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Piesik D, Miler N, Lemańczyk G, Tymoszuk A, Lisiecki K, Bocianowski J, Krawczyk K, Mayhew CA. Induction of volatile organic compounds in chrysanthemum plants following infection by Rhizoctonia solani. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0302541. [PMID: 38696430 PMCID: PMC11065281 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0302541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/04/2024] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of Rhizoctonia solani J.G. Kühn infestation on the volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions and biochemical composition of ten cultivars of chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum × morifolium /Ramat./ Hemsl.) to bring new insights for future disease management strategies and the development of resistant chrysanthemum cultivars. The chrysanthemum plants were propagated vegetatively and cultivated in a greenhouse under semi-controlled conditions. VOCs emitted by the plants were collected using a specialized system and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Biochemical analyses of the leaves were performed, including the extraction and quantification of chlorophylls, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds. The emission of VOCs varied among the cultivars, with some cultivars producing a wider range of VOCs compared to others. The analysis of the VOC emissions from control plants revealed differences in both their quality and quantity among the tested cultivars. R. solani infection influenced the VOC emissions, with different cultivars exhibiting varying responses to the infection. Statistical analyses confirmed the significant effects of cultivar, collection time, and their interaction on the VOCs. Correlation analyses revealed positive relationships between certain pairs of VOCs. The results show significant differences in the biochemical composition among the cultivars, with variations in chlorophyll, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds content. Interestingly, R. solani soil and leaf infestation decreased the content of carotenoids in chrysanthemums. Plants subjected to soil infestation were characterized with the highest content of phenolics. This study unveils alterations in the volatile and biochemical responses of chrysanthemum plants to R. solani infestation, which can contribute to the development of strategies for disease management and the improvement of chrysanthemum cultivars with enhanced resistance to R. solani.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dariusz Piesik
- Department of Biology and Plant Protection, Bydgoszcz University of Science and Technology, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Natalia Miler
- Department of Biotechnology, Laboratory of Horticulture, Bydgoszcz University of Science and Technology, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Lemańczyk
- Department of Biology and Plant Protection, Bydgoszcz University of Science and Technology, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Alicja Tymoszuk
- Department of Biotechnology, Laboratory of Horticulture, Bydgoszcz University of Science and Technology, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Karol Lisiecki
- Department of Biology and Plant Protection, Bydgoszcz University of Science and Technology, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Jan Bocianowski
- Department of Mathematical and Statistical Methods, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Krawczyk
- Department of Virology and Bacteriology, Institute of Plant Protection – National Research Institute, Poznań, Poland
| | - Chris A. Mayhew
- Institute for Breath Research, Universität Innsbruck, Innrain, Innsbruck, Austria
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A parasitoid's dilemma between food and host resources: the role of volatiles from nectar-providing marigolds and host-infested plants attracting Aphidius platensis. Naturwissenschaften 2021; 109:9. [PMID: 34913094 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-021-01780-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The use of nectar-producing companion plants in crops is a well-known strategy of conserving natural enemies in biological control. However, the role of floral volatiles in attracting parasitoids and effects on host location via herbivore-induced plant volatiles is poorly known. Here, we examined the role of floral volatiles from marigold (Tagetes erecta), alone or in combination with volatiles from sweet pepper plant (Capsicum annuum), in recruiting Aphidius platensis, an important parasitoid of the green peach aphid Myzus persicae. We also investigated whether marigold floral volatiles are more attractive to the parasitoid than those emitted by sweet pepper plants infested by M. persicae. Olfactometry assays indicated that floral volatiles attracted A. platensis to the marigold plant and are more attractive than sweet pepper plant volatiles. However, volatiles emitted by aphid-infested sweet pepper were as attractive to the parasitoid as those of uninfested or aphid-infested blooming marigold. The composition of volatile blends released by uninfested and aphid-infested plants differed between both blooming marigold and sweet pepper, but the parasitoid did not discriminate aphid-infested from uninfested blooming marigold. Volatile released from blooming marigold and sweet pepper shared several compounds, but that of blooming marigold contained larger amounts of fatty-acid derivatives and a different composition of terpenes. We discuss the potential implications of the aphid parasitoid attraction in a diversified crop management strategy.
