppression of small RNA production from short repetitive sequences was also prominent in RdDM mutants including dms4, drd1, dms3 and rdm1, reflecting the known association of these RdDM effectors with RNAP V. The genomic regions targeted by RNAP V were small, with an estimated average length of 238 bp. Our results suggest that RNAP V affects siRNA production from genomic loci with features dissimilar to known RNAP IV-dependent loci. RNAP V, along with RNAP IV and DRM1/2, may target and silence a set of small, intergenic transposable elements located in dispersed genomic regions for silencing. Silencing at these loci may be actively reinforced by RdDM.

Widespread interspecific divergence in cis-regulation of transposable elements in the Arabidopsis genus

Transposable elements (TEs) are so abundant and variable that they count among the most important mutational sources in genomes. Nonetheless, little is known about the genetics of their variation in activity or silencing across closely related species. Here, we demonstrate that regulation of TE genes can differ dramatically between the two closely related Arabidopsis species A. thaliana and A. lyrata. In leaf and floral tissues of F1 interspecific hybrids, about 47% of TEs show allele-specific expression, with the A. lyrata copy being generally expressed at higher level. We confirm that TEs are generally expressed in A. lyrata but not in A. thaliana. Allele-specific differences in TE expression are associated with divergence in epigenetic modifications like DNA and histone methylation between species as well as with sequence divergence. Our data demonstrate that A. thaliana silences TEs much better than A. lyrata. For long terminal repeat retrotransposons, these differences are more pronounced for younger insertions. Interspecific differences in TE silencing may have a great impact on genome size changes.

Transposable element origins of epigenetic gene regulation

Transposable elements (TEs) are massively abundant and unstable in all plant genomes, but are mostly silent because of epigenetic suppression. Because all known epigenetic pathways act on all TEs, it is likely that the specialized epigenetic regulation of regular host genes (RHGs) was co-opted from this ubiquitous need for the silencing of TEs and viruses. With their internally repetitive and rearranging structures, and the acquisition of fragments of RHGs, the expression of TEs commonly makes antisense RNAs for both TE genes and RHGs. These antisense RNAs, particularly from heterochromatic reservoirs of 'zombie' TEs that are rearranged to form variously internally repetitive structures, may be advantageous because their induction will help rapidly suppress active TEs of the same family. RHG fragments within rapidly rearranging TEs may also provide the raw material for the ongoing generation of miRNA genes. TE gene expression is regulated by both environmental and developmental signals, and insertions can place nearby RHGs under the regulation (both standard and epigenetic) of the TE. The ubiquity of TEs, their frequent preferential association with RHGs, and their ability to be programmed by epigenetic signals all indicate that RGHs have nearly unlimited access to novel regulatory cassettes to assist plant adaptation.

Transposable element proliferation and genome expansion are rare in contemporary sunflower hybrid populations despite widespread transcriptional activity of LTR retrotransposons

Hybridization is a natural phenomenon that has been linked in several organismal groups to transposable element derepression and copy number amplification. A noteworthy example involves three diploid annual sunflower species from North America that have arisen via ancient hybridization between the same two parental taxa, Helianthus annuus and H. petiolaris. The genomes of the hybrid species have undergone large-scale increases in genome size attributable to long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposon proliferation. The parental species that gave rise to the hybrid taxa are widely distributed, often sympatric, and contemporary hybridization between them is common. Natural H. annuus × H. petiolaris hybrid populations likely served as source populations from which the hybrid species arose and, as such, represent excellent natural experiments for examining the potential role of hybridization in transposable element derepression and proliferation in this group. In the current report, we examine multiple H. annuus × H. petiolaris hybrid populations for evidence of genome expansion, LTR retrotransposon copy number increases, and LTR retrotransposon transcriptional activity. We demonstrate that genome expansion and LTR retrotransposon proliferation are rare in contemporary hybrid populations, despite independent proliferation events that took place in the genomes of the ancient hybrid species. Interestingly, LTR retrotransposon lineages that proliferated in the hybrid species genomes remain transcriptionally active in hybrid and nonhybrid genotypes across the entire sampling area. The finding of transcriptional activity but not copy number increases in hybrid genotypes suggests that proliferation and genome expansion in contemporary hybrid populations may be mitigated by posttranscriptional mechanisms of repression.

