Designing Aptamer-Gold Nanoparticle-Loaded pH-Sensitive Liposomes Encapsulate Morin for Treating Cancer

Alendronate-functionalized porous nano-crystalsomes mitigate osteolysis and consequent inhibition of tumor growth in a tibia-induced metastasis model

Bone is one of the most prevalent sites of metastases in various epithelial malignancies, including breast cancer and this metastasis to bone often leads to severe skeletal complications in women due to its osteolytic nature. To address this, we devised a novel drug delivery approach using an Alendronate (ALN) functionalized self-assembled porous crystalsomes for concurrent targeting of Oleanolic acid (OA) and ALN (ALN + OA@NCs) to bone metastasis. Initially, the conjugation of both PEG-OA and OA-PEG-ALN with ALN and OA was achieved, and this conjugation was then self-assembled into porous crystalsomes (ALN + OA@NCs) by nanoemulsion crystallization. The reconstruction of a 3D single particle using transmission electron microscopy ensured the crystalline porous structure of ALN + OA@NCs, was well aligned with characteristic nanoparticle attributes including size distribution, polydispersity, and zeta potential. Further, ALN + OA@NCs showed enhanced efficacy in comparison to OA@NCs suggesting the cytotoxic roles of ALN towards cancer cells, followed by augmentation ROS generation (40.81%), mitochondrial membrane depolarization (57.20%), and induction of apoptosis (40.43%). We found that ALN + OA@NCs facilitated inhibiting osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption followed by inhibited osteolysis. In vivo activity of ALN + OA@NCs in the 4 T1 cell-induced tibia model rendered a reduced bone loss in the treated mice followed by restoring bone morphometric markers which were further corroborated bone-targeting effects of ALN + OA@NCs to reduce RANKL-stimulated osteoclastogenesis. Further, In vivo intravenous pharmacokinetics showed the improved therapeutic profile of the ALN + OA@NCs in comparison to the free drug, prolonging the levels of the drug in the systemic compartment by reducing the clearance culminating the higher accumulation at the tumor site. Our finding proposed that ALN + OA@NCs can effectively target and treat breast cancer metastasis to bone and its associated complications.

Aptamers for the Delivery of Plant-Based Compounds: A Review

Natural compounds have a high potential for the treatment of various conditions, including infections, inflammatory diseases, and cancer. However, they usually present poor pharmacokinetics, low specificity, and even toxicity, which limits their use. Therefore, targeted drug delivery systems, typically composed of a carrier and a targeting ligand, can enhance natural product selectivity and effectiveness. Notably, aptamers-short RNA or single-stranded DNA molecules-have gained attention as promising ligands in targeted drug delivery since they are simple to synthesize and modify, and they present high tissue permeability, stability, and a wide array of available targets. The combination of natural products, namely plant-based compounds, with a drug delivery system utilizing aptamers as targeting agents represents an emerging strategy that has the potential to broaden its applications. This review discusses the potential of aptamers as targeting agents in the delivery of natural compounds, as well as new trends and developments in their utilization in the field of medicine.

Designing Gold Nanoparticles for Precise Glioma Treatment: Challenges and Alternatives

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a glioma and the most aggressive type of brain tumor with a dismal average survival time, despite the standard of care. One promising alternative therapy is boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT), which is a noninvasive therapy for treating locally invasive malignant tumors, such as glioma. BNCT involves boron-10 isotope capturing neutrons to form boron-11, which then releases radiation directly into tumor cells with minimal damage to healthy tissues. This therapy lacks clinically approved targeted blood-brain-barrier-permeating delivery vehicles for the central nervous system (CNS) entry of therapeutic boron-10. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) are selective and effective drug-delivery vehicles because of their desirable properties, facile synthesis, and biocompatibility. This review discusses biomedical/therapeutic applications of GNPs as a drug delivery vehicle, with an emphasis on their potential for carrying therapeutic drugs, imaging agents, and GBM-targeting antibodies/peptides for treating glioma. The constraints of GNP therapeutic efficacy and biosafety are discussed.

A Snapshot of Photoresponsive Liposomes in Cancer Chemotherapy and Immunotherapy: Opportunities and Challenges

To provide precise medical regimens, photonics technologies have been involved in the field of nanomedicine. Phototriggered liposomes have been cast as promising nanosystems that achieve controlled release of payloads in several pathological conditions such as cancer, autoimmune, and infectious diseases. In contrast to the conventional liposomes, this photoresponsive element greatly improves therapeutic efficacy and reduces the adverse effects of gene/drug therapy during treatment. Recently, cancer immunotherpay has been one of the hot topics in the field of oncology due to the great success and therapeutic benefits that were well-recognized by the patients. However, several side effects have been encountered due to the unmonitored augmentation of the immune system. This Review highlights the most recent advancements in the development of photoresponsive liposome nanosystems in the field of oncology, with a specific emphasis on challenges and opportunities in the field of cancer immunotherapy.

