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Magnavacca A, Giuliani C, Roda G, Piazza S, Martinelli G, Pozzoli C, Maranta N, Papini A, Bottoni M, Casagni E, Dei Cas M, Fico G, Dell’Agli M, Sangiovanni E. Catha edulis Leaves: Morphological Characterization and Anti-Inflammatory Properties in an In Vitro Model of Gastritis. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 13:1538. [PMID: 38891346 PMCID: PMC11174529 DOI: 10.3390/plants13111538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2024] [Revised: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Khat leaves, indigenous to eastern Africa, have been chewed for centuries for their stimulant effects, attributed to alkaloids such as cathinone and cathine. Although associated with gastric disorders like gastritis and gastro-oesophageal reflux disease, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. This study aimed to examine the morpho-anatomy of khat leaves using light microscopy and histochemistry and to assess the effects of leaf extracts and alkaloids on human gastric epithelial cells (GES-1). The study identified specific cells in the palisade-spongy transition zone as storage sites for psychoactive alkaloids. Leaf extracts were prepared by mimicking the chewing process, including a prolonged salivary phase followed by a gastric phase. Cytotoxicity and cell viability were evaluated using LDH and MTT assays, respectively. Additionally, the impact on IL-8 secretion, a key chemokine in gastric inflammation, was analysed under normal and TNF-α-stimulated conditions. The results showed no increase in cytotoxicity up to 250 µg/mL. However, there was a significant decrease in cell metabolism and a reduction in both basal and TNF-α-induced IL-8 secretion, but cathinone and cathine were inactive. These findings suggest that khat may not directly cause the gastric issues reported in the literature, which would rather be attributed to other confounding factors, highlighting the need for further research to clarify its biological impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Magnavacca
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences “Rodolfo Paoletti”, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy; (A.M.); (G.M.); (C.P.); (N.M.); (M.D.); (E.S.)
| | - Claudia Giuliani
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milan, Italy; (C.G.); (G.R.); (M.B.); (E.C.); (G.F.)
- Ghirardi Botanical Garden, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via Religione 25, Toscolano Maderno, 25088 Brescia, Italy
| | - Gabriella Roda
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milan, Italy; (C.G.); (G.R.); (M.B.); (E.C.); (G.F.)
| | - Stefano Piazza
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences “Rodolfo Paoletti”, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy; (A.M.); (G.M.); (C.P.); (N.M.); (M.D.); (E.S.)
| | - Giulia Martinelli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences “Rodolfo Paoletti”, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy; (A.M.); (G.M.); (C.P.); (N.M.); (M.D.); (E.S.)
| | - Carola Pozzoli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences “Rodolfo Paoletti”, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy; (A.M.); (G.M.); (C.P.); (N.M.); (M.D.); (E.S.)
| | - Nicole Maranta
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences “Rodolfo Paoletti”, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy; (A.M.); (G.M.); (C.P.); (N.M.); (M.D.); (E.S.)
| | - Alessio Papini
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Via La Pira 4, 50120 Florence, Italy;
| | - Martina Bottoni
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milan, Italy; (C.G.); (G.R.); (M.B.); (E.C.); (G.F.)
- Ghirardi Botanical Garden, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via Religione 25, Toscolano Maderno, 25088 Brescia, Italy
| | - Eleonora Casagni
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milan, Italy; (C.G.); (G.R.); (M.B.); (E.C.); (G.F.)
| | - Michele Dei Cas
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Via di Rudinì 8, 20146 Milan, Italy;
| | - Gelsomina Fico
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milan, Italy; (C.G.); (G.R.); (M.B.); (E.C.); (G.F.)
- Ghirardi Botanical Garden, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via Religione 25, Toscolano Maderno, 25088 Brescia, Italy
| | - Mario Dell’Agli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences “Rodolfo Paoletti”, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy; (A.M.); (G.M.); (C.P.); (N.M.); (M.D.); (E.S.)
| | - Enrico Sangiovanni
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences “Rodolfo Paoletti”, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy; (A.M.); (G.M.); (C.P.); (N.M.); (M.D.); (E.S.)