Natural history of eukaryotic DNA methylation systems

Methylation of cytosines and adenines in DNA is a widespread epigenetic mark in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In eukaryotes, it has a profound influence on chromatin structure and dynamics. Recent advances in genomics and biochemistry have considerably elucidated the functions and provenance of these DNA modifications. DNA methylases appear to have emerged first in bacterial restriction-modification (R-M) systems from ancient RNA-modifying enzymes, in transitions that involved acquisition of novel catalytic residues and DNA-recognition features. DNA adenine methylases appear to have been acquired by ciliates, heterolobosean amoeboflagellates, and certain chlorophyte algae. Six distinct clades of cytosine methylases, including the DNMT1, DNMT2, and DNMT3 clades, were acquired by eukaryotes through independent lateral transfer of their precursors from bacteria or bacteriophages. In addition to these, multiple adenine and cytosine methylases were acquired by several families of eukaryotic transposons. In eukaryotes, the DNA-methylase module was often combined with distinct modified and unmodified peptide recognition domains and other modules mediating specialized interactions, for example, the RFD module of DNMT1 which contains a permuted Sm domain linked to a helix-turn-helix domain. In eukaryotes, the evolution of DNA methylases appears to have proceeded in parallel to the elaboration of histone-modifying enzymes and the RNAi system, with functions related to counter-viral and counter-transposon defense, and regulation of DNA repair and differential gene expression being their primary ancestral functions. Diverse DNA demethylation systems that utilize base-excision repair via DNA glycosylases and cytosine deaminases appear to have emerged in multiple eukaryotic lineages. Comparative genomics suggests that the link between cytosine methylation and DNA glycosylases probably emerged first in a novel R-M system in bacteria. Recent studies suggest that the 5mC is not a terminal DNA modification, with enzymes of the Tet/JBP family of 2-oxoglutarate- and iron-dependent dioxygenases further hydroxylating it to form 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC). These enzymes emerged first in bacteriophages and appear to have been transferred to eukaryotes on one or more occasions. Eukaryotes appear to have recruited three major types of DNA-binding domains (SRA/SAD, TAM/MBD, and CXXC) in discriminating DNA with methylated or unmethylated cytosines. Analysis of the domain architectures of these domains and the DNA methylases suggests that early in eukaryotic evolution they developed a close functional link with SET-domain methylases and Jumonji-related demethylases that operate on peptides in chromatin proteins. In several eukaryotes, other functional connections were elaborated in the form of various combinations between domains related to DNA methylation and those involved in ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling and RNAi. In certain eukaryotes, such as mammals and angiosperms, novel dependencies on the DNA methylation system emerged, which resulted in it affecting unexpected aspects of the biology of these organisms such as parent-offspring interactions. In genomic terms, this was reflected in the emergence of new proteins related to methylation, such as Stella. The well-developed methylation systems of certain heteroloboseans, stramenopiles, chlorophytes, and haptophyte indicate that these might be new model systems to explore the relevance of DNA modifications in eukaryotes.

Mutator transposon activation after UV-B involves chromatin remodeling

Spontaneous silencing of MuDR/Mu transposons occurs in approximately 10-100% of the progeny of an active plant, and once silenced reactivation is very rare. To date, only radiation treatments have reactivated silenced Mu; for example UV-B radiation reactivated Mutator activities. Here we have investigated possible mechanisms by which UV-B could reactivate Mu transposons by monitoring transcript abundance, epigenetic DNA marks, and chromatin factors associated with these elements. We demonstrate that both mudrA and B transcripts are expressed at higher levels after an 8 h-UV-B treatment, in both active Mutator and silencing plants, and that different chromatin remodeling events occur in the promoter regions of MuDR than in non-autonomous Mu1 elements. Increased transcript abundance is accompanied by an increase in histone H3 acetylation and by decreased DNA and H3K9me2 methylation. No changes in siRNA levels were detected. In contrast, the decrease in H3K9me2 present at Mu elements after UV-B is significant in silencing plants, suggesting that early changes in H3 methylation in K9, chromatin remodeling, and transcription factor binding contribute directly to transposon reactivation by UV-B in maize.