Surface modification strategies in translocating nano-vesicles across different barriers and the role of bio-vesicles in improving anticancer therapy

Nanovesicles and bio-vesicles (BVs) have emerged as promising tools to achieve targeted cancer therapy due to their ability to overcome many of the key challenges currently being faced with conventional chemotherapy. These challenges include the diverse and often complex pathophysiology involving the progression of cancer, as well as the various biological barriers that circumvent therapeutic molecules reaching their target site in optimum concentration. The scientific evidence suggests that surface-functionalized nanovesicles and BVs camouflaged nano-carriers (NCs) both can bypass the established biological barriers and facilitate fourth-generation targeting for the improved regimen of treatment. In this review, we intend to emphasize the role of surface-functionalized nanovesicles and BVs camouflaged NCs through various approaches that lead to an improved internalization to achieve improved and targeted oncotherapy. We have explored various strategies that have been employed to surface-functionalize and biologically modify these vesicles, including the use of biomolecule functionalized target ligands such as peptides, antibodies, and aptamers, as well as the targeting of specific receptors on cancer cells. Further, the utility of BVs, which are made from the membranes of cells such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), white blood cells (WBCs), red blood cells (RBCs), platelets (PLTs) as well as cancer cells also been investigated. Lastly, we have discussed the translational challenges and limitations that these NCs can encounter and still need to be overcome in order to fully realize the potential of nanovesicles and BVs for targeted cancer therapy. The fundamental challenges that currently prevent successful cancer therapy and the necessity of novel delivery systems are in the offing.

Hybrid Nanoplatforms Comprising Organic Nanocompartments Encapsulating Inorganic Nanoparticles for Enhanced Drug Delivery and Bioimaging Applications

Organic and inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted significant attention due to their unique physico-chemical properties, which have paved the way for their application in numerous fields including diagnostics and therapy. Recently, hybrid nanomaterials consisting of organic nanocompartments (e.g., liposomes, micelles, poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) NPs, dendrimers, or chitosan NPs) encapsulating inorganic NPs (quantum dots, or NPs made of gold, silver, silica, or magnetic materials) have been researched for usage in vivo as drug-delivery or theranostic agents. These classes of hybrid multi-particulate systems can enable or facilitate the use of inorganic NPs in biomedical applications. Notably, integration of inorganic NPs within organic nanocompartments results in improved NP stability, enhanced bioavailability, and reduced systemic toxicity. Moreover, these hybrid nanomaterials allow synergistic interactions between organic and inorganic NPs, leading to further improvements in therapeutic efficacy. Furthermore, these platforms can also serve as multifunctional agents capable of advanced bioimaging and targeted delivery of therapeutic agents, with great potential for clinical applications. By considering these advancements in the field of nanomedicine, this review aims to provide an overview of recent developments in the use of hybrid nanoparticulate systems that consist of organic nanocompartments encapsulating inorganic NPs for applications in drug delivery, bioimaging, and theranostics.

Morin Hydrate Encapsulation and Release from Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Melanoma Therapy

Melanoma incidence, a type of skin cancer, has been increasing worldwide. There is a strong need to develop new therapeutic strategies to improve melanoma treatment. Morin is a bioflavonoid with the potential for use in the treatment of cancer, including melanoma. However, therapeutic applications of morin are restrained owing to its low aqueous solubility and limited bioavailability. This work investigates morin hydrate (MH) encapsulation in mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) to enhance morin bioavailability and consequently increase the antitumor effects in melanoma cells. Spheroidal MSNs with a mean size of 56.3 ± 6.5 nm and a specific surface area of 816 m²/g were synthesized. MH was successfully loaded (MH-MSN) using the evaporation method, with a loading capacity of 28.3% and loading efficiency of 99.1%. In vitro release studies showed that morin release from MH-MSNs was enhanced at pH 5.2, indicating increased flavonoid solubility. The in vitro cytotoxicity of MH and MH-MSNs on human A375, MNT-1 and SK-MEL-28 melanoma cell lines was investigated. Exposure to MSNs did not affect the cell viability of any of the cell lines tested, suggesting that the nanoparticles are biocompatible. The effect of MH and MH-MSNs on reducing cell viability was time- and concentration-dependent in all melanoma cell lines. The A375 and SK-MEL-28 cell lines were slightly more sensitive than MNT-1 cells in both the MH and MH-MSN treatments. Our findings suggest that MH-MSNs are a promising delivery system for the treatment of melanoma.