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Githua KK, Maitho TE, Nguta JM, Okumu MO. Studies on the ethnopharmacology, antimicrobial activity, and toxicity of Catha edulis (Vahl.) Endl., in Sprague Dawley rats. F1000Res 2022; 11:286. [PMID: 37767078 PMCID: PMC10521044 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.109243.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The Mbeere South community of Embu County consume leaves of Catha edulis for its stimulant and euphoretic actions. Other indigenous uses of the plant are undocumented. Information on the pharmacology and safety of this plant is also scanty. This study aimed to document the ethnopharmacology, antimicrobial properties, and toxicity of C. edulis leaves collected from the Mbeere South community in Kenya. Methods: Ethnopharmacological data was collected from 35 informants using semi-structured questionnaires. Leaf extracts of C. edulis were prepared using acetone, water, and methanol. The antimicrobial properties of these extracts were evaluated against Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida albicans. The toxicity of the aqueous extract was determined using hematological, biochemical, and histopathological parameters in male and female Sprague Dawley rats at 250 mg/kg, 500 mg/kg, and 1000 mg/kg doses over 28 days. p<0.05 was considered significant. Results: All informants were male, most were married, >50 years old, with >10 years of experience. The sources, local names, preparation, storage conditions, indications, frequency of use, dosage, and side effects of C. edulis were documented. All extracts were ineffective against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and C. albicans. They had limited efficacy against B. cereus and S. aureus. Significant differences were observed in the hematological and biochemical parameters of rats at the tested doses. Low, intermediate, and high doses of the aqueous extract of C. edulis produced local congestion of the cardiac and hepatic vessels. Localized interstitial connective tissue proliferation, multifocal kidney interstitial hemorrhage, and localized tubular epithelium necrosis were also observed in female rats. Conclusions: The ethnobotanical uses of C. edulis among the Mbeere South community were documented for the first time. Limited antimicrobial efficacy and toxicity at high doses limit the use of leaves of C. edulis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Kariuki Githua
- Health, County Government of Embu, Embu, Embu, +254, Kenya
- Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Nairobi, 254, Kenya
| | - Timothy Elias Maitho
- Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Nairobi, 254, Kenya
| | - Joseph Mwanzia Nguta
- Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Nairobi, 254, Kenya
| | - Mitchel Otieno Okumu
- Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Nairobi, 254, Kenya
- Pharmacy, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga Teaching and Referral Hospital, Kisumu, Kisumu, +254, Kenya
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López-Arnau R, Camarasa J, Carbó ML, Nadal-Gratacós N, Puigseslloses P, Espinosa-Velasco M, Urquizu E, Escubedo E, Pubill D. 3,4-Methylenedioxy methamphetamine, synthetic cathinones and psychedelics: From recreational to novel psychotherapeutic drugs. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:990405. [PMID: 36262632 PMCID: PMC9574023 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.990405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The utility of classical drugs used to treat psychiatric disorders (e.g., antidepressants, anxiolytics) is often limited by issues of lack of efficacy, delayed onset of action or side effects. Psychoactive substances have a long history of being used as tools to alter consciousness and as a gateway to approach the unknown and the divinities. These substances were initially obtained from plants and animals and more recently by chemical synthesis, and its consumption evolved toward a more recreational use, leading to drug abuse-related disorders, trafficking, and subsequent banning by the authorities. However, these substances, by modulation of certain neurochemical pathways, have been proven to have a beneficial effect on some psychiatric disorders. This evidence obtained under medically controlled conditions and often associated with psychotherapy, makes these substances an alternative to conventional medicines, to which in many cases the patient does not respond properly. Such disorders include post-traumatic stress disease and treatment-resistant depression, for which classical drugs such as MDMA, ketamine, psilocybin and LSD, among others, have already been clinically tested, reporting successful outcomes. The irruption of new psychoactive substances (NPS), especially during the last decade and despite their recreational and illicit uses, has enlarged the library of substances with potential utility on these disorders. In fact, many of them were synthetized with therapeutic purposes and were withdrawn for concrete reasons (e.g., adverse effects, improper pharmacological profile). In this review we focus on the basis, existing evidence and possible use of synthetic cathinones and psychedelics (specially tryptamines) for the treatment of mental illnesses and the properties that should be found in NPS to obtain new therapeutic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raúl López-Arnau