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Multiple Attack to Inflorescences of an Annual Plant Does Not Interfere with the Attraction of Parasitoids and Pollinators. J Chem Ecol 2021; 47:175-191. [PMID: 33507456 PMCID: PMC7904547 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-020-01239-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Plants in the flowering stage need to ensure reproduction by protecting themselves from attack and by preserving interactions with mutualist pollinators. When different plant mutualists are using the same type of cues, such as volatile compounds, attraction of parasitoids and pollinators may trade off. To explore this, we compared volatile emission of Brassica nigra plants in response to single or dual attack on their inflorescences. Additionally, we recorded flower visitation by pollinators and the attraction of parasitoids in the greenhouse and/or field. Brassica nigra were exposed in the flowering stage to one or two of the following three attackers: Brevicoryne brassicae aphids, Pieris brassicae caterpillars, and Xanthomonas campestris pv. raphani bacteria. We found that single attack by caterpillars, and dual attack by caterpillars plus aphids, induced the strongest changes in plant volatile emission. The caterpillars’ parasitoid C. glomerata did not exhibit preference for plants exposed to caterpillars only vs. plants exposed to caterpillars plus aphids or plus bacteria. However, the composition of the pollinator community associated with flowers of B. nigra was affected by plant exposure to the attackers, but the total number of pollinators visiting the plants did not change upon attack. We conclude that, when B. nigra were exposed to single or dual attack on their inflorescences, the plants maintained interactions with natural enemies of the insect attackers and with pollinators. We discuss how chemical diversity may contribute to plant resilience upon attack.
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How Effective Is Conservation Biological Control in Regulating Insect Pest Populations in Organic Crop Production Systems? INSECTS 2020; 11:insects11110744. [PMID: 33138249 PMCID: PMC7692856 DOI: 10.3390/insects11110744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Organic crop production systems typically rely on conservation biological control to increase and sustain natural enemies including parasitoids and predators that will regulate insect pest populations below damaging levels. The use of flowering plants or floral resources to attract and retain natural enemies in organic crop production systems has not been consistent, based on the scientific literature, and most importantly, many studies do not correlate an increase in natural enemies with a reduction in plant damage. This may be associated with the effects of intraguild predation or the negative effects that can occur when multiple natural enemies are present in an ecosystem. Consequently, although incorporating flowering plants into organic crop production systems may increase the natural enemy assemblages, more robust scientific studies are warranted to determine the actual effects of natural enemies in reducing plant damage associated with insect pest populations. Abstract Organic crop production systems are designed to enhance or preserve the presence of natural enemies, including parasitoids and predators, by means of conservation biological control, which involves providing environments and habitats that sustain natural enemy assemblages. Conservation biological control can be accomplished by providing flowering plants (floral resources) that will attract and retain natural enemies. Natural enemies, in turn, will regulate existing insect pest populations to levels that minimize plant damage. However, evidence is not consistent, based on the scientific literature, that providing natural enemies with flowering plants will result in an abundance of natural enemies sufficient to regulate insect pest populations below economically damaging levels. The reason that conservation biological control has not been found to sufficiently regulate insect pest populations in organic crop production systems across the scientific literature is associated with complex interactions related to intraguild predation, the emission of plant volatiles, weed diversity, and climate and ecosystem resources across locations where studies have been conducted.
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Cook B, Haverkamp A, Hansson BS, Roulston T, Lerdau M, Knaden M. Pollination in the Anthropocene: a Moth Can Learn Ozone-Altered Floral Blends. J Chem Ecol 2020; 46:987-996. [PMID: 32875538 PMCID: PMC7547994 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-020-01211-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 08/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Insect pollination is essential to many unmanaged and agricultural systems and as such is a key element in food production. However, floral scents that pollinating insects rely on to locate host plants may be altered by atmospheric oxidants, such as ozone, potentially making these cues less attractive or unrecognizable to foraging insects and decreasing pollinator efficacy. We demonstrate that levels of tropospheric ozone commonly found in many rural areas are sufficient to disrupt the innate attraction of the tobacco hawkmoth Manduca sexta to the odor of one of its preferred flowers, Nicotiana alata. However, we further find that visual navigation together with associative learning can offset this disruption. Foraging moths that initially find an ozone-altered floral scent unattractive can target an artificial flower using visual cues and associate the ozone-altered floral blend with a nectar reward. The ability to learn ozone-altered floral odors may enable pollinators to maintain communication with their co-evolutionary partners and reduce the negative impacts that anthropogenically elevated oxidants may have on plant-pollinator systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brynn Cook
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology, Jena, Germany
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia, Boyce, VA, USA
| | - Alexander Haverkamp
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology, Jena, Germany
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Bill S Hansson
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology, Jena, Germany
| | - T'ai Roulston
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Blandy Experimental Farm, University of Virginia, Boyce, VA, USA
| | - Manuel Lerdau
- Departments of Environmental Sciences and of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Markus Knaden
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology, Jena, Germany.