Encapsulation of morin in lipid core/PLGA shell nanoparticles significantly enhances its anti-inflammatory activity and oral bioavailability

Morin (3,5,7,2',4'-pentahydroxyflavone; MR) is a bioactive plant polyphenol whose therapeutic efficacy is hindered by its poor biopharmaceutical properties. The purpose of this study was to develop a nanoparticle (NP) formulation to enhance the bioactivity and oral bioavailability of MR. The nanoprecipitation technique was employed to encapsulate MR in lipid-cored poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) NPs. The optimal NPs were about 200 nm in size with an almost neutral surface charge and a loading efficiency of 82%. The NPs exhibited sustained release of MR within 24 h. In vitro antioxidant assays showed that MR encapsulation did not affect its antioxidant activity. On the other hand, anti-inflammatory assays in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages revealed a superior anti-inflammatory activity of MR NPs compared to free MR. Furthermore, oral administration of MR NPs to mice at a single dose of 20 mg/kg MR achieved a 5.6-fold enhancement in bioavailability and a prolongation of plasma half-life from 0.13 to 0.98 h. The results of this study present a promising NP formulation for MR which can enhance its oral bioavailability and bioactivity for the treatment of different diseases such as inflammation.

Aptamer-conjugated gold nanoparticles and their diagnostic and therapeutic roles in cancer

The burden of incidence rate and mortality of cancer is increasing rapidly, and the development of precise intervention measures for cancer detection and treatment will help reduce the burden and pain of cancer. At present, the sensitivity and specificity of tumor markers such as CEA and CA-125 used clinically are low, while PET, SPECT, and other imaging diagnoses with high sensitivity possess shortcomings, including long durations to obtain formal reports and the inability to identify the molecular pathological type of cancer. Cancer surgery is limited by stage and easy to recur. Radiotherapy and chemotherapy often cause damage to normal tissues, leading to evident side effects. Aptamers can selectively and exclusively bind to biomarkers and have, therefore, gained attention as ligands to be targeted for cancer detection and treatment. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are considered as promising nano carriers for cancer diagnosis and treatment due to their strong light scattering characteristics, effective biocompatibility, and easy surface modification with targeted agents. The aptamer-gold nanoparticles targeting delivery system developed herein can combine the advantages of aptamers and gold nanoparticles, and shows excellent targeting, high specificity, low immunogenicity, minor side effects, etc., which builds a bridge for cancer markers to be used in early and efficient diagnosis and precise treatment. In this review, we summarize the latest progress in the application of aptamer-modified gold nanoparticles in cancer targeted diagnosis and delivery of therapeutic agents to cancer cells and emphasize the prospects and challenges of transforming these studies into clinical applications.

Crosstalk between xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibiting and cancer chemotherapeutic properties of comestible flavonoids- a comprehensive update

Gout is an inflammatory disease caused by metabolic disorder or genetic inheritance. People throughout the world are strongly dependent on ethnomedicine for the treatment of gout and some receive satisfactory curative treatment. The natural remedies as well as established drugs derived from natural sources or synthetically made exert their action by mechanisms that are closely associated with anticancer treatment mechanisms regarding inhibition of xanthine oxidase, feedback inhibition of de novo purine synthesis, depolymerization and disappearance of microtubule, inhibition of NF-ĸB activation, induction of TRAIL, promotion of apoptosis, and caspase activation and proteasome inhibition. Some anti-gout and anticancer novel compounds interact with same receptors for their action, e.g., colchicine and colchicine analogues. Dietary flavonoids, i.e., chrysin, kaempferol, quercetin, fisetin, pelargonidin, apigenin, luteolin, myricetin, isorhamnetin, phloretinetc etc. have comparable IC₅₀ values with established anti-gout drug and effective against both cancer and gout. Moreover, a noticeable number of newer anticancer compounds have already been isolated from plants that have been using by local traditional healers and herbal practitioners to treat gout. Therefore, the anti-gout plants might have greater potentiality to become selective candidates for screening of newer anticancer leads.