Coding DNA repeated throughout intergenic regions of the Arabidopsis thaliana genome: evolutionary footprints of RNA silencing

Pyknons are non-random sequence patterns significantly repeated throughout non-coding genomic DNA that also appear at least once among coding genes. They are interesting because they portend an unforeseen connection between coding and non-coding DNA. Pyknons have only been discovered in the human genome, so it is unknown whether pyknons have wider biological relevance or are simply a phenomenon of the human genome. To address this, DNA sequence patterns from the Arabidopsis thaliana genome were detected using a probability-based method. 24 654 statistically significant sequence patterns, 16 to 24 nucleotides long, repeating 10 or more times in non-coding DNA also appeared in 46% of A. thaliana protein-coding genes. A. thaliana pyknons exhibit features similar to human pyknons, including being distinct sequence patterns, having multiple instances in genes and having remarkable similarity to small RNA sequences with roles in gene silencing. Chromosomal position mapping revealed that genomic pyknon density has concordance with siRNA and transposable element positioning density. Because the A. thaliana and human genomes have approximately the same number of genes but drastically different amounts of non-coding DNA, these data reveal that pyknons represent a biologically important link between coding and non-coding DNA. Because of the association of pyknons with siRNAs and localization to silenced regions of heterochromatin, we postulate that RNA-mediated gene silencing leads to the accumulation of gene sequences in non-coding DNA regions.

Effective, homogeneous and transient interference with cytosine methylation in plant genomic DNA by zebularine

Covalent modification by methylation of cytosine residues represents an important epigenetic hallmark. While sequence analysis after bisulphite conversion allows correlative analyses with single-base resolution, functional analysis by interference with DNA methylation is less precise, due to the complexity of methylation enzymes and their targets. A cytidine analogue, 5-azacytidine, is frequently used as an inhibitor of DNA methyltransferases, but its rapid degradation in aqueous solution is problematic for culture periods of longer than a few hours. Application of zebularine, a more stable cytidine analogue with a similar mode of action that is successfully used as a methylation inhibitor in Neurospora and mammalian tumour cell lines, can significantly reduce DNA methylation in plants in a dose-dependent and transient manner independent of sequence context. Demethylation is connected with transcriptional reactivation and partial decondensation of heterochromatin. Zebularine represents a promising new and versatile tool for investigating the role of DNA methylation in plants with regard to transcriptional control, maintenance and formation of (hetero-) chromatin.

Multiple regulatory mechanisms influence the activity of the transposon, Tam3, of Antirrhinum

In Antirrhinum, several unique regulations of the transposon, Tam3, have been described. Tam3 activity in Antirrhinum is strictly controlled by the growing temperature of plants (low-temperature-dependent transposition: LTDT), by chromosomal position of Tam3 copy and by two specific repressor genes Stabiliser (St) and New Stabiliser (NSt). Here, the effects of the St and NSt loci on Tam3 transposition are compared. In cotyledons and hypocotyls, Tam3 is active even at high growing temperatures, indicating that LTDT does not operate when these organs are developing. This developmental regulation of Tam3 activity is differentially influenced by the St and NSt loci: St permits Tam3 transposition in cotyledons and hypocotyls, whereas NSt suppresses it in these organs. The effects of these host genes on Tam3 activity at the molecular level were examined. It was found that neither of these genes inhibits the transcription of the Tam3 transposase gene nor its translation, and that the Tam3 transposase has the potential to catalyze transposition in the St and NSt lines. The differences between the effects of St and NSt imply that they regulate Tam3 activity independently. Our molecular data indicate that their influence on Tam3 transposition seems to be nonepigenetic; possible mechanisms for their activity are discussed.