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Camarasa
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marcel Lí Carbó
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Núria Nadal-Gratacós
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pol Puigseslloses
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - María Espinosa-Velasco
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Edurne Urquizu
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elena Escubedo
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - David Pubill
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Barcelona, Spain
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Leminie AA, Dugul TT, Eshetu EM, Melka DS. Catha edulis Forsk and Ascorbic Acid Effects on Hematological Indices in Rat. J Blood Med 2021; 12:855-862. [PMID: 34602828 PMCID: PMC8480916 DOI: 10.2147/jbm.s328703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The prevalence of chewing Catha edulis Forsk and the use of ascorbic acid is increasing from time to time. Their subchronic effects on hematological indices are not well examined. The present study was aimed to investigate their subchronic effects on hematological indices in rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS A total of 36 adult (7-8 weeks) wild-type rats weighing between 213 and 229g were used in this study. They received Catha edulis Forsk extract (Ce) (100 milligrams/kilogram, 200 milligram/kilogram and 300 milligram/kilogram b.w), Catha edulis Forsk juice (2.5 mL/kg), ascorbic acid (AA 200 milligram/kilogram), and 2% tween 80 in distilled water (T80W- v/v) for twelve weeks. Hematological indices were measured with Sysmex KX-21. Data were analyzed by SPSS version 21.0 and Microsoft Excel. RESULTS Neutrocytes (p < 0.01), lymphocytes (p < 0.05), plateletcrit (p < 0.05), average size of platelets (p < 0.05), platelet size variability (p < 0.01), platelet-large cell ratio (p < 0.05) and neutrocytes/lymphocytes ratio (p < 0.001) were significantly greater, while hemoglobin concentration per red blood cell (p < 0.05) and hemoglobin concentration per volume of red blood cells were significantly reduced (p < 0.05) in rats received khat. The red cell distribution width (p < 0.05), platelet size variability (p < 0.05) and platelet-large cell ratio (p < 0.01) were significantly greater in rats received ascorbic acid. CONCLUSION Crude Catha edulis Forsk extract and juice changed some hematological indices and increased platelet activities. The platelet activity was also increased by ascorbic acid. The mechanisms for these changes need to be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abebaye Aragaw Leminie
- Department of Physiology, Addis Ababa University, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Tesfaye Tolessa Dugul
- Department of Physiology, Addis Ababa University, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Eyasu Makonnen Eshetu
- Department of Pharmacology, Addis Ababa University, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Daniel Seyifu Melka
- Department of Biochemistry, Addis Ababa University, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Ahmed A, Ruiz MJ, Cohen Kadosh K, Patton R, Resurrección DM. Khat and neurobehavioral functions: A systematic review. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0252900. [PMID: 34111184 PMCID: PMC8192015 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0252900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Khat is a plant that is used for its amphetamine-like stimulant properties. However, although khat is very popular in Eastern Africa, Arabian Peninsula, and the Middle East, there is still a lack of studies researching the possible neurobehavioral impairment derived from khat use. Methods A systematic review was conducted to identify studies that assessed the effects of khat use on neurobehavioral functions. MedLine, Scopus, Cochrane, Web of Science and Open Grey literature were searched for relevant publications from inception to December 2020. Search terms included (a) khat and (b) several cognitive domains. References from relevant publications and grey literature were also reviewed to identify additional citations for inclusion. Results A total of 142 articles were reviewed, 14 of which met the inclusion criteria (nine human and five rodent studies). Available human studies suggest that long term khat use is associated with significant deficits in several cognitive domains, including learning, motor speed/coordination, set-shifting/response inhibition functions, cognitive flexibility, short term/working memory, and conflict resolution. In addition, rodent studies indicated daily administration of khat extract resulted in dose-related impairments in behavior such as motor hyperactivity and decreased cognition, mainly learning and memory. Conclusions The findings presented in this review indicates that long-term khat use may be contributing to an impairment of neurobehavioral functions. However, gaps in literature were detected that future studies could potentially address to better understand the health consequences of khat use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayan Ahmed