Synergic fabrication of multifunctional liposomes nanocomposites for improved radiofrequency ablation combination for liver metastasis cancer therapy

The field of biomedical research has recently been interested in nanoplatforms with various functionalities, such as cancer drug carriers and MRI and optical imaging, as well as thermal treatment, among other things. As a result of the present investigation, a unique multifunctional liposome (MFL) was established in this investigation. Using radiofrequency-induced imaging and drug release based on magnetic field impact, a dual drug delivery targeted with tumor multi-mechanism treatment was made more effective. The C60 (fullerene) surface was coated with iron nanocomposites to establish the proposed nanosystems, and PEGylation was used (Fe3O4-C60-PEG2000). For fullerene radiofrequency-triggered drug release, thermosensitive DPPC liposomes with folate-DSPE-PEG2000 enveloped the binary nanosystems and doxorubicin (DOX). The in vitro cytotoxicity of the nanocomposites was confirmed by the liver metastasis in HT-29 colon cancer cells using radiofrequency. The flow cytometry analysis confirmed the apoptosis cell death mechanism. The thermal treatment combined chemotherapeutic MFL nano framework transformed radiofrequency radiation from thermoresponsive liposomes, which was noticed both in vivo and in vitro. Due to their superior active tumor targeting and magnetic targeting characteristics, the MFL could also selectively destroy cancerous liver cells in highly co-localized targets.

Characteristics and in vitro anti skin aging activity and UV radiation protection of morin loaded in niosomes

BACKGROUND

One of the dermatologic problems in elderly people is skin aging, which is a natural and complex biological process. Morin is a flavonoid with high radical scavenging activity as well as antityrosinase effects but its low water solubility has restricted its application.

AIMS

This research aimed to develop, characterize, and optimize morin niosomes composed of non-ionic surfactants, and evaluate the in vitro UV protection and antiaging effectiveness.

METHODS

Niosomes were prepared by the film hydration method with sorbitan monostearate (Span® 40), polyoxyethylenesorbitan monopalmitate (Tween® 40), and cholesterol. The niosomes were characterized in terms of size, zeta potential, morphology, in vitro release behavior, and drug entrapment efficiency (EE). Afterward, antiaging activity, including antityrosinase, antioxidant, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging, and sun protection factor (SPF) were evaluated.

RESULTS

The optimized niosomes appeared as unilamellar vesicles with a spherical shape, with size, zeta potential, and EE values of 6.13 ± 0.40 μm, -0.81 ± 0.32 mV, and 89.35% ± 2.80%, respectively. The noisome formulation remained stable at -4°C for 3 months. The release profiles of morin loaded in niosomes revealed the extended release over 8 h and followed zero-order release kinetics. Morin-loaded niosomes exhibited no significant toxicity toward the L929 cell line. The niosome loaded with morin showed anti skin aging activity, including antityrosinase effects (IC50 = 13.17 ± 1.58 μg/ml), antioxidant (IC50 = 28.49 ± 2.05 μg/ml), and ROS scavenging activity. For 1% and 5% (w/w) morin niosomes in eucerin base cream, the SPF was 39.03 ± 1.01 and 38.15 ± 0.82, respectively, whereas the noisome-free morin cream exhibited an SPF of 4.47 ± 0.56.

CONCLUSION

Morin-loaded niosome has been shown to provide sun protection and antiaging effects, suggesting that it could be used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic products.

Stimuli-responsive liposomal nanoformulations in cancer therapy: Pre-clinical & clinical approaches

The site-specific delivery of antitumor agents is of importance for providing effective cancer suppression. Poor bioavailability of anticancer compounds and the presence of biological barriers prevent their accumulation in tumor sites. These obstacles can be overcome using liposomal nanostructures. The challenges in cancer chemotherapy and stimuli-responsive nanocarriers are first described in the current review. Then, stimuli-responsive liposomes including pH-, redox-, enzyme-, light-, thermo- and magneto-sensitive nanoparticles are discussed and their potential for delivery of anticancer drugs is emphasized. The pH- or redox-sensitive liposomes are based on internal stimulus and release drug in response to a mildly acidic pH and GSH, respectively. The pH-sensitive liposomes can mediate endosomal escape via proton sponge. The multifunctional liposomes responsive to both redox and pH have more capacity in drug release at tumor site compared to pH- or redox-sensitive alone. The magnetic field and NIR irradiation can be exploited for external stimulation of liposomes. The light-responsive liposomes release drugs when they are exposed to irradiation; thermosensitive-liposomes release drugs at a temperature of >40 °C when there is hyperthermia; magneto-responsive liposomes release drugs in presence of magnetic field. These smart nanoliposomes also mediate co-delivery of drugs and genes in synergistic cancer therapy. Due to lack of long-term toxicity of liposomes, they can be utilized in near future for treatment of cancer patients.