Hypomethylation and hypermethylation of the tandem repetitive 5S rRNA genes in Arabidopsis

5S ribosomal DNA (5S rDNA) is organized in tandem repeats on chromosomes 3, 4 and 5 in Arabidopsis thaliana. One part of the 5S rDNA is located within the heterochromatic chromocenters, and the other fraction forms loops with euchromatic features that emanate from the chromocenters. We investigated whether the A. thaliana heterochromatin, and particularly the 5S rDNA, is modified when changing the culture conditions (cultivation in growth chamber versus greenhouse). Nuclei from challenged tissues displayed larger total, as well as 5S rDNA, heterochromatic fractions, and the DNA methyltransferase mutants met1 and cmt3 had different impacts in Arabidopsis. The enlarged fraction of heterochromatic 5S rDNA was observed, together with the reversal of the silencing of some 5S rRNA genes known as minor genes. We observed hypermethylation at CATG sites, and a concomitant DNA hypomethylation at CG/CXG sites in 5S rDNA. Our results show that the asymmetrical hypermethylation is correlated with the ageing of the plants, whereas hypomethylation results from the growth chamber/culture conditions. In spite of severely reduced DNA methylation, the met1 mutant revealed no increase in minor 5S rRNA transcripts in these conditions. The increasing proportion of cytosines in asymmetrical contexts during transition from the euchromatic to the heterochromatic state in the 5S rDNA array suggests that 5S rDNA units are differently affected by the (hypo and hyper)methylation patterns along the 5S rDNA locus. This might explain the different behaviour of 5S rDNA subpopulations inside a 5S array in terms of chromatin compaction and expression, i.e. some 5S rRNA genes would become derepressed, whereas others would join the heterochromatic fraction.

Large-scale survey of cytosine methylation of retrotransposons and the impact of readout transcription from long terminal repeats on expression of adjacent rice genes

Transposable elements (TEs) represent approximately 45% of the human genome and 50-90% of some grass genomes. While most elements contain inactivating mutations, others are reversibly inactivated (silenced) by epigenetic mechanisms, including cytosine methylation. Previous studies have shown that retrotransposons can influence the expression of adjacent host genes. In this study, the methylation patterns of TEs and their flanking sequences in different tissues were undertaken using a novel technique called transposon methylation display (TMD). TMD was successfully applied on a highly copied (approximately 1000 copies), newly amplified LTR retrotransposon family in rice called Dasheng. We determined that the methylation status of a subset of LTRs varies in leaves vs. roots. In addition, we determined that tissue-specific LTR methylation correlated with tissue-specific expression of the flanking rice gene. Genes showing tissue-specific expression were in opposite orientation relative to the LTR. Antisense transcripts were detected in the tissue where the sense transcripts from that gene were not detected. Comparative analysis of Dasheng LTR methylation in the two subspecies, japonica vs. indica revealed LTR-mediated differences in subspecies gene expression. Subspecies-specific expression was due either to polymorphic Dasheng insertion sites between the two subspecies or to subspecies-specific methylation of LTRs at the same locus accounted for observed differences in the expression of adjacent genes.

A genome-wide transcriptional activity survey of rice transposable element-related genes

A genome-wide survey of the transcriptional activity of TE-related genes that were associated with fifteen developmental stages and stress conditions revealed clear, albeit low, general transcription of TE-related genes.

Background

Transposable element (TE)-related genes comprise a significant portion of the gene catalog of grasses, although their functions are insufficiently characterized. The recent availability of TE-related gene annotation from the complete genome sequence of rice (Oryza sativa) has created an opportunity to conduct a comprehensive evaluation of the transcriptional activities of these potentially mobile elements and their related genes.

Results

We conducted a genome-wide survey of the transcriptional activity of TE-related genes associated with 15 developmental stages and stress conditions. This dataset was obtained using a microarray encompassing 2,191 unique TE-related rice genes, which were represented by oligonucleotide probes that were free from cross-hybridization. We found that TE-related genes exhibit much lower transcriptional activities than do non-TE-related genes, although representative transcripts were detected from all superfamilies of both type I and II TE-related genes. The strongest transcriptional activities were detected in TE-related genes from among the MULE and CACTA superfamilies. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that domesticated TE-related genes tend to form clades with active transcription. In addition, chromatin-level regulations through histone and DNA modifications, as well as enrichment of certain cis elements in the promoters, appear to contribute to the transcriptional activation of representative TE-related genes.