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Desurmont GA, von Arx M, Turlings TCJ, Schiestl FP. Floral Odors Can Interfere With the Foraging Behavior of Parasitoids Searching for Hosts. Front Ecol Evol 2020. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2020.00148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Rusman Q, Lucas‐Barbosa D, Hassan K, Poelman EH. Plant ontogeny determines strength and associated plant fitness consequences of plant-mediated interactions between herbivores and flower visitors. THE JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY 2020; 108:1046-1060. [PMID: 32421019 PMCID: PMC7217261 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2745.13370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Plants show ontogenetic variation in growth-defence strategies to maximize reproductive output within a community context. Most work on plant ontogenetic variation in growth-defence trade-offs has focussed on interactions with antagonistic insect herbivores. Plants respond to herbivore attack with phenotypic changes. Despite the knowledge that plant responses to herbivory affect plant mutualistic interactions with pollinators required for reproduction, indirect interactions between herbivores and pollinators have not been included in the evaluation of how ontogenetic growth-defence trajectories affect plant fitness.In a common garden experiment with the annual Brassica nigra, we investigated whether exposure to various herbivore species on different plant ontogenetic stages (vegetative, bud or flowering stage) affects plant flowering traits, interactions with flower visitors and results in fitness consequences for the plant.Effects of herbivory on flowering plant traits and interactions with flower visitors depended on plant ontogeny. Plant exposure in the vegetative stage to the caterpillar Pieris brassicae and aphid Brevicoryne brassicae led to reduced flowering time and flower production, and resulted in reduced pollinator attraction, pollen beetle colonization, total seed production and seed weight. When plants had buds, infestation by most herbivore species tested reduced flower production and pollen beetle colonization. Pollinator attraction was either increased or reduced. Plants infested in the flowering stage with P. brassicae or Lipaphis erysimi flowered longer, while infestation by any of the herbivore species tested increased the number of flower visits by pollinators.Our results show that the outcome of herbivore-flower visitor interactions in B. nigra is specific for the combination of herbivore species and plant ontogenetic stage. Consequences of herbivory for flowering traits and reproductive output were strongest when plants were attacked early in life. Such differences in selection pressures imposed by herbivores to specific plant ontogenetic stages may drive the evolution of distinct ontogenetic trajectories in growth-defence-reproduction strategies and include indirect interactions between herbivores and flower visitors. Synthesis. Plant ontogeny can define the direct and indirect consequences of herbivory. Our study shows that the ontogenetic stage of plant individuals determined the effects of herbivory on plant flowering traits, interactions with flower visitors and plant fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quint Rusman
- Laboratory of EntomologyWageningen UniversityWageningenThe Netherlands
| | - Dani Lucas‐Barbosa
- Laboratory of EntomologyWageningen UniversityWageningenThe Netherlands
- Present address:
Bio‐communication & EcologyETH ZürichSchmelzbergstrasse 98092ZürichSwitzerland
| | - Kamrul Hassan
- Laboratory of EntomologyWageningen UniversityWageningenThe Netherlands
- Present address:
Hawkesbury Institute for the EnvironmentWestern Sydney UniversityLocked Bag 1797PenrithNSW2751Australia
| | - Erik H. Poelman
- Laboratory of EntomologyWageningen UniversityWageningenThe Netherlands
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Desurmont GA, Morelon SPG, Benrey B. First Insights into the Chemical Ecology of an Invasive Pest: Olfactory Preferences of the Viburnum Leaf Beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2020; 49:364-369. [PMID: 32025701 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvaa007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The viburnum leaf beetle (VLB), Pyrrhalta viburni (Paykull), is an invasive chrysomelid in North America where it infests native Viburnum shrubs in woody areas and managed landscapes. Despite its invasive and destructive nature, little is known about the chemical ecology of this beetle, and efficient chemical lures for monitoring and trapping this insect have yet to be developed. Using two of the main host plants of VLB in its native range, Viburnum opulus L. (Caprifoliaceae) and V. lantana L., we examined the olfactory preferences of adult females of VLB under laboratory conditions and measured volatile emissions of Viburnum twigs with and without VLB damage. VLB females had a clear preference for V. opulus and V. lantana twigs compared to blank odor sources. In addition, twigs with foliar damage and fresh egg masses were found to be more attractive than noninfested twigs in V. opulus when VLB infestation was recent, but not when twigs had been infested for several weeks. Chemical analyses revealed consistent treatment-specific blends of compounds, which may be used for the elaboration of attractive lures. Future research should focus on the identification of these compounds and on exploring the olfactory preferences of VLB with Viburnum species present in North America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaylord A Desurmont
- Laboratoire d'entomologie évolutive, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
- European Biological Control Laboratory (EBCL USDA ARS), Campus International de Baillarguet, Montferrier-sur-lez, France
| | - Stéphanie P G Morelon
- Laboratoire d'entomologie évolutive, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Betty Benrey
- Laboratoire d'entomologie évolutive, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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Noman A, Aqeel M, Qasim M, Haider I, Lou Y. Plant-insect-microbe interaction: A love triangle between enemies in ecosystem. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 699:134181. [PMID: 31520944 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