Nanotechnology in drug and gene delivery

Over the last decade, nanotechnology has widely addressed many nanomaterials in the biomedical area with an opportunity to achieve better-targeted delivery, effective treatment, and an improved safety profile. Nanocarriers have the potential property to protect the active molecule during drug delivery. Depending on the employing nanosystem, the delivery of drugs and genes has enhanced the bioavailability of the molecule at the disease site and exercised an excellent control of the molecule release. Herein, the chapter discusses various advanced nanomaterials designed to develop better nanocarrier systems used to face different diseases such as cancer, heart failure, and malaria. Furthermore, we demonstrate the great attention to the promising role of nanocarriers in ease diagnostic and biodistribution for successful clinical cancer therapy.

Cell membrane-based biomimetic nanosystems for advanced drug delivery in cancer therapy: A comprehensive review

Natural types of cells display distinct characteristics with homotypic targeting and extended circulation in the blood, which are worthy of being explored as promising drug delivery systems (DDSs) for cancer therapy. To enhance their delivery efficiency, these cells can be combined with therapeutic agents and artificial nanocarriers to construct the next generation of DDSs in the form of biomimetic nanomedicines. In this review, we present the recent advances in cell membrane-based DDSs (CDDSs) and their applications for efficient cancer therapy. Different sources of cell membranes are discussed, mainly including red blood cells (RBC), leukocytes, cancer cells, stem cells and hybrid cells. Moreover, the extraction methods used for obtaining such cells and the mechanism contributing to the functional action of these biomimetic CDDSs are explained. Finally, a future perspective is proposed to highlight the limitations of CDDSs and the possible resolutions toward clinical transformation of currently developed biomimetic chemotherapies.

Phytochemical-conjugated bio-safe gold nanoparticles in breast cancer: a comprehensive update

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women and is rated among one of the three common malignancies worldwide in combination with colon and lung cancer. The escalating mortality rate of breast cancer patients has captivated the attention of the present-day researchers to come up with new management options. According to WHO, early detection, timely diagnosis and comprehensive breast cancer management are the three cornerstones for controlling breast cancer incidences per year. Multidisciplinary theragnostic approaches for simultaneous diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer have further enriched the therapeutic arsenal. Imaging and biopsy play a significant role in the diagnosis of breast cancer. The treatment plan mostly initiates with general surgery or radiation therapy followed up with adjuvant and/or neoadjuvant therapy. Conventional chemotherapeutics in breast cancer suffer from toxicity and lack of site specificity. Bio-safe gold nanoparticles hold sufficient promise for bridging this gap. Diverse phytochemicals-based synthesis routes to arrive at nano-dimensional gold with spotlight on reaction mechanisms, reaction variables, specific advantages, toxicity and their influence in breast cancer conditions are the focus of this work. This review marks the first attempt to explore the potential of phytochemical-derived nano-gold in breast cancer treatment.

Pressure-Controlled Encapsulation of Graphene Quantum Dots into Liposomes by the Reverse-Phase Evaporation Method

Ultrasmall nanoparticles (USNPs) with sizes below 10 nm have shown great potentials in medical applications owing to their outstanding physical, chemical, optical, and biological properties. However, they suffer from a rapid renal clearance and biodegradation rate in the biological environment due to the small size. Liposomes are one of the most promising delivery nanocarriers for loading USNPs because of their excellent biocompatibility and lipid bilayer structure. Encapsulation of USNPs into liposomes in an efficient and controllable manner remains a challenge. In this study, we achieved a high loading of graphene quantum dots (GQDs, ∼4 nm), a typical USNP, into the aqueous core of liposomes (45.68 ± 1.44%), which was controllable by the pressure. The GQDs-loaded liposomes (GQDs-LPs) exhibited a very good aqueous stability for over a month. Furthermore, indocyanine green (ICG), an efficient near-infrared (NIR) photothermal agent, was introduced in the GQDs-LP system that could convert NIR laser energy into thermal energy and break down the liposomes, causing the release of GQDs in 6 min. Moreover, this NIR light-controlled release system (GQDs-ICG-LPs) also exhibited a good photothermal therapeutic performance in vitro, and 75% of cancer cells were killed at a concentration of 200 μg/mL. Overall, the successful development of the NIR light-controlled release system has laid a solid foundation for the future biomedical application of USNPs-loaded liposomes.