Conclusion

Our findings reveal clear, albeit low, general transcription of TE-related genes. In combination with phylogenetic analysis, transcriptional analysis has the potential to lead to the identification of domesticated TEs with adapted host functions.

Silencing of xenogeneic DNA by H-NS--facilitation of lateral gene transfer in bacteria by a defense system that recognizes foreign DNA

Lateral gene transfer has played a prominent role in bacterial evolution, but the mechanisms allowing bacteria to tolerate the acquisition of foreign DNA have been incompletely defined. Recent studies show that H-NS, an abundant nucleoid-associated protein in enteric bacteria and related species, can recognize and selectively silence the expression of foreign DNA with higher adenine and thymine content relative to the resident genome, a property that has made this molecule an almost universal regulator of virulence determinants in enteric bacteria. These and other recent findings challenge the ideas that curvature is the primary determinant recognized by H-NS and that activation of H-NS-silenced genes in response to environmental conditions occurs through a change in the structure of H-NS itself. Derepression of H-NS-silenced genes can occur at specific promoters by several mechanisms including competition with sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins, thereby enabling the regulated expression of foreign genes. The possibility that microorganisms maintain and exploit their characteristic genomic GC ratios for the purpose of self/non-self-discrimination is discussed.

The DNA glycosylase/lyase ROS1 functions in pruning DNA methylation patterns in Arabidopsis

The Arabidopsis DNA glycosylase/lyase ROS1 participates in active DNA demethylation by a base-excision pathway. ROS1 has been shown to be required for demethylating a transgene promoter. To determine the function of ROS1 in demethylating endogenous loci, we carried out bisulfite-sequencing analysis of several transposons and other genes in the ros1 mutant. In the wild-type, although CpG sites at the majority of these loci are heavily methylated, many of the CpXpG and CpXpX sites have low levels of methylation or are not at all methylated. However, these CpXpG and CpXpX sites become heavily methylated in the ros1 mutant. Associated with this increased DNA methylation, these loci show decreased expression in the ros1 mutant. Our results suggest that active DNA demethylation is important in pruning the methylation patterns of the genome, and even the normally "silent" transposons are under dynamic control by both methylation and demethylation. This dynamic control may be important in keeping the plant epigenome plastic so that it can efficiently respond to developmental and environmental cues.

Genome-wide analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana DNA methylation uncovers an interdependence between methylation and transcription

Cytosine methylation, a common form of DNA modification that antagonizes transcription, is found at transposons and repeats in vertebrates, plants and fungi. Here we have mapped DNA methylation in the entire Arabidopsis thaliana genome at high resolution. DNA methylation covers transposons and is present within a large fraction of A. thaliana genes. Methylation within genes is conspicuously biased away from gene ends, suggesting a dependence on RNA polymerase transit. Genic methylation is strongly influenced by transcription: moderately transcribed genes are most likely to be methylated, whereas genes at either extreme are least likely. In turn, transcription is influenced by methylation: short methylated genes are poorly expressed, and loss of methylation in the body of a gene leads to enhanced transcription. Our results indicate that genic transcription and DNA methylation are closely interwoven processes.

Role of the Arabidopsis DNA glycosylase/lyase ROS1 in active DNA demethylation

DNA methylation is a stable epigenetic mark for transcriptional gene silencing in diverse organisms including plants and many animals. In contrast to the well characterized mechanism of DNA methylation by methyltransferases, the mechanisms and function of active DNA demethylation have been controversial. Genetic evidence suggested that the DNA glycosylase domain-containing protein ROS1 of Arabidopsis is a putative DNA demethylase, because loss-of-function ros1 mutations cause DNA hypermethylation and enhance transcriptional gene silencing. We report here the biochemical characterization of ROS1 and the effect of its overexpression on the DNA methylation of target genes. Our data suggest that the DNA glycosylase activity of ROS1 removes 5-methylcytosine from the DNA backbone and then its lyase activity cleaves the DNA backbone at the site of 5-methylcytosine removal by successive beta- and delta-elimination reactions. Overexpression of ROS1 in transgenic plants led to a reduced level of cytosine methylation and increased expression of a target gene. These results demonstrate that ROS1 is a 5-methylcytosine DNA glycosylase/lyase important for active DNA demethylation in Arabidopsis.