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Manuel J. Ruiz
- Department of Psychology, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Badajoz, Spain
| | - Kathrin Cohen Kadosh
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Robert Patton
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom
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Ang MJ, Lee S, Kim JC, Kim SH, Moon C. Behavioral Tasks Evaluating Schizophrenia-like Symptoms in Animal Models: A Recent Update. Curr Neuropharmacol 2021; 19:641-664. [PMID: 32798374 PMCID: PMC8573744 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x18666200814175114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness that affects more than 21 million people worldwide. Both genetics and the environment play a role in its etiology and pathogenesis. Symptoms of schizophrenia are mainly categorized into positive, negative, and cognitive. One major approach to identify and understand these diverse symptoms in humans has been to study behavioral phenotypes in a range of animal models of schizophrenia. OBJECTIVE We aimed to provide a comprehensive review of the behavioral tasks commonly used for measuring schizophrenia-like behaviors in rodents together with an update of the recent study findings. METHODS Articles describing phenotypes of schizophrenia-like behaviors in various animal models were collected through a literature search in Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus, with a focus on advances over the last 10 years. RESULTS Numerous studies have used a range of animal models and behavioral paradigms of schizophrenia to develop antipsychotic drugs for improved therapeutics. In establishing animal models of schizophrenia, the candidate models were evaluated for schizophrenia-like behaviors using several behavioral tasks for positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms designed to verify human symptoms of schizophrenia. Such validated animal models were provided as rapid preclinical avenues for drug testing and mechanistic studies. CONCLUSION Based on the most recent advances in the field, it is apparent that a myriad of behavior tests are needed to confirm and evaluate the congruency of animal models with the numerous behaviors and clinical signs exhibited by patients with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Changjong Moon
- Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Animal Behavior, College of Veterinary Medicine and BK21 Plus Project Team, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61186, South Korea, Tel: +82-62-530-2838; E-mail:
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Murithi CK, Kabaru JM, Patel NB. Catha edulis Forsk (khat) reduces spontaneous and rewarded alternation in female mice. IBRO Rep 2020; 9:270-275. [PMID: 33117909 PMCID: PMC7581920 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibror.2020.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Khat is a widely used plant-based psychostimulant. Administration of khat leads to disruption of spatial working memory in mice. It promotes in mice perseverative behavior rather than alternation behavior. Khat treated mice also show right side position preference.
Around 10 million people chew the fresh leaves and twigs of Catha edulis Forsk (khat), which synthesize cathinone, for its psychostimulatory effect. Several studies have reported that regular khat users show executive and cognitive dysfunction, such as impaired inhibitory control and poor performance on memory tests. In this study, the effect of fresh khat extract (100 and 250 mg/kg) on spatial working memory and short-term memory in mice was assessed using spontaneous and rewarded alternation T-maze tests. In the spontaneous alternation test, mice treated with fresh khat extract decreased their spontaneous alternation level to around chance level, and it remained at this level over the 7 days of khat administration and testing. On testing after a 7-day khat free period, the previously khat treated mice showed alternation level above chance but below their pre-khat alternation level. In the rewarded alternation test, acute treatment with khat caused the mice to alternate well below chance level, and then over the next 3 days of khat treatment, the alternation level increased. After a 2 and 9-day khat-free period, the previously khat treated mice alternated above chance level but below their pre-khat level. In both these tests, the mice did not show any position preference before khat treatment; however, during the khat treatment, the mice showed a right side tendency. The results show that khat treatment causes persistent changes in alternation behavior and promotes perseverative behavior, presumably due to its effect on the neural circuits activity and the neurotransmitters and promotion of position preference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline K Murithi