The MTT Assay: Utility, Limitations, Pitfalls, and Interpretation in Bulk and Single-Cell Analysis

The MTT assay for cellular metabolic activity is almost ubiquitous to studies of cell toxicity; however, it is commonly applied and interpreted erroneously. We investigated the applicability and limitations of the MTT assay in representing treatment toxicity, cell viability, and metabolic activity. We evaluated the effect of potential confounding variables on the MTT assay measurements on a prostate cancer cell line (PC-3) including cell seeding number, MTT concentration, MTT incubation time, serum starvation, cell culture media composition, released intracellular contents (cell lysate and secretome), and extrusion of formazan to the extracellular space. We also assessed the confounding effect of polyethylene glycol (PEG)-coated gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs) as a tested treatment in PC-3 cells on the assay measurements. We additionally evaluated the applicability of microscopic image cytometry as a tool for measuring intracellular MTT reduction at the single-cell level. Our findings show that the assay measurements are a result of a complicated process dependant on many of the above-mentioned factors, and therefore, optimization of the assay and rational interpretation of the data is necessary to prevent misleading conclusions on variables such as cell viability, treatment toxicity, and/or cell metabolism. We conclude, with recommendations on how to apply the assay and a perspective on where the utility of the assay is a powerful tool, but likewise where it has limitations.

Hydrophobic ion-pairing assembled liposomal Rhein with efficient loading for acute pancreatitis treatment

AIM

The present study aimed to develop liposomal Rhein by employing a hydrophobic ion-pairing technique (HIP) for improved pancreatitis therapy.

METHODS

F127 modified liposomal Rhein (F127-RPC-Lip) was prepared using a two-step process consisting of complexation first, followed by a film-ultrasonic dispersion step. The drug-phospholipid interaction was characterised by FT-IR and P-XRD. Particle size and morphology were investigated using DLS and TEM, respectively. Biodistribution and therapeutic efficacy of F127-RPC-Lip were evaluated in a rat model of acute pancreatitis.

RESULTS

F127-RPC-Lip achieved efficient drug encapsulation after complexation with lipids through non-covalent interactions and had an average hydrodynamic diameter of about 141 nm. F127-RPC-Lip demonstrated slower drug release (55.90 ± 3.60%, w/w) than Rhein solution (90.27 ± 5.11%) within 24 h. Compared with Rhein, F127-RPC-Lip exhibited prolonged systemic circulation time, superior drug distribution, and attenuated injury in the pancreas of rats post-injection.

CONCLUSIONS

HIP-assembled liposomes are a promising strategy for Rhein in treating pancreatitis.

Recent advances in active targeting of nanomaterials for anticancer drug delivery

One of the challenges in cancer chemotherapy is the low target to non-target ratio of therapeutic agents which incur severe adverse effect on the healthy tissues. In this regard, nanomaterials have tremendous potential for impacting cancer therapy by altering the toxicity profile of the drug. Some of the striking advantages provided by the nanocarriers mediated targeted drug delivery are relatively high build-up of drug concentration at the tumor site, improved drug content in the formulation and enhanced colloidal stability. Further, nanocarriers with tumor-specific moieties can be targeted to the cancer cell through cell surface receptors, tumor antigens and tumor vasculatures with high affinity and accuracy. Moreover, it overcomes the bottleneck of aimless drug biodistribution, undesired toxicity and heavy dosage of administration. This review discusses the recent developments in active targeting of nanomaterials for anticancer drug delivery through cancer cell surface targeting, organelle specific targeting and tumor microenvironment targeting strategies. Special emphasis has been given towards cancer cell surface and organelle specific targeting as delivery of anticancer drugs through these routes have made paradigm change in cancer management. Further, the current challenges and future prospects of nanocarriers mediated active drug targeting are also demonstrated.

Liposomal Nanomedicine: Applications for Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy

The increasing prevalence of cancer, a disease in which rapid and uncontrollable cell growth causes complication and tissue dysfunction, is one of the serious and tense concerns of scientists and physicians. Nowadays, cancer diagnosis and especially its effective treatment have been considered as one of the biggest challenges in health and medicine in the last century. Despite significant advances in drug discovery and delivery, their many adverse effects and inadequate specificity and sensitivity, which usually cause damage to healthy tissues and organs, have been great barriers in using them. Limitation in the duration and amount of these therapeutic agents' administration is also challenging. On the other hand, the incidence of tumor cells that are resistant to typical methods of cancer treatment, such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy, highlights the intense need for innovation, improvement, and development in antitumor drug properties. Liposomes have been suggested as a suitable candidate for drug delivery and cancer treatment in nanomedicine due to their ability to store drugs with different physical and chemical characteristics. Moreover, the high flexibility and potential of liposome structure for chemical modification by conjugating various polymers, ligands, and molecules is a significant pro for liposomes not only to enhance their pharmacological merits but also to improve the effectiveness of anticancer drugs. Liposomes can increase the sensitivity, specificity, and durability of these anti-malignant cell agents in the body and provide remarkable benefits to be applied in nanomedicines. We reviewed the discovery and development of liposomes focusing on their clinical applications to treat diverse sorts of cancers and diseases. How the properties of liposomal drugs can be improved and their opportunity and challenges for cancer therapy were also considered and discussed.