Mutations in a conserved replication protein suppress transcriptional gene silencing in a DNA-methylation-independent manner in Arabidopsis

Mutations in the DNA glycosylase/lyase ROS1 cause transcriptional silencing of the linked RD29A-LUC and 35S-NPTII transgenes in Arabidopsis. We report here that mutations in the Arabidopsis RPA2 locus release the silencing of 35S-NPTII but not RD29A-LUC in the ros1 mutant background. The rpa2 mutation also leads to enhanced expression of some transposons. Neither DNA methylation nor siRNAs at any of the reactivated loci are blocked by rpa2. Histone H3 methylation at lysine 4 was increased and histone H3 methylation at lysine 9 was decreased at the 35S promoter in the ros1rpa2 mutant compared to the ros1 background. RPA2 encodes a nuclear protein similar to the second subunit of the replication protein A conserved from yeast to mammals. Ectopic expression of the Arabidopsis RPA2 could complement the yeast rfa2 (rpa2) mutant. These results suggest an essential role of RPA2 in the maintenance of transcriptional gene silencing at specific loci in a DNA-methylation-independent manner. In addition, we found that rpa2 mutants are hypersensitive to the genotoxic agent methyl methanesulphonate, and the RPA2 protein interacts with ROS1 in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that RPA2 also functions together with ROS1 in DNA repair.

Extent and pattern of DNA methylation alteration in rice lines derived from introgressive hybridization of rice and Zizania latifolia Griseb

We have reported previously that introgression by Zizania latifolia resulted in extensive DNA methylation changes in the recipient rice genome, as detected by a set of pre-selected DNA segments. In this study, using the methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism (MSAP) method, we globally assessed the extent and pattern of cytosine methylation alterations in three typical introgression lines relative to their rice parent at approximately 2,700 unbiased genomic loci each representing a recognition site cleaved by one or both of the isoschizomers, HpaII/MspI. Based on differential digestion by the isoschizomers, it is estimated that 15.9% of CCGG sites are either fully methylated at the internal Cs and/or hemi-methylated at the external Cs in the rice parental cultivar Matsumae. In comparison, a statistically significant increase in the overall level of both methylation types was detected in all three studied introgression lines (19.2, 18.6, 19.6%, respectively). Based on comparisons of MSAP profiles between the isoschizomers within the rice parent and between parent and the introgression lines, four major groups of MSAP banding patterns are recognized, which can be further divided into various subgroups as a result of inheritance of, or variation in, parental methylation patterns. The altered methylation patterns include hyper- and hypomethylation changes, as well as inter-conversion of hemi- to full-methylation, or vice versa, at the relevant CCGG site(s). Most alterations revealed by MSAP in low-copy loci can be validated by DNA gel blot analysis. The changed methylation patterns are uniform among randomly selected individuals for a given introgression line within or among selfed generations. Sequencing on 31 isolated fragments that showed different changing patterns in the introgression line(s) allowed their mapping onto variable regions on one or more of the 12 rice chromosomes. These segments include protein-coding genes, transposon/retrotransposons and sequences with no homology. Possible causes for the introgression-induced methylation changes and their implications for genome evolution and crop breeding are discussed.

Selective silencing of foreign DNA with low GC content by the H-NS protein in Salmonella

Horizontal gene transfer plays a major role in microbial evolution. However, newly acquired sequences can decrease fitness unless integrated into preexisting regulatory networks. We found that the histone-like nucleoid structuring protein (H-NS) selectively silences horizontally acquired genes by targeting sequences with GC content lower than the resident genome. Mutations in hns are lethal in Salmonella unless accompanied by compensatory mutations in other regulatory loci. Thus, H-NS provides a previously unrecognized mechanism of bacterial defense against foreign DNA, enabling the acquisition of DNA from exogenous sources while avoiding detrimental consequences from unregulated expression of newly acquired genes. Characteristic GC/AT ratios of bacterial genomes may facilitate discrimination between a cell's own DNA and foreign DNA.