In natural ecosystems, plants interact with biotic components such as microbes, insects, animals and other plants as well. Generally, researchers have focused on each interaction separately, which condenses the significance of the interaction. This limited presentation of the facts masks the collective role of constantly interacting organisms in complex communities disturbing not only plant responses but also the response of organisms for each other in natural ecological settings. Beneficial microorganisms interact with insect herbivores, their predators and pollinators in a bidirectional way through the plant. Fascinatingly, insects employ diverse tactics to protect themselves from parasites or predators. Influences of microbial and insects attack on plants can bring changes in info-chemical frameworks and play a role in the food chain also. After insect herbivory and microbial pathogenesis, plants exhibit intense morpho-physiological and chemical reprogramming that leads to repellence/attraction of attacking organism or its natural enemy. The characterization of such interactions in different ecosystems is receiving due consideration, and underlying molecular and physiological mechanisms must be the point of concentration to unveil the evolution of multifaceted multitrophic interactions. Therefore, we have focused this phenomenon in a more realistic setting by integrating ecology and physiology to portray these multidimensional interfaces. We have shown, in this article, physiological trajectories in plant-microbe and insect relationship and their ecological relevance in nature. We focus and discuss microbial pathogenesis in plants, induced defense and the corresponding behavior of herbivore insects and vice-versa. It is hoped that this review will stimulate interest and zeal in microbes mediated plant-insect interactions along with their ecological consequences and encourage scientists to accept the challenges in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Noman
- Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, PR China; Department of Botany, Government College University, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan.
| | - Muhammad Aqeel
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, PR China
| | - Muhammad Qasim
- Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, PR China
| | - Ijaz Haider
- Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, PR China; Department of Entomology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan
| | - Yonggen Lou
- Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, PR China.
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Cuny MAC, La Forgia D, Desurmont GA, Glauser G, Benrey B. Role of cyanogenic glycosides in the seeds of wild lima bean, Phaseolus lunatus: defense, plant nutrition or both? PLANTA 2019; 250:1281-1292. [PMID: 31240396 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-019-03221-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Cyanogenic glycosides present in the seeds of wild lima bean plants are associated with seedling defense but do not affect seed germination and seedling growth. Wild lima bean plants contain cyanogenic glycosides (CNGs) that are known to defend the plant against leaf herbivores. However, seed feeders appear to be unaffected despite the high levels of CNGs in the seeds. We investigated a possible role of CNGs in seeds as nitrogen storage compounds that influence plant growth, as well as seedling resistance to herbivores. Using seeds from four different wild lima bean natural populations that are known to vary in CNG levels, we tested two non-mutually exclusive hypotheses: (1) seeds with higher levels of CNGs produce seedlings that are more resistant against generalist herbivores and, (2) seeds with higher levels of CNGs germinate faster and produce plants that exhibit better growth. Levels of CNGs in the seeds were negatively correlated with germination rates and not correlated with seedling growth. However, levels of CNGs increased significantly soon after germination and seeds with the highest CNG levels produced seedlings with higher CNG levels in cotyledons. Moreover, the growth rate of the generalist herbivore Spodoptera littoralis was lower in cotyledons with high-CNG levels. We conclude that CNGs in lima bean seeds do not play a role in seed germination and seedling growth, but are associated with seedling defense. Our results provide insight into the potential dual function of plant secondary metabolites as defense compounds and storage molecules for growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilien A C Cuny
- Institute of Biology, Laboratory of Evolutive Entomology, University of Neuchâtel, Rue Emile-Argand 11, 2000, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Diana La Forgia
- Institute of Biology, Laboratory of Evolutive Entomology, University of Neuchâtel, Rue Emile-Argand 11, 2000, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
- Department of Functional and Evolutionary Entomology, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liege, Passage des Déportés 2, 5030, Liege, Belgium
| | - Gaylord A Desurmont
- European Biological Control Laboratory (EBCL), USDA-ARS, 810 Avenue de Baillarguet, 34980, Montferrier sur Lez, France
| | - Gaetan Glauser
- Neuchâtel Platform of Analytical Chemistry, University of Neuchâtel, Avenue de Bellevaux 51, 2000, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Betty Benrey
- Institute of Biology, Laboratory of Evolutive Entomology, University of Neuchâtel, Rue Emile-Argand 11, 2000, Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
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Rusman Q, Lucas-Barbosa D, Poelman EH, Dicke M. Ecology of Plastic Flowers. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 24:725-740. [PMID: 31204246 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2019.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2018] [Revised: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Plant phenotypic plasticity in response to herbivore attack includes changes in flower traits. Such herbivore-induced changes in flower traits have consequences for interactions with flower visitors. We synthesize here current knowledge on the specificity of herbivore-induced changes in flower traits, the underlying molecular mechanisms, and the ecological consequences for flower-associated communities. Herbivore-induced changes in flower traits seem to be largely herbivore species-specific. The extensive plasticity observed in flowers influences a highly connected web of interactions within the flower-associated community. We argue that the adaptive value of herbivore-induced plant responses and flower plasticity can be fully understood only from a community perspective rather than from pairwise interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quint Rusman