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Biological and Physical Sciences, University of Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Jacques M Kabaru
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Biological and Physical Sciences, University of Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Nilesh B Patel
- Department of Medical Physiology, School of Medicine, College of Health Sciences, University of Nairobi, Kenya
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Kennedy C, Okanya P, Nyariki JN, Amwayi P, Jillani N, Isaac AO. Coenzyme Q 10 nullified khat-induced hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity and inflammation in a mouse model. Heliyon 2020; 6:e04917. [PMID: 32984611 PMCID: PMC7498867 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Ethnopharmacological relevance The consumption of khat (Catha Edulis, Forsk) is on the rise despite the much publicized associated deleterious health effects. How chemicals present in khat, affect various physiological and biochemical processes requires further scrutiny. A clear understanding of these processes will provide an avenue for countering khat-driven negative effects using appropriate pharmacological and/or nutritional interventions. Aim of the study The current study investigated the effect of khat on vital physiological and biochemical processes such as oxidative stress, inflammation and immune responses and the role of Coenzyme-Q10 (CoQ10), a potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory, in modulating any negative effects due to khat exposure. Methodology Three (3) weeks old forty (40) Swiss albino mice were randomly assigned into four treatment groups (n = 10). The first group was the control that was not administered with khat or CoQ10. The second group received 200 mg/kg body weight (b/w) of CoQ10, while the third group received 1500 mg/kg b/w of khat extract and finally the forth group was co-treated with 200 mg/kg b/w of CoQ10 and 1500 mg/kg b/w of khat extract. The experiment was conducted for 90 days after which samples were collected for physiological and biochemical analyses. Results The effects of khat and CoQ10 on the weights of brain, liver, kidney and spleen was determined. Administration of khat decreased the levels of RBCs and its subtypes (MCV, MCH, RDW-SD and RDW-CV), a clear indicator of khat-induced normochromic microcytic anemia. White blood cells (lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils and eosinophil) which are vital in responding to infections were markedly elevated by khat. Moreover, these results provide evidence for khat-induced liver and kidney injury as shown by increased biomarkers; AST, ALT, GGT and creatinine respectively. Standard histopathological analysis confirmed this finding for khat-driven liver and kidney injury. Further studies showed evidence for khat-induced inflammation and oxidative stress as depicted by increased levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-alpha and elevation of GSH in the brain, liver and spleen. Remarkably, this is the first study to demonstrate the potential of CoQ10 in ameliorating khat-induced negative effects as outlined. CoQ10 supplementation restored the khat-induced reduction in RBC subtypes, and was protective against liver and kidney injury as shown by the appropriate biomarkers and standard histopathology analysis. The other significant finding was the CoQ10-driven normalization of GSH and TNF-α levels, indicating a protective effect from khat-driven oxidative stress and inflammation respectively. Conclusion From this study, we conclude that CoQ10 may be useful in nullifying khat-driven deleterious events among chronic khat users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chepukosi Kennedy
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Technical University of Kenya, P. O. Box 52428, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya.,School of Biological and Life Sciences, Technical University of Kenya, P. O. Box 52428, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Patrick Okanya
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Technical University of Kenya, P. O. Box 52428, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya.,School of Biological and Life Sciences, Technical University of Kenya, P. O. Box 52428, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - James Nyabuga Nyariki
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Technical University of Kenya, P. O. Box 52428, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya.,School of Biological and Life Sciences, Technical University of Kenya, P. O. Box 52428, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Peris Amwayi
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Technical University of Kenya, P. O. Box 52428, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya.,School of Biological and Life Sciences, Technical University of Kenya, P. O. Box 52428, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Ngalla Jillani
- Institute of Primates Research, P.O. Box 24481, Karen, 00502, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Alfred Orina Isaac