Morin as an imminent functional food ingredient: an update on its enhanced efficacy in the treatment and prevention of metabolic syndromes

Flavonoids represent polyphenolic plant secondary metabolites with a general structure of a 15-carbon skeleton comprising two phenyl rings and a heterocyclic ring. Over 5000 natural flavonoids (flavanones, flavanonols, and flavans) from various plants have been characterized. Several studies provide novel and promising insights into morin hydrate for its different biological activities against a series of metabolic syndromes. The present review is a rendition of its sources, chemistry, functional potency, and protective effects on metabolic syndromes ranging from cancer to brain injury. Most importantly this systematic review article also highlights the mechanisms of interest to morin-mediated management of metabolic disorders. The key mechanisms (anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory) responsible for its therapeutic potential are well featured after collating the in vitro and in vivo study reports. As a whole, based on the prevailing information rationalizing its medicinal use, morin can be identified as a therapeutic agent for the expansion of human health.

Antitumor Effect of Hyperoside Loaded in Charge Reversed and Mitochondria-Targeted Liposomes

Introduction

Hyperoside (HYP), a flavonol glycoside compound, has been shown to significantly inhibit the proliferation of malignant tumors. Mitochondria serve as both “energy factories” and “suicide weapon stores” of cells. Targeted delivery of cytotoxic drugs to the mitochondria of tumor cells and tumor vascular cells is a promising strategy to improve the efficacy of chemotherapy.

Objective

We report a novel dual-functional liposome system possessing both extracellular charge reversal and mitochondrial targeting properties to enhance drug accumulation in mitochondria and trigger apoptosis of cancer cells.

Methods

L-lysine was used as a linker to connect 2,3-dimethylmaleic anhydride (DMA) and 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DSPE) to yield a new compound, DSPE-Lys-DMA (DLD). Then, DLD was mixed with other commercially available lipids to form charge reversed and mitochondria-targeted liposomes (DLD-Lip). The size, morphology, zeta potential, serum stability, and protein adsorption of the HYP loaded DLD-Lip (HYP/DLD-Lip) were measured. The release profile, cellular uptake, in vitro and in vivo toxicity, and anticancer activity of HYP/DLD-Lip were investigated.

Results

The results showed that the mean diameter of the liposomes was less than 200 nm. The zeta potential of the liposomes was negative at pH 7.4. However, the zeta potential was positive at weak acidic pH values with the cleavage of the DMA amide. The charge reversion of HYP/DLD-Lip facilitated the cellular internalization and mitochondrial accumulation for enhanced antitumor effect. The strongest tumor growth inhibition (TGI 88.79%) without systemic toxicity was observed in DLD/HYP-Lips-treated CBRH-7919 tumor xenograft BALB/C mice.

Conclusion

The charge reversed and mitochondria-targeted liposomes represented a promising anticancer drug delivery system for enhanced anticancer therapeutic efficacy.

Biocompatible Nanoparticles as a Platform for Enhancing Antitumor Efficacy of Cisplatin-Tetradrine Combination

Combination therapy has been a standard strategy in the clinical tumor treatment. We have demonstrated that combination of Tetradrine (Tet) and Cisplatin (CDDP) presented a marked synergistic anticancer activity, but inevitable side effects limit their therapeutic concentration. Considering the different physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties of the two drugs, we loaded them into a nanovehicle together by the improved double emulsion method. The nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared from the mixture of poly(ethyleneglycol)-polycaprolactone (PEG-PCL) and polycarprolactone (HO-PCL), so CDDP and Tet can be located into the NPs simultaneously, resulting in low interfering effect and high stability. Images from fluorescence microscope revealed the cellular uptake of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic agents delivered by the NPs. In vitro studies on different tumor cell lines and tumor tissue revealed increased tumor inhibition and apoptosis rates. As to the in vivo studies, superior antitumor efficacy and reduced side effects were observed in the NPs group. Furthermore, ¹⁸FDG-PET/CT imaging demonstrated that NPs reduced metabolic activities of tumors more prominently. Our results suggest that PEG-PCL block copolymeric NPs could be a promising carrier for combined chemotherapy with solid efficacy and minor side effects.