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Dani Lucas-Barbosa
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Erik H Poelman
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marcel Dicke
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, PO Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Vosteen I, van den Meiracker N, Poelman EH. Getting confused: learning reduces parasitoid foraging efficiency in some environments with non-host-infested plants. Oecologia 2019; 189:919-930. [PMID: 30929072 PMCID: PMC6486909 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-019-04384-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Foraging animals face the difficult task to find resources in complex environments that contain conflicting information. The presence of a non-suitable resource that provides attractive cues can be expected to confuse foraging animals and to reduce their foraging efficiency. We used the parasitoid Cotesia glomerata to study the effect of non-host-infested plants and associative learning on parasitoid foraging efficiency. Inexperienced C. glomerata did not prefer volatiles emitted from host (Pieris brassicae)-infested plants over volatiles from non-host (Mamestra brassicae)-infested plants and parasitoids that had to pass non-host-infested plants needed eight times longer to reach the host-infested plant compared to parasitoids that had to pass undamaged plants. Contrary to our expectations, oviposition experience on a host-infested leaf decreased foraging efficiency due to more frequent visits of non-host-infested plants. Oviposition experience did not only increase the responsiveness of C. glomerata to the host-infested plants, but also the attraction towards herbivore-induced plant volatiles in general. Experience with non-host-infested leaves on the contrary resulted in a reduced attraction towards non-host-infested plants, but did not increase foraging efficiency. Our study shows that HIPVs emitted by non-host-infested plants can confuse foraging parasitoids and reduce their foraging efficiency when non-host-infested plants are abundant. Our results further suggest that the effect of experience on foraging efficiency in the presence of non-host-infested plants depends on the similarity between the rewarding and the non-rewarding cue as well as on the completeness of information that parasitoids have acquired about the rewarding and non-rewarding cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilka Vosteen
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
- Department of Chemical Ecology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.
| | | | - Erik H Poelman
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Tsuji J, Logan T, Russo A. A Hierarchy of Cues Directs the Foraging of Pieris rapae (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) Larvae. ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 47:1485-1492. [PMID: 30165377 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvy124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The foraging patterns of insects reflect a combination of biotic and abiotic constraints. Pieris rapae (L.) (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) larvae exhibit plasticity in their foraging behavior, and their movements in response to flowers, young foliage, light, and gravity were studied. As predicted for palatable cryptic larvae, young instars of P. rapae exhibited predator avoidance behaviors. First- and second-instar larvae fed underneath the leaves where their eggs were oviposited, while late second- and third-instar larvae migrated away from their feeding damage. Using taxis experiments and choice tests, the direction of larval movement was significantly influenced by a hierarchy of three cues. Third-instar larvae exhibited negative gravitaxis, which could be supplanted by positive trophotaxis to young leaves and flowers. The larvae exhibited a significantly greater attraction to the inflorescence than to young foliage. For both the inflorescence and young foliage, visual cues were sufficient to direct larval movement. Understanding the cues that guide larval foraging may lead to more efficient trap crops for pest management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Tsuji
- Biology Department, Siena Heights University, E. Siena Heights Drive, Adrian, MI
| | - Tiffany Logan
- Biology Department, Siena Heights University, E. Siena Heights Drive, Adrian, MI
| | - Ashley Russo
- Biology Department, Siena Heights University, E. Siena Heights Drive, Adrian, MI
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de Lange ES, Farnier K, Degen T, Gaudillat B, Aguilar-Romero R, Bahena-Juárez F, Oyama K, Turlings TCJ. Parasitic Wasps Can Reduce Mortality of Teosinte Plants Infested With Fall Armyworm: Support for a Defensive Function of Herbivore-Induced Plant Volatiles. Front Ecol Evol 2018. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2018.00055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
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Aparicio Y, Gabarra R, Arnó J. Attraction of Aphidius ervi (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) to Sweet Alyssum and Assessment of Plant Resources Effects on their Fitness. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 111:533-541. [PMID: 29365141 DOI: 10.1093/jee/tox365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The green peach aphid Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is one of the most economically important aphid species affecting crops worldwide. Since many natural enemies of this aphid have been recorded, biological control of this pest might be a viable alternative to manage it. Selected plant species in field margins might help to provide the natural enemies with food sources to enhance their fitness. This study aimed to investigate if sweet alyssum, Lobularia maritima (L.) (Brassicaceae), is a potential food source for the parasitoid Aphidius ervi Haliday (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and the predator Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Rondani) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), and whether this flower could contribute to enhance the biological control of M. persicae. Volatiles produced by alyssum, with and without flowers, attracted both natural enemies. This attractiveness to alyssum flowers was disrupted when compared with peach shoots recently infested with a relatively low number of aphids. When aphids were absent, parasitoids exposed to alyssum survived longer than those that fed on a sugar solution or on water. In the case of the predator, alyssum flowers did not benefit longevity since the nectaries were inaccessible to females. However, our results provide evidence that A. aphidimyza would be able to feed on nectar if accessible. The floral resource did not improve the reproductive capacity of the two natural enemies, but the 10% sugar solution increased the egg load of the predator. Provision of other sugar resources, such as flowers with exposed nectaries and extra floral nectar may also be a viable option to improve the biological control of M. persicae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yahana Aparicio