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Technical University of Kenya, P. O. Box 52428, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya.,School of Health Sciences and Technology, Technical University of Kenya, P. O. Box 52428, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya
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Limenie AA, Tolessa T, Makonnen E, Seifu D. Rewarding Effect of Catha edulis (Khat) and the Sex Differences to the Responses in Swiss Albino Mice. Psychol Res Behav Manag 2020; 13:279-289. [PMID: 32273781 PMCID: PMC7106998 DOI: 10.2147/prbm.s242036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Burden of substance abuse is becoming a worldwide problem. One of the psychostimulant plants widely consumed in Ethiopia and other East African countries is Catha edulis Forsk (khat). Most of the users claim that its stimulatory effect is the determinant factor that makes them use. However, its rewarding and reinforcing potential and variation between sexes have not been investigated. This study was, therefore, designed to measure the rewarding effect of khat extract (ke) in the addiction mice model of both sexes. Materials and Methods Forty-eight Swiss albino mice of both sexes (age 6–7 weeks) weighing 21–33 gm were used. The mice were conditioned to ke (100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg and 300 mg/kg b.w). The control group was conditioned to tween 80 (2%, v/v) in distilled water. The reinforcing effect of khat was evaluated using the conditioned place preference paradigm. The classical pairing to the extract was made using the place conditioning box. Post-conditioning tests have been conducted four times and the average values were taken for analysis using SPSS version 21.0. Results Time spent in the khat-paired compartment was significantly higher for mice conditioned to ke 200 mg/kg (p<0.05) and ke 300 mg/kg (p<0.001). The rewarding effect of khat was strong in females at a higher dose when compared to the same sex of mice conditioned to the vehicle (p<0.001) or male mice conditioned to the same dose of khat extract (p<0.05). Repeated administration increased khat rewarding sensitization at all doses. Though the crude khat extract did not affect the food consumption and total body weight, water consumption was significantly less in mice received ke 100 mg/kg (p<0.01), where it was significantly higher in mice received ke 300 mg/kg (p<0.01). Sniffing (p<0.05) and climbing (p<0.05) psychomotor activities of mice were also affected by the crude khat extract. Conclusion Mice showed place conditioning to khat extract, and the response was significantly higher in female mice. The crude khat extract did not affect food consumption and total body weight. The mechanisms behind the rewarding response of khat extract and sexual differences should be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abebaye Aragaw Limenie
- Department of Physiology, Addis Ababa University, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Tesfaye Tolessa
- Department of Physiology, Addis Ababa University, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Eyasu Makonnen
- Department of Pharmacology, Addis Ababa University, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Daniel Seifu
- Department of Biochemistry, Addis Ababa University, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Leyrer-Jackson JM, Nagy EK, Olive MF. Cognitive deficits and neurotoxicity induced by synthetic cathinones: is there a role for neuroinflammation? Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:1079-1095. [PMID: 30368582 PMCID: PMC6486871 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-5067-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The number of synthetic derivatives of cathinone, the primary psychoactive alkaloid found in Catha edulis (khat), has risen exponentially in the past decade. Synthetic cathinones (frequently referred to as "bath salts") produce adverse cognitive and behavioral sequelae, share similar pharmacological mechanisms of action with traditional psychostimulants, and may therefore trigger similar cellular events that give rise to neuroinflammation and neurotoxicity. OBJECTIVES In this review, we provide a brief overview of synthetic cathinones, followed by a summary of cognitive deficits in animals and humans that have been documented following acute or repeated exposure. We also summarize growing evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies for synthetic cathinone-induced neurotoxicity, and provide a working hypothetic model of potential cellular mechanisms. RESULTS Synthetic cathinones produce varying effects on markers of monoaminergic terminal function and can increase the formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, induce apoptotic signaling, and cause neurodegeneration and cytotoxicity. We hypothesize that these effects result from biochemical events similar to those induced by traditional psychostimulants. However, empirical evidence for the ability of synthetic cathinones to induce neuroinflammatory processes is currently lacking. CONCLUSIONS Like their traditional psychostimulant counterparts, synthetic cathinones appear to induce neurocognitive dysfunction and cytotoxicity, which are dependent on drug type, dose, frequency, and time following exposure. However, additional studies on synthetic cathinone-induced neuroinflammation are clearly needed, as are investigations into the neurochemical and neuroimmune mechanisms underlying their neurotoxic effects. Such endeavors may lead to novel therapeutic avenues to promote recovery in habitual synthetic cathinone users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - M. Foster Olive
