5-Aminolevulinic acid regulates the immune response in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages

The Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Bee Pollen from Acorn (Quercus acutissima Carr.) and Darae (Actinidia arguta)

Aging is a complex biological process characterized by a progressive decline in physical function and an increased risk of age-related chronic diseases. Additionally, oxidative stress is known to cause severe tissue damage and inflammation. Pollens from acorn and darae are extensively produced in Korea. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of these components under the conditions of inflammation and oxidative stress remain largely unknown. This study aimed to investigate the effect of bee pollen components on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages. This study demonstrates that acorn and darae significantly inhibit the LPS-induced production of inflammatory mediators, such as nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), in RAW 264.7 cells. Specifically, bee pollen from acorn reduces NO production by 69.23 ± 0.04% and PGE2 production by 44.16 ± 0.08%, while bee pollen from darae decreases NO production by 78.21 ± 0.06% and PGE2 production by 66.23 ± 0.1%. Furthermore, bee pollen from acorn and darae reduced active oxygen species (ROS) production by 47.01 ± 0.5% and 60 ± 0.9%, respectively. It increased the nuclear potential of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Moreover, treatment with acorn and darae abolished the nuclear potential of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and reduced the expression of extracellular signal-associated kinase (ERK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Specifically, acorn decreased NF-κB nuclear potential by 90.01 ± 0.3%, ERK phosphorylation by 76.19 ± 1.1%, and JNK phosphorylation by 57.14 ± 1.2%. Similarly, darae reduced NF-κB nuclear potential by 92.21 ± 0.5%, ERK phosphorylation by 61.11 ± 0.8%, and JNK phosphorylation by 59.72 ± 1.12%. These results suggest that acorn and darae could be potential antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents.

A potential virulence factor: Brucella flagellin FliK does not affect the main biological properties but inhibits the inflammatory response in RAW264.7 cells

The bacterial flagellum is an elongated filament that protrudes from the cell and is responsible for bacterial motility. It can also be a pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) that regulates the host immune response and is involved in bacterial pathogenicity. In contrast to motile bacteria, the Brucella flagellum does not serve a motile purpose. Instead, it plays a role in regulating Brucella virulence and the host's immune response, similar to other non-motile bacteria. The flagellin protein, FliK, plays a key role in assembly of the flagellum and also as a potential virulence factor involved in the regulation of bacterial virulence and pathogenicity. In this study, we generated a Brucella suis S2 flik gene deletion strain and its complemented strain and found that deletion of the flik gene has no significant effect on the main biological properties of Brucella, but significantly enhanced the inflammatory response induced by Brucella infection of RAW264.7 macrophages. Further experiments demonstrated that the FliK protein was able to inhibit LPS-induced cellular inflammatory responses by down-regulating the expression of MyD88 and NF-κB, and by decreasing p65 phosphorylation in the NF-κB pathway; it also inhibited the expression of NLRP3 and caspase-1 in the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway. In conclusion, our study suggests that Brucella FliK may act as a virulence factor involved in the regulation of Brucella pathogenicity and modulation of the host immune response.

Efficacy and safety of 5-aminolevulinic acid in adult-onset Still's disease: A preclinical study in mice and a pilot study in humans

The study aimed to investigate the therapeutic effects of 5-aminolevulinic acid/sodium ferrous citrate (5-ALA/SFC) on adult-onset Still's disease (AOSD), specifically focusing on arthritis and macrophage activation syndrome (MAS). We used mouse models to assess the impact of 5-ALA/SFC on collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) and MAS induced by synthetic oligonucleotides containing CpG motifs (CpG-S-ODN). Additionally, we conducted a pilot study with AOSD patients receiving prednisolone (PSL) treatment and 5-ALA/SFC administration to evaluate its efficacy and safety. The 5-ALA/SFC group exhibited significantly lower joint scores in CIA mice. In CpG-S-ODN-treated mice, 5-ALA/SFC administration led to reduced hemophagocytosis and splenomegaly. The anti-inflammatory properties of 5-ALA/SFC were attributed to the suppression of CCL4 and CXCL10 production in monocytes and the induction of M2 macrophages. AOSD patients treated with 5-ALA/SFC demonstrated successful PSL tapering without adverse events. Collectively, the administration of 5-ALA/SFC showed promising potential in ameliorating arthritis and MAS in AOSD patients.