- IRTA, Sustainable Plant Protection Program, Ctra de Cabrils Km, Cabrils, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rosa Gabarra
- IRTA, Sustainable Plant Protection Program, Ctra de Cabrils Km, Cabrils, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Judit Arnó
- IRTA, Sustainable Plant Protection Program, Ctra de Cabrils Km, Cabrils, Barcelona, Spain
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Joo Y, Schuman MC, Goldberg JK, Kim S, Yon F, Brütting C, Baldwin IT. Herbivore‐induced volatile blends with both “fast” and “slow” components provide robust indirect defence in nature. Funct Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Youngsung Joo
- Department of Molecular EcologyMax Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology Jena Germany
| | - Meredith C. Schuman
- Department of Molecular EcologyMax Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology Jena Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Leipzig Germany
| | - Jay K. Goldberg
- Department of Molecular EcologyMax Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology Jena Germany
| | - Sang‐Gyu Kim
- Department of Molecular EcologyMax Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology Jena Germany
| | - Felipe Yon
- Department of Molecular EcologyMax Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology Jena Germany
| | - Christoph Brütting
- Department of Molecular EcologyMax Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology Jena Germany
| | - Ian T. Baldwin
- Department of Molecular EcologyMax Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology Jena Germany
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Desurmont GA, Guiguet A, Turlings TCJ. Invasive insect herbivores as disrupters of chemically-mediated tritrophic interactions: effects of herbivore density and parasitoid learning. Biol Invasions 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-017-1526-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Ravid J, Spitzer-Rimon B, Takebayashi Y, Seo M, Cna'ani A, Aravena-Calvo J, Masci T, Farhi M, Vainstein A. GA as a regulatory link between the showy floral traits color and scent. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2017; 215:411-422. [PMID: 28262954 DOI: 10.1111/nph.14504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Emission of volatiles at advanced stages of flower development is a strategy used by plants to lure pollinators to the flower. We reveal that GA negatively regulates floral scent production in petunia. We used Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression of GA-20ox in petunia flowers and a virus-induced gene silencing approach to knock down DELLA expression, measured volatile emission, internal pool sizes and GA levels by GC-MS or LC-MS/MS, and analyzed transcript levels of scent-related phenylpropanoid-pathway genes. We show that GA has a negative effect on the concentrations of accumulated and emitted phenylpropanoid volatiles in petunia flowers; this effect is exerted through transcriptional/post-transcriptional downregulation of regulatory and biosynthetic scent-related genes. Both overexpression of GA20-ox, a GA-biosynthesis gene, and suppression of DELLA, a repressor of GA-signal transduction, corroborated GA's negative regulation of floral scent. We present a model in which GA-dependent timing of the sequential activation of different branches of the phenylpropanoid pathway during flower development may represent a link between the showy traits controlling pollinator attraction, namely color and scent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmin Ravid
- Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO Box 12, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Ben Spitzer-Rimon
- Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO Box 12, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yumiko Takebayashi
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 230-0045, Japan
| | - Mitsunori Seo
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 230-0045, Japan
| | - Alon Cna'ani
- Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO Box 12, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Javiera Aravena-Calvo
- Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO Box 12, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Tania Masci
- Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO Box 12, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Moran Farhi
- Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO Box 12, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Alexander Vainstein
- Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO Box 12, Rehovot, Israel
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Hinge VR, Patil HB, Nadaf AB. Aroma volatile analyses and 2AP characterization at various developmental stages in Basmati and Non-Basmati scented rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars. RICE (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2016; 9:38. [PMID: 27495313 PMCID: PMC4975739 DOI: 10.1186/s12284-016-0113-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rice plant growth is comprised of distinct phases, such as vegetative, reproductive, grain filling and maturity phases. In these phases synthesis and availability of primary and secondary metabolites including volatile organic compounds (VOC's) is highly variable. In scented rice, aroma volatiles are synthesized in aerial plant parts and deposited in mature grains. There are more than 100 VOCs reported to be responsible for flavor in basmati rice. It will be interesting to keep track of aroma volatiles across the developmental stages in scented rice. Therefore, the aroma volatiles contributing in