Hybrid Nanosystems for Biomedical Applications

Inorganic/organic hybrid nanosystems have been increasingly developed for their versatility and efficacy at overcoming obstacles not readily surmounted by nonhybridized counterparts. Currently, hybrid nanosystems are implemented for gene therapy, drug delivery, and phototherapy in addition to tissue regeneration, vaccines, antibacterials, biomolecule detection, imaging probes, and theranostics. Though diverse, these nanosystems can be classified according to foundational inorganic/organic components, accessory moieties, and architecture of hybridization. Within this Review, we begin by providing a historical context for the development of biomedical hybrid nanosystems before describing the properties, synthesis, and characterization of their component building blocks. Afterward, we introduce the architectures of hybridization and highlight recent biomedical nanosystem developments by area of application, emphasizing hybrids of distinctive utility and innovation. Finally, we draw attention to ongoing clinical trials before recapping our discussion of hybrid nanosystems and providing a perspective on the future of the field.

Aptamer-Functionalized Nanoparticles in Targeted Delivery and Cancer Therapy

Using nanoparticles to carry and delivery anticancer drugs holds much promise in cancer therapy, but nanoparticles per se are lacking specificity. Active targeting, that is, using specific ligands to functionalize nanoparticles, is attracting much attention in recent years. Aptamers, with their several favorable features like high specificity and affinity, small size, very low immunogenicity, relatively low cost for production, and easiness to store, are one of the best candidates for the specific ligands of nanoparticle functionalization. This review discusses the benefits and challenges of using aptamers to functionalize nanoparticles for active targeting and especially presents nearly all of the published works that address the topic of using aptamers to functionalize nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery and cancer therapy.

Nanoparticle Surface Functionalization: How to Improve Biocompatibility and Cellular Internalization

The use of nanoparticles (NP) in diagnosis and treatment of many human diseases, including cancer, is of increasing interest. However, cytotoxic effects of NPs on cells and the uptake efficiency significantly limit their use in clinical practice. The physico-chemical properties of NPs including surface composition, superficial charge, size and shape are considered the key factors that affect the biocompatibility and uptake efficiency of these nanoplatforms. Thanks to the possibility of modifying physico-chemical properties of NPs, it is possible to improve their biocompatibility and uptake efficiency through the functionalization of the NP surface. In this review, we summarize some of the most recent studies in which NP surface modification enhances biocompatibility and uptake. Furthermore, the most used techniques used to assess biocompatibility and uptake are also reported.

Gold Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery and Cancer Therapy

Nanomaterials are popularly used in drug delivery, disease diagnosis and therapy. Among a number of functionalized nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes, peptide nanostructures, liposomes and polymers, gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) make excellent drug and anticancer agent carriers in biomedical and cancer therapy application. Recent advances of synthetic technique improved the surface coating of Au NPs with accurate control of particle size, shape and surface chemistry. These make the gold nanomaterials a much easier and safer cancer agent and drug to be applied to the patient’s tumor. Although many studies on Au NPs have been published, more results are in the pipeline due to the rapid development of nanotechnology. The purpose of this review is to assess how the novel nanomaterials fabricated by Au NPs can impact biomedical applications such as drug delivery and cancer therapy. Moreover, this review explores the viability, property and cytotoxicity of various Au NPs.

Strategies to bioengineer aptamer-driven nanovehicles as exceptional molecular tools for targeted therapeutics: A review

Aptamers are a class of folded nucleic acid strands capable of binding to different target molecules with high affinity and selectivity. Over the years, they have gained a substantial amount of interest as promising molecular tools for numerous medical applications, particularly in targeted therapeutics. However, only the different treatment approaches and current developments of aptamer-drug therapies have been discussed so far, ignoring the crucial technical and functional aspects of constructing a therapeutically effective aptamer-driven drug delivery system that translates to improved in-vivo performance. Hence, this paper provides a comprehensive review of the strategies used to improve the therapeutic performance of aptamer-guided delivery systems. We focus on the different functional features such as drug deployment, payload capacity, in-vivo stability and targeting efficiency to further our knowledge in enhancing the cell-specific delivery of aptamer-drug conjugates. Each reported strategy is critically discussed to emphasize both the benefits provided in comparison with other similar techniques and to outline their potential drawbacks with respect to the molecular properties of the aptamers, the drug and the system to be designed. The molecular architecture and design considerations for an efficient aptamer-based delivery system are also briefly elaborated.