Safety and efficacy of 5-aminolevulinic acid phosphate/iron in mild-to-moderate coronavirus disease 2019: A randomized exploratory phase II trial

BACKGROUND

5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA), a natural amino acid that is marketed alongside sodium ferrous citrate (SFC) as a functional food, blocks severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) proliferation in vitro and exerts anti-inflammatory effects. In this phase II open-label, prospective, parallel-group, randomized trial, we aimed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of 5-ALA in patients with mild-to-moderate coronavirus disease 2019.

METHODS

This trial was conducted in patients receiving 5-ALA/SFC (250/145 mg) orally thrice daily for 7 days, followed by 5-ALA/SFC (150/87 mg) orally thrice daily for 7 days. The primary endpoints were changes in SARS-CoV-2 viral load, clinical symptom scores, and 5-ALA/SFC safety (adverse events [AE] and changes in laboratory values and vital signs).

RESULTS

A total of 50 patients were enrolled from 8 institutions in Japan. The change in SARS-CoV-2 viral load from baseline was not significantly different between the 5-ALA/SFC (n = 24) and control (n = 26) groups. The duration to improvement was shorter in the 5-ALA/SFC group than in the control group, although the difference was not significant. The 5-ALA/SFC group exhibited faster improvement rates in "taste abnormality," "cough," "lethargy," and "no appetite" than the control group. Eight AEs were observed in the 5-ALA/SFC group, with 22.7% of patients experiencing gastrointestinal symptoms (decreased appetite, constipation, and vomiting). AEs occurred with 750/435 mg/day in 25.0% of patients in the first phase and with 450/261 mg/day of 5-ALA/SFC in 6.3% of patients in the second phase.

CONCLUSION

5-ALA/SFC improved some symptoms but did not influence the SARS-CoV-2 viral load or clinical symptom scores over 14 days. The safety of 5-ALA/SFC in this study was acceptable. Further evaluation using a larger sample size or modified method is warranted.

Rehmannia glutinosa polysaccharides attenuates colitis via reshaping gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acid production

BACKGROUND

Ulcerative colitis is a gastrointestinal disease closely related to intestinal epithelial barrier damage and intestinal microbiome imbalance; however, effective treatment methods are currently limited. Rehmannia glutinosa polysaccharide (RGP) is an important active ingredient with a wide range of pharmacological activities, although its protective effect on colitis remains to be explored. In the present study, we verified the in vitro anti-inflammatory effect of RGP, and observed the ameliorating effect of RGP on dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice.

RESULTS

The results showed that (i) RGP attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced overexpression of inflammatory factors in RAW264.7 cells; (ii) RGP improves the pathological damage caused by DSS, including weight loss, increased disease activity index and intestinal tissue ulcers; (iii) RGP improves tight junction proteins to protects the tightness of the intestinal epithelium; (iv) RGP inhibits the expression of inflammatory factors through the nuclear factor-kappa B pathway, and improved the of intestinal tissues inflammation; and (v) RGP can maintain the species diversity of intestinal microbes, increase the content of short-chain fatty acids and then restore the imbalance of intestinal microecology.

CONCLUSION

RGP can improve the intestinal microbiota to strengthen the intestinal epithelial barrier and protect against DSS-induced colitis. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Phytochemical screening and in-vitro biological properties of unprocessed and household processed fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum Linn.) seeds and leaves

The impact of household processes on fenugreek leaves and seeds has been analyzed for total phenolic (TP) and total flavonoid content (TF), and in-vitro biological activities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. Processes included air-drying for leaves and germinating, soaking, and boiling for seeds. Air-dried fenugreek leaves (ADFL) had high TP (15.27 mg GAE g^-1 D.W.) and TF (7.71 mg QE g^-1 D.W.) (milligram quercetin equivalents per gram dry weight). The TP contents of unprocessed, germinated, soaked, and boiled seeds were 6.54, 5.60, 4.59, and 3.84 mg gallic acid equivalents per gram of dry weight (mg GAE g^-1 D.W.), respectively. The TF contents in unprocessed fenugreek seeds, germinated fenugreek seeds, soaked fenugreek seeds, and boiled fenugreek seeds (BFS) were 4.23, 2.11, 2.10, and 2.33 mg QE g^-1 D.W., respectively. Sixteen phenolic and nineteen flavonoid compounds has been identified using high-performance liquid chromatography. Antioxidant activity using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazil (DPPH^·), 2,2-azinobis (3-ethylbenothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS^+·), and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP^·) assays indicated that ADFL had the highest activity. Antimicrobial activity has been evaluated against each of the eight pathogenic bacterial and fungal strains. ADFL showed the strongest activity with minimum inhibitory concentrations values ranging from 0.03 to 1.06 and 0.04 to 1.18 mg ml^·1 against bacterial and fungal strains, respectively. Anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated in-vitro against RAW 264.7 macrophage cells using the nitric oxide (NO) assay. Results revealed that ADFL had the highest cytotoxicity and anti-inflammatory activity according to the NO assay. Household processes significantly reduced the in-vitro biological properties of processed seeds.