aroma with special reference to the major compound 2 acetyl-1-pyrroline (2AP) were screened at seven developmental stages in scented rice cultivars Basmati-370 and Ambemohar-157 along with non-scented rice cultivar IR-64 as a control following HS-SPME-GC-MS method. In addition, the expression levels of key genes and precursor levels involved in 2AP biosynthesis were studied. RESULTS The study indicated that volatilome of scented rice cultivars is more complex than non-scented rice cultivar. N-heterocyclic class was the major distinguishing class between scented from non-scented rice. A total of 14 compounds including, 2AP were detected specifically in scented rice cultivars. Maximum number of compounds were synthesized at seedling stage and decreased gradually at reproductive and maturity. The seedling stage is an active phase of development where maximum number green leaf volatiles were synthesized which are known to act as defense molecules for protection of young plant parts. Among the 14 odor active compounds (OACs), 10 OACs were accumulated at higher concentrations significantly in scented rice cultivars and contribute in the aroma. 2AP content was highest in mature grains followed by at booting stage. Gene expression analysis revealed that reduced expression of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (badh2) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) and elevated level of triose phosphate isomerase (TPI) and Δ1-Pyrolline-5-carboxylic acid synthetase (P5CS) transcript enhances 2AP accumulation. CONCLUSIONS Most diverse compounds were synthesized at seedling stage and OACs were accumulated more at flowering followed by seedling stage. Distinct accumulation pattern exists for 2AP and other aroma volatiles at various developmental stages. The study revealed the mechanism of 2AP accumulation such that 2AP in mature grains might be transported from leaves and stem sheath and accumulation takes place in grains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vidya R. Hinge
- Department of Botany, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, 411007 India
- Department of Plant Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Vilasrao Deshmukh College of Agricultural Biotechnology, Latur, VNMKV, Parbhani, 413512 India
| | - Hemant B. Patil
- Department of Plant Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Vilasrao Deshmukh College of Agricultural Biotechnology, Latur, VNMKV, Parbhani, 413512 India
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Kellenberger RT, Schlüter PM, Schiestl FP. Herbivore-Induced DNA Demethylation Changes Floral Signalling and Attractiveness to Pollinators in Brassica rapa. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0166646. [PMID: 27870873 PMCID: PMC5117703 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0166646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants have to fine-tune their signals to optimise the trade-off between herbivore deterrence and pollinator attraction. An important mechanism in mediating plant-insect interactions is the regulation of gene expression via DNA methylation. However, the effect of herbivore-induced DNA methylation changes on pollinator-relevant plant signalling has not been systematically investigated. Here, we assessed the impact of foliar herbivory on DNA methylation and floral traits in the model crop plant Brassica rapa. Methylation-sensitive amplified fragment length polymorphism (MSAP) analysis showed that leaf damage by the caterpillar Pieris brassicae was associated with genome-wide methylation changes in both leaves and flowers of B. rapa as well as a downturn in flower number, morphology and scent. A comparison to plants with jasmonic acid-induced defence showed similar demethylation patterns in leaves, but both the floral methylome and phenotype differed significantly from P. brassicae infested plants. Standardised genome-wide demethylation with 5-azacytidine in five different B. rapa full-sib groups further resulted in a genotype-specific downturn of floral morphology and scent, which significantly reduced the attractiveness of the plants to the pollinator bee Bombus terrestris. These results suggest that DNA methylation plays an important role in adjusting plant signalling in response to changing insect communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman T. Kellenberger
- Department of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Philipp M. Schlüter
- Department of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Florian P. Schiestl
- Department of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Novel multitrophic interactions among an exotic, generalist herbivore, its host plants and resident enemies in California. Oecologia 2016; 182:1117-1128. [PMID: 27651227 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-016-3722-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2016] [Accepted: 09/04/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
What happens when an exotic herbivore invades and encounters novel host plants and enemies? Here, we investigate the impacts of host plant quality and plant architecture on an exotic generalist herbivore, Epiphyas postvittana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and its interactions with resident parasitoids in California. Using artificial diet and five plant species, we found significant effects of diet on the fitness of E. postvittana under laboratory conditions. In the field, based on a common garden experiment with host plants of nine species, we found that larval parasitism varied among plant species by a factor of 2.1 with a higher risk of parasitism on shorter than taller plants. Parasitism of egg masses varied by a factor of 4.7 among plant species with a higher risk of parasitism on taller than shorter plants. In the laboratory, the foraging time of a resident egg parasitoid on excised leaves varied among plant species, but did not correspond to observed egg parasitism rates on these same plants in the field. On leaves of Plantago lanceolata, the probability of egg parasitism decreased with trichome density. Overall, there was a significant effect of host plant on the intrinsic rate of increase of E. postvittana and on the extent of parasitism by resident parasitoids, but no correlation existed between these two effects. The recent decline of E. postvittana in California may be due to the low quality of some host plants and to the many resident enemies that readily attack it, perhaps due to its phylogenetic relatedness to resident tortricids.