Chromatin and siRNA pathways cooperate to maintain DNA methylation of small transposable elements in Arabidopsis

Microarray-based profiling of the involvement of two DNA methyltransferases (CMT3 and DRM), a histone H3 lysine-9 methyltransferase (KYP) and an Argonaute-related siRNA silencing component (AGO4) in methylating target loci in Arabidopsis reveals that transposable elements are the targets of both DNA methylation and histone H3K9 methylation pathways, irrespective of element type and position.

Background

DNA methylation occurs at preferred sites in eukaryotes. In Arabidopsis, DNA cytosine methylation is maintained by three subfamilies of methyltransferases with distinct substrate specificities and different modes of action. Targeting of cytosine methylation at selected loci has been found to sometimes involve histone H3 methylation and small interfering (si)RNAs. However, the relationship between different cytosine methylation pathways and their preferred targets is not known.

Results

We used a microarray-based profiling method to explore the involvement of Arabidopsis CMT3 and DRM DNA methyltransferases, a histone H3 lysine-9 methyltransferase (KYP) and an Argonaute-related siRNA silencing component (AGO4) in methylating target loci. We found that KYP targets are also CMT3 targets, suggesting that histone methylation maintains CNG methylation genome-wide. CMT3 and KYP targets show similar proximal distributions that correspond to the overall distribution of transposable elements of all types, whereas DRM targets are distributed more distally along the chromosome. We find an inverse relationship between element size and loss of methylation in ago4 and drm mutants.

Conclusion

We conclude that the targets of both DNA methylation and histone H3K9 methylation pathways are transposable elements genome-wide, irrespective of element type and position. Our findings also suggest that RNA-directed DNA methylation is required to silence isolated elements that may be too small to be maintained in a silent state by a chromatin-based mechanism alone. Thus, parallel pathways would be needed to maintain silencing of transposable elements.

The mop1 (mediator of paramutation1) mutant progressively reactivates one of the two genes encoded by the MuDR transposon in maize

Transposons make up a sizable portion of most genomes, and most organisms have evolved mechanisms to silence them. In maize, silencing of the Mutator family of transposons is associated with methylation of the terminal inverted repeats (TIRs) surrounding the autonomous element and loss of mudrA expression (the transposase) as well as mudrB (a gene involved in insertional activity). We have previously reported that a mutation that suppresses paramutation in maize, mop1, also hypomethylates Mu1 elements and restores somatic activity to silenced MuDR elements. Here, we describe the progressive reactivation of silenced mudrA after several generations in a mop1 background. In mop1 mutants, the TIRA becomes hypomethylated immediately, but mudrA expression and significant somatic reactivation is not observed until silenced MuDR has been exposed to mop1 for several generations. In subsequent generations, individuals that are heterozygous or wild type for the Mop1 allele continue to exhibit hypomethylation at Mu1 and mudrA TIRs as well as somatic activity and high levels of mudrA expression. Thus, mudrA silencing can be progressively and heritably reversed. Conversely, mudrB expression is never restored, its TIR remains methylated, and new insertions of Mu elements are not observed. These data suggest that mudrA and mudrB silencing may be maintained via distinct mechanisms.

Heritable transposon silencing initiated by a naturally occurring transposon inverted duplication

It has been suggested that gene silencing evolved as a defense against genomic parasites such as transposons. This idea is based on analysis of mutations that reactivate transposons that are stably silenced: they affect maintenance rather than initiation of silencing. Here we describe the cloning and characterization of a naturally occurring locus able to heritably silence the otherwise highly active MuDR transposon in maize. This locus, Mu killer (Muk), results from the inverted duplication of a partially deleted autonomous MuDR element located at the breakpoint of a genomic deletion. Muk produces a hybrid hairpin transcript that is processed into small RNAs, which are amplified when the target MuDR transcript is present. Muk provides the first example of a naturally occurring transposon derivative capable of initiating the heritable silencing of an active transposon family. Further, transposon-generated inverted duplications may be important for the generation of double-stranded RNAs used in gene silencing.