Effects of Oral 5-Aminolevulinic Acid on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Ocular Inflammation in Rats

This study aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) on endotoxin-induced uveitis (EIU) in rats. EIU was induced in male Sprague Dawley rats by the subcutaneous injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). During LPS injection, 5-ALA diluted with saline was administered via gastric gavage. After 24 h, clinical scores were assessed after which aqueous humor (AqH) samples were obtained. The number of infiltrating cells, protein concentration, and levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), nitric oxide (NO), and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in AqH were measured. For histological examination, both eyes of some rats were enucleated. In vitro, a mouse macrophage cell line (RAW264.7 cells) was stimulated by LPS with or without 5-ALA. Western blot was used to analyze the expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2. 5-ALA suppressed the EIU clinical scores, infiltrating cell number, and protein concentration while improving the histopathologic scores. In particular, 100 mg/kg 5-ALA reduced the concentrations of NO, PGE2, TNF-α, and IL-6 in AqH, similar to 1 mg/kg prednisolone. In addition, 5-ALA suppressed iNOS upregulation in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Therefore, 5-ALA has an anti-inflammatory effect on EIU through the inhibition of the upregulation of inflammatory mediators.

A Randomized Phase 2 Study of 5-Aminolevulinic Acid Hydrochloride and Sodium Ferrous Citrate for the Prevention of Nephrotoxicity Induced by Cisplatin-Based Chemotherapy of Lung Cancer

INTRODUCTION

Cisplatin-based chemotherapy was established in the 1980s, and it has been improved by the development of a short hydration protocol in lung cancer therapy. However, cisplatin-based chemotherapy is still associated with renal toxicity. Because 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) with sodium ferrous citrate (SFC) is known to be a mitochondrial activator and a heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) inducer, 5-ALA with SFC is speculated to mitigate cisplatin-induced renal inflammation.

METHODS

We investigated the effects of oral administration of 5-ALA with SFC for preventing cisplatin-based nephrotoxicity in patients with lung cancer and evaluated its benefits for patients who received cisplatin-based chemotherapy. The primary endpoint was the significance of the difference between the serum creatinine (sCr) levels of the patients administered 5-ALA with SFC and those given placebo after course 1 of chemotherapy. The difference in the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) between the two groups was also evaluated as the secondary endpoint.

RESULTS

The double-blind, randomized two-arm studies were conducted at 15 medical facilities in Japan; 54 male and 20 female patients with lung cancer who received cisplatin-based chemotherapy between the ages of 42 and 75 years were included in the study. The compliance rate was greater than 94% in the primary assessment and subsequent drug administration periods. All enrolled patients completed the four cycles of cisplatin-based chemotherapy with short hydration. The average level of sCr on day 22 of course 1 was 0.707 mg/dL in the group treated with 5-ALA and SFC and 0.735 mg/dL in the placebo group, respectively, and the sCr in the test group was significantly lower than that in the placebo group (p = 0.038). In addition, the eGFR was significantly higher in the SPP-003 group than in the placebo group up to day 1 of course 3 (84.66 and 75.68 mL/min/1.73 m2, respectively, p = 0.02) and kept better even after the last administration of the study drug (82.37 and 73.49 mL/min/1.73 m2, respectively, p = 0.013).

CONCLUSIONS

The oral administration of 5-ALA with SFC is beneficial to patients undergoing cisplatin-based chemotherapy for lung cancer with short hydration.