- Correspondence to: M. Foster Olive, Ph.D. Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, 950 S. McAllister Ave. Tempe, AZ 85287 USA, Phone 1-480-727-9557, Fax 1-480-965-8544,
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Khat (Catha edulis Forsk) – And now there are three. Brain Res Bull 2019; 145:92-96. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2018.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Revised: 07/17/2018] [Accepted: 07/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Alsalahi A, Alshawsh MA, Chik Z, Mohamed Z. Effect of Catha edulis (khat) on pancreatic functions in streptozotocin-induced diabetes in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Exp Anim 2018; 67:517-526. [PMID: 29973470 PMCID: PMC6219881 DOI: 10.1538/expanim.18-0057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
People consume Catha edulis (khat) for its euphoric effect, and type 1
diabetics have claimed that khat could reduce elevated levels of blood sugar. However,
khat has been suggested to provoke diabetes mellitus through destruction of pancreatic
β-cells. This study investigated the effect of an ethanolic khat extract on pancreatic
functions in type 1 diabetes (T1DM)-induced male Sprague-Dawley rats and to assess its
in vitro cytotoxicity in rat pancreatic β-cells (RIN-14B). T1DM was
induced in a total of 20 rats with a single intraperitoneal injection of 75 mg/kg of
streptozotocin. The rats were distributed into four groups (n=5): the diabetic control, 8
IU insulin-treated, 200 mg/kg khat-treated, and 400 mg/kg khat-treated groups. Another 5
rats were included as a nondiabetic control. Body weight, fasting blood sugar, and caloric
intake were recorded weekly. Four weeks after treatment, the rats were sacrificed, and
blood was collected for insulin, lipid profile, total protein, amylase, and lipase
analysis, while pancreases were harvested for histopathology. In vitro,
khat exerted moderate cytotoxicity against RIN-14B cells after 24 and 48 h but
demonstrated greater inhibition against RIN-14B cells after 72 h. Neither 200 mg/kg nor
400 mg/kg of khat produced any significant reduction in blood sugar; however, 200 mg/kg
khat extract provoked more destruction of pancreatic β-cells as compared with the diabetic
control. Ultimately, neither 200 mg/kg nor 400 mg/kg of khat extract could produce a
hypoglycemic effect in T1DM-induced rats. However, 200 mg/kg of khat caused greater
destruction of pancreatic β-cells, implying that khat may cause a direct cytotoxic effect
on pancreatic β-cells in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdulsamad Alsalahi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Mohammed A Alshawsh
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Zamri Chik
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Zahurin Mohamed
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Engidawork E. Pharmacological and Toxicological Effects of Catha edulis F. (Khat). Phytother Res 2017; 31:1019-1028. [PMID: 28557133 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.5832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Khat chewing is deeply rooted in the culture and tradition of communities in khat belt countries, and its consumption is spread to other countries through the suitcase trade. The aim of this article is to review current knowledge on the chemistry, social, pharmacology and toxicology of khat and its use. Khat produces effect invariably in every system, which is harmful or beneficial in some instances. Harmful effects are observed in heavy users, although firm evidence is lacking. Chewing khat acutely elicits states of euphoria, which is followed by low mood. Khat contains alkaloids with psychostimulant properties, but the effect cannot be totally explained by these alkaloids. It is also not clear whether the effect produced in some organs like liver could be attributed to khat or pesticides sprayed during farming. Although the evidence indicates that khat has adverse effects in most organs, our understanding of the complex interaction between use and effect is incomplete, and causal relationships have not yet been described. Moreover, khat has positioned itself well in the social, economic and political arena. Thus, a multidisciplinary research is required to understand the different dimensions and come up with ways that maximize the benefit while minimizing the risk. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ephrem Engidawork
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, P.O Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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