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Desurmont GA, Xu H, Turlings TCJ. Powdery mildew suppresses herbivore-induced plant volatiles and interferes with parasitoid attraction in Brassica rapa. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2016; 39:1920-1927. [PMID: 27043839 DOI: 10.1111/pce.12752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The co-occurrence of different antagonists on a plant can greatly affect infochemicals with ecological consequences for higher trophic levels. Here we investigated how the presence of a plant pathogen, the powdery mildew Erysiphe cruciferarum, on Brassica rapa affects (1) plant volatiles emitted in response to damage by a specialist herbivore, Pieris brassicae; (2) the attraction of the parasitic wasp Cotesia glomerata and (3) the performance of P. brassicae and C. glomerata. Plant volatiles were significantly induced by herbivory in both healthy and mildew-infected plants, but were quantitatively 41% lower for mildew-infected plants compared to healthy plants. Parasitoids strongly preferred Pieris-infested plants to dually-infested (Pieris + mildew) plants, and preferred dually infested plants over only mildew-infected plants. The performance of P. brassicae was unaffected by powdery mildew, but C. glomerata cocoon mass was reduced when parasitized caterpillars developed on mildew-infected plants. Thus, avoidance of mildew-infested plants may be adaptive for C. glomerata parasitoids, whereas P. brassicae caterpillars may suffer less parasitism on mildew-infected plants in nature. From a pest management standpoint, the concurrent presence of multiple plant antagonists can affect the efficiency of specific natural enemies, which may in turn have a negative impact on the regulation of pest populations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hao Xu
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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The Gastropod Menace: Slugs on Brassica Plants Affect Caterpillar Survival through Consumption and Interference with Parasitoid Attraction. J Chem Ecol 2016; 42:183-92. [PMID: 27002323 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-016-0682-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Revised: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Terrestrial molluscs and insect herbivores play a major role as plant consumers in a number of ecosystems, but their direct and indirect interactions have hardly been explored. The omnivorous nature of slugs makes them potential disrupters of predator-prey relationships, as a direct threat to small insects and through indirect, plant-mediated effects. Here, we examined the effects of the presence of two species of slugs, Arion rufus (native) and A. vulgaris (invasive) on the survivorship of young Pieris brassicae caterpillars when feeding on Brassica rapa plants, and on plant attractiveness to the main natural enemy of P. brassicae, the parasitoid Cotesia glomerata. In two separate predation experiments, caterpillar mortality was significantly higher on plants co-infested with A. rufus or A. vulgaris. Moreover, caterpillar mortality correlated positively with slug mass and leaf consumption by A. vulgaris. At the third trophic level, plants infested with slugs and plants co-infested with slugs and caterpillars were far less attractive to parasitoids than plants damaged by caterpillars only, independently of slug species. Chemical analyses confirmed that volatile emissions, which provide foraging cues for parasitoids, were strongly reduced in co-infested plants. Our study shows that the presence of slugs has the potential to affect insect populations, directly via consumptive effects, and indirectly via changes in plant volatiles that result in a reduced attraction of natural enemies. The fitness cost for P. brassicae imposed by increased mortality in presence of slugs may be counterbalanced by the benefit of escaping its parasitoids.
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Schuman MC, Valim HA, Joo Y. Temporal Dynamics of Plant Volatiles: Mechanistic Bases and Functional Consequences. SIGNALING AND COMMUNICATION IN PLANTS 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-33498-1_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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