Phytochemical screening and in-vitro biological properties of unprocessed and household processed fenugreek (Trigonella foenum- graecum Linn.) seeds and leaves.. [DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1952713/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0]

The impact of household processes on fenugreek leaves and seeds was analyzed for total phenolic (TP) and total flavonoid content (TF), and in-vitro biological activities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. Processes included air-drying of leaves and germinating, soaking, and boiling of seeds. Air-dried fenugreek leaves (ADFL) had high TP (15.27 mg GAE/g D.W.) and TF (7.71 mg QE/g D.W.). The TF of unprocessed, germinated, soaked, and boiled seeds had 6.54, 5.60, 4.59, and 3.84 mg GAE/g D.W., respectively. The TF in UFS, GFS, SFS, and BFS were 4.23, 2.11, 2.10, and 2.33 mg QE/g D.W., respectively. Sixteen phenolic and nineteen flavonoid compounds were identified using the HPLC. Antioxidant activity using DPPH•, ABTS+•, and FRAP• assays indicated that ADFL had high activity. Antimicrobial activity was evaluated against each eight pathogenic bacterial and fungal strains. ADFL showed a strong activity with MIC values ranging from 0.03 to 1.06 and 0.04 to 1.18 mg ml− 1 against bacterial and fungal strains, respectively. Anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated in-vitro against RAW 264.7 macrophage cells using of NO assay. Results revealed that ADFL had the highest cytotoxicity and anti-inflammatory activity according to NO assay. Household processes significantly declined the in-vitro biological properties of processed seeds.

Anti-inflammatory effect of flavonoids from chestnut flowers in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages and acute lung injury in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Chestnut flowers were one of the by-products during chestnut industrial processing. Chestnut (Castanea mollissima Blume) flower is rich in flavonoids and has been used as a traditional medicine to treat a variety of diseases including respiratory disorders for a long history.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study aims to investigate the potential anti-inflammatory effect of flavonoids from chestnut flower (FCF) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW 264.7 cells and stimulated acute lung injury (ALI) in mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

HPLC-ESI-MS/MS was applied to identify flavonoids from Chestnut flower. The ROS content in cells and lung tissue was measured by flow cytometry. The malondialdehyde (MDA) content, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and glutathione (GSH) content in cells and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was analyzed by photometry. Furthermore, the level of pro-inflammatory factors was analyzed by ELISA, and the expression of inflammatory gene mRNA by fluorescence quantitative PCR. H&E staining was used to evaluate the degree of lung tissue injury in mice. MPO activity was used to measure the degree of neutrophil infiltration. Total protein content was detected by BCA method.

RESULTS

A total of forty-nine flavonoids compounds were tentatively identified in FCF by mass spectrometry analysis. The results of cell experiment suggested that FCF could alleviate oxidative injury via increasing SOD activity and GSH content, as well as inhibiting the production of intracellular ROS and MDA. FCF exerted its protective effect by suppressing the expression of both inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cycooxygenase 2 (COX-2) to inhibit the synthesis of pro-inflammatory factors and cytokines, including NO, PGE2, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β. Besides, FCF treatment could alleviate the thickening of alveolar wall and pulmonary congestion in LPS-treated ALI mice, and significantly inhibit the activity of myeloperoxidas (MPO) and the expression of cytokines in BALF.

CONCLUSIONS

FCF could ameliorate inflammation and oxidative stress in LPS-treated inflammation, resulting in an overall improvement in both macroscopic and histological parameters.

Understanding immune-modulatory efficacy in vitro

Boosting or suppressing our immune system represents an attractive adjunct in the treatment of infections including SARS-CoV-2, cancer, AIDS, malnutrition, age related problems and some inflammatory disorders. Thus, there has been a growing interest in exploring and developing novel drugs, natural or synthetic, that can manipulate our defence mechanism. Many of such studies, reported till date, have been designed to explore effect of the therapeutic on function of macrophages, being a key component in innate immune system. Indeed, RAW264.7, J774A.1, THP-1 and U937 cell lines act as ideal model systems for preliminary investigation and selection of dose for in vivo studies. Several bioassays have been standardized so far where many techniques require high throughput instruments, cost effective reagents and technical assistance that may hinder many scholars to perform a method demanding compilation of available protocols. In this review, we have taken an attempt for the first time to congregate commonly used in vitro immune-modulating techniques explaining their principles. The study detected that among about 40 different assays and more than 150 sets of primers, the methods of cell proliferation by MTT, phagocytosis by neutral red, NO detection by Griess reaction and estimation of expression of TLRs, COX-2, iNOS, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β by PCR have been the most widely used to screen the therapeutics under investigation.

Crosstalk between Metabolic Disorders and Immune Cells

Metabolic syndrome results from multiple risk factors that arise from insulin resistance induced by abnormal fat deposition. Chronic inflammation owing to obesity primarily results from the recruitment of pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages into the adipose tissue stroma, as the adipocytes within become hypertrophied. During obesity-induced inflammation in adipose tissue, pro-inflammatory cytokines are produced by macrophages and recruit further pro-inflammatory immune cells into the adipose tissue to boost the immune response. Here, we provide an overview of the biology of macrophages in adipose tissue and the relationship between other immune cells, such as CD4+ T cells, natural killer cells, and innate lymphoid cells, and obesity and type 2 diabetes. Finally, we discuss the link between the human pathology and immune response and metabolism and further highlight potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of metabolic disorders.

Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG modifies the metabolome of pathobionts in gnotobiotic mice

Background

Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) is the most widely used probiotic, but the mechanisms underlying its beneficial effects remain unresolved. Previous studies typically inoculated LGG in hosts with established gut microbiota, limiting the understanding of specific impacts of LGG on host due to numerous interactions among LGG, commensal microbes, and the host. There has been a scarcity of studies that used gnotobiotic animals to elucidate LGG-host interaction, in particular for gaining specific insights about how it modifies the metabolome. To evaluate whether LGG affects the metabolite output of pathobionts, we inoculated with LGG gnotobiotic mice containing Propionibacterium acnes, Turicibacter sanguinis, and Staphylococcus aureus (PTS).

Results

16S rRNA sequencing of fecal samples by Ion Torrent and MinION platforms showed colonization of germ-free mice by PTS or by PTS plus LGG (LTS). Although the body weights and feeding rates of mice remained similar between PTS and LTS groups, co-associating LGG with PTS led to a pronounced reduction in abundance of P. acnes in the gut. Addition of LGG or its secretome inhibited P. acnes growth in culture. After optimizing procedures for fecal metabolite extraction and metabolomic liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis, unsupervised and supervised multivariate analyses revealed a distinct separation among fecal metabolites of PTS, LTS, and germ-free groups. Variables-important-in-projection scores showed that LGG colonization robustly diminished guanine, ornitihine, and sorbitol while significantly elevating acetylated amino acids, ribitol, indolelactic acid, and histamine. In addition, carnitine, betaine, and glutamate increased while thymidine, quinic acid and biotin were reduced in both PTS and LTS groups. Furthermore, LGG association reduced intestinal mucosal expression levels of inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1α, IL-1β and TNF-α.

Conclusions

LGG co-association had a negative impact on colonization of P. acnes, and markedly altered the metabolic output and inflammatory response elicited by pathobionts.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12866-021-02178-2.

5-aminolevulinic acid improves chicken sperm motility

Objective

This study investigated the effects of 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) on the motility parameters, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, and ATP levels in chicken sperm.

Methods

The pooled semen from Barred Plymouth Rock males was used. In the first experiment, the semen was diluted 4-times with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS (-)) containing various concentrations (0, 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1 mM) of 5-ALA, and then the sperm motility parameters after incubation were evaluated by computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA). In the second experiment, the semen was diluted 4-times with PBS (-) containing 0.05 mM 5-ALA, and then sperm mitochondrial membrane depolarization and ATP levels after 1.5 h of incubation were analyzed with the MitoPT® JC-1 Assay and ATP Assay kits, respectively. In the third experiment, the semen was removed from the seminal plasma and resuspended with the mediums of PBS (-), PBS (-) supplemented with CaCl2 and MgCl2 (PBS (+)) + 5-ALA, PBS (+) + caffeine, and PBS (+) + caffeine + 5-ALA. Then, the sperm motility parameters after incubation were evaluated by CASA. In the last experiment, the semen was treated with the mediums of PBS (-), PBS (-) + 5-ALA, 5.7% glucose, 5.7% glucose + 5-ALA after removing the seminal plasma, and then the sperm motility parameters were evaluated by CASA.

Results

The addition of 0.05 mM 5-ALA significantly increased the chicken sperm motility, progressive motility, linearity, average path velocity, curvilinear velocity, straight-line velocity, and the wobble. The sperm mitochondrial membrane depolarization was also increased by the 5-ALA treatment. The 5-ALA treatment decreased the sperm ATP levels. Both the caffeine treatment and glucose treatment decreased the sperm motility during incubation period.

Conclusion

5-ALA might increase sperm mitochondrial membrane depolarization to utilize the ATP for enhancing sperm movement.

Suppression of Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory and Oxidative Response by 5-Aminolevulinic Acid in RAW 264.7 Macrophages and Zebrafish Larvae

In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effect of 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), a heme precursor, on inflammatory and oxidative stress activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in RAW 264.7 macrophages by estimating nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), cytokines, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). We also evaluated the molecular mechanisms through analysis of the expression of their regulatory genes, and further evaluated the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant efficacy of ALA against LPS in the zebrafish model. Our results indicated that ALA treatment significantly attenuated the LPS-induced release of pro-inflammatory mediators including NO and PGE2, which was associated with decreased inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression. ALA also inhibited the LPS-induced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6, reducing their extracellular secretion. Additionally, ALA abolished ROS generation, improved the mitochondrial mass, and enhanced the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and the activation of nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. However, zinc protoporphyrin, a specific inhibitor of HO-1, reversed the ALA-mediated inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines production and activation of mitochondrial function in LPS-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Furthermore, ALA significantly abolished the expression of LPS-induced pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines, and showed strong protective effects against NO and ROS production in zebrafish larvae. In conclusion, our findings suggest that ALA exerts LPS-induced anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects by upregulating the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway, and that ALA can be a potential functional agent to prevent inflammatory and oxidative damage.

The Extraction Solvent Influences the Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Jakyakgamcho-Tang in Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Macrophages and Mice with Gouty Arthritis

Jakyakgamcho-Tang (JGT) is a traditional medicine used to treat muscular tension, spasm, and pain. Several studies have reported its clinical use as an anti-inflammatory and in gynaecological treatment. This study aimed to compare the anti-inflammatory effects of JGT according to extraction solvent, water (JGTW) and 30% EtOH (JGTE) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)—stimulated macrophages and in mice with monosodium urate (MSU)—induced gouty arthritis. We evaluated the production of inflammatory mediators and cytokines and the expression of inducible nitric oxide (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in RAW 264.7 cells. We also examined oedema, pain, and inflammation in MSU-induced mice by measuring affected hind paw swelling, weight-bearing, pro-inflammatory cytokines levels, and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity. In LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, JGTW and JGTE significantly decreased prostaglandin (PG) E2(PGE2) production via suppressing COX-2 expression and cytokines interleukin-1β and interleukin-6. Only JGTE reduced the production of NO and cytokines and the mRNA levels of iNOS and cytokines. In MSU-induced mice, JGTE and JGTW efficiently decreased paw swelling and attenuated joint pain. JGTE (200 and 300 mg/kg) effectively suppressed inflammation by downregulating pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6) and MPO activity, which were only slightly reduced by JGTW. Our data demonstrate the anti-inflammatory activity of JGT in macrophage and gouty arthritis animal models and show that JGTE is more effective than JGTW at lower concentrations.

Protective role of fermented mulberry leave extract in LPS‑induced inflammation and autophagy of RAW264.7 macrophage cells

Mulberry leaves have antioxidant activity and anti‑inflammatory effects in several types of cells. However, the efficacy of mulberry leaves fermented with Cordyceps militaris remains unknown. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate whether the ethanol extracts of mulberry leaves fermented with C. militaris (EMfC) can prevent lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‑induced inflammation and autophagy in macrophages. To achieve this, RAW264.7 cells pretreated with three different dose of EMfCs were subsequently stimulated with LPS, and examined for alterations in the regulatory factors of inflammatory responses and key parameters of the autophagy signaling pathway. EMfC treatment inhibited the generation of reactive oxidative species; however, significant activity was observed for 2,2‑diphenyl‑1‑picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging (IC50=579.6703 mg/ml). Most regulatory factors in inflammatory responses were significantly inhibited following treatment with EMfC, without any significant cellular toxicity. EMfC‑treated groups exhibited marked suppression of nitrogen oxide (NO) levels, mRNA expression levels of iNOS/COX‑2, levels of all inflammatory cytokines (TNF‑α, IL‑1β and IL‑6) and phosphorylation of MAPK members, as well as recovery of cell cycle progression. Furthermore, similar effects were observed in the LPS‑induced autophagy signaling pathway of RAW264.7 cells. The expression levels of microtubule‑associated protein 1A/1B‑light chain 3 (LC3) and Beclin exhibited a dose‑dependent decrease in the EMfC+LPS‑treated groups compared with in the Vehicle+LPS‑treated group, whereas the phosphorylation of PI3K and mTOR were enhanced in a dose‑dependent manner in the same groups. Overall, the results of the present study provide evidence that exposure to EMfC protects against LPS‑induced inflammation and autophagy in RAW264.7 cells. These results indicated that EMfC is a potential candidate for treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects of Carpesium cernuum L. Methanolic Extract in LPS-Stimulated RAW 264.7 Macrophages

A hypernomic reaction or an abnormal inflammatory process could cause a series of diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, neurodegeneration, and cancer. Additionally, oxidative stress has been identified to induce severe tissue injury and inflammation. Carpesium cernuum L. (C. cernuum) is a Chinese folk medicine used for its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and detoxifying properties. However, the underlying molecular mechanism of C. cernuum in inflammatory and oxidative stress conditions remains largely unknown. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of a methanolic extract of C. cernuum (CLME) on lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages and a sepsis mouse model. The data presented in this study indicated that CLME inhibited LPS-induced production of proinflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) in RAW 264.7 cells. CLME treatment also reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and enhanced the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) protein in a dose-dependent manner in the LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Moreover, CLME treatment abolished the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), enhanced the activation of nuclear factor-erythroid 2 p45-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and reduced the expression of extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) and ERK kinase (MEK) phosphorylation in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. These outcomes implied that CLME could be a potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent.

Effects of 5-Aminolevulinic Acid as a Supplement on Animal Performance, Iron Status, and Immune Response in Farm Animals: A Review

Efforts directed toward enhancing animals' productivity are focused on evaluating the effects of non-traditional feed additives that are safer than antibiotics, which have been banned because of their health hazards. Many studies used an amino acid that contributes to heme biosynthesis, known as 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA), to promote the productivity of farm animals. However, these studies demonstrate inconsistent results. In order to develop a clear understanding of the effects of 5-ALA in farm animals, we comprehensively searched PubMed and Web of Science for studies evaluating 5-ALA effects on the performance, iron status, and immune response of different farm animals. The search retrieved 1369 publications, out of which 16 trials were relevant. The 5-ALA-relevant data and methodological attributes of these trials were extracted/evaluated by two independent researchers, based on a set of defined criteria. Samples were comprised of pigs, chickens, and dairy cows. The 5-ALA doses ranged from 2 mg to 1 g/kg of feed, and treatment duration ranged from 10 to 142 days. Overall, 5-ALA improved iron status in most studies and increased white blood cells count in 3 out of 10 studies, in addition to improving animals' cell-mediated immune response following immune stimulation with lipopolysaccharide. Inconsistent findings were reported for growth performance and egg production; however, a combination of 10 mg/kg of 5-ALA with 500 mg/kg of vitamin C promoted the highest egg production. In addition, 5-ALA improved milk protein concentration. In conclusion, 5-ALA can enhance farm animals' iron status and immune response; however, the heterogeneity of the reviewed studies limits the generalizability of the findings. Standard procedures and outcome measures are needed to confirm the benefits of 5-ALA. Attention should also be paid to any adverse effects.

Daidzein ameliorates LPS-induced hepatocyte injury by inhibiting inflammation and oxidative stress

Endotoxin-induced acute liver injury (ALI) is a severe disease associated with a poor prognosis. Therefore, it is urgent to discover new effective therapies to prevent ALI. Daidzein, extracted from leguminous plants, possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidative bioactivities. However, little is known about whether daidzein could attenuate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI. We investigated the effects of daidzein on hepatocyte injury and its underlying mechanisms. In LPS-induced hepatocyte supernatant, 100 μM daidzein decreased ALT and AST expression levels by 49.3% ± 5.6% and 39.3% ± 3.5%, respectively, with no cytotoxicity. In addition, the expression of inflammatory factors, including interleukin-1β (IL-lβ), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) were decreased by 100 μM daidzein (73.8% ± 5.3%, 58.8 ± 9.0% and 55.5% ± 7.2%, respectively) in LPS-treated hepatocytes. Western blot analysis showed that daidzein inhibited LPS-induced p-ERK1/2, p-IκBα and p-p65 expression levels. Moreover, 100 μM daidzein reduced the LPS-induced production of Reactive oxygen species by 23.9 ± 7.8% and increased SOD activity by 88.4% ± 18.9% by downregulating Keap-1 and upregulating Nrf2 expression. In conclusion, these data indicate that daidzein ameliorates LPS-induced hepatocyte injury by inhibiting inflammation and oxidative stress.