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Cerri FM, Basso RM, Pereira WAB, Silveira JMDS, Ferreira EDO, Haisi A, Araújo Júnior JP, Arroyo LG, de Castro YG, Silva ROS, Oliveira-Filho JPD, Borges AS. Fecal shedding of Clostridioides difficile in calves in Sao Paulo state, Brazil. Anaerobe 2024; 88:102861. [PMID: 38729514 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2024.102861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed to evaluate the fecal shedding of C. difficile in calves on farms in Sao Paulo State, Brazil. MATERIALS AND METHODS Fecal samples (n = 300) were collected from diarrheic (n = 78) and nondiarrheic (n = 222) calves less than 60 days of age from 20 farms. Fecal samples were inoculated into enrichment broth supplemented with taurocholate and cultured under anaerobic conditions. Colonies suspected to be C. difficile were harvested for DNA extraction and then multiplex PCR for the detection of genes encoding toxins A and B and binary toxins. All toxigenic isolates were ribotyped and tested for antimicrobial susceptibility, and five selected strains were subjected to whole-genome sequencing to determine their sequence type. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION C. difficile was isolated from 29.3 % (88/300) of the samples. All toxigenic isolates (17/88, 19.3 %) were classified as ribotypes RT046 (13/17-79.47 %, A+B+ CDT-) and RT126 (4/17 = 20.53 %, A+B+ CDT+). The sequenced strains from RT046 were classified as ST35 (Clade 1), while those from RT126 were classified as ST11 (Clade 5). No associations between the epidemiological factors in any of the groups and C. difficile isolation were observed. Most of the toxigenic isolates (16/17 = 94.41 %) were classified as multidrug-resistant. Calves can be an important source of toxigenic C. difficile strains, including multidrug-resistant isolates from ribotypes commonly observed in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrício Moreira Cerri
- Sao Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science (FMVZ), Botucatu, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Roberta Martins Basso
- Sao Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science (FMVZ), Botucatu, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Júlia Meireles da Silva Silveira
- Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Paulo de Góes Institute of Microbiology (IMPG), Department of Medical Microbiology, UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Eliane de Oliveira Ferreira
- Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Paulo de Góes Institute of Microbiology (IMPG), Department of Medical Microbiology, UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Amanda Haisi
- Sao Paulo State University (UNESP), Institute of Biotechnology (IBTEC), Botucatu, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Luis G Arroyo
- University of Guelph, Ontario Veterinary College, Department of Clinical Studies, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Yasmin Gonçalves de Castro
- Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), School of Veterinary Medicine (EV), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | - José Paes de Oliveira-Filho
- Sao Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science (FMVZ), Botucatu, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Secorun Borges
- Sao Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science (FMVZ), Botucatu, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
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Cuperus T, Wit B, Castelijn G, Hengeveld P, Opsteegh M, van der Giessen J, Harmanus C, van Prehn J, Kuijper EJ, Smits WK. Clostridioides difficile in calves, cattle and humans from Dutch dairy farms: Predominance of PCR ribotype 695 (clade 5, sequence type 11) in cattle. One Health 2024; 18:100739. [PMID: 38707933 PMCID: PMC11067380 DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2024.100739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Clostridioides difficile is a leading cause of infectious diarrhea in both humans and livestock. In particular, C. difficile strains belonging to sequence type (ST) 11 are common enteropathogens. The aim of this study was to determine the presence and genetic relatedness of C. difficile types in dairy cattle and calves. Method Dutch dairy farms were visited between February and December 2021. Feces was collected from adult dairy cattle and calves of two age categories (<4 weeks and 4 weeks-4 months). Fecal samples were also requested from dairy farmers, family members and employees. Fecal samples were cultured in an enrichment medium for 10-15 days and subcultured on solid media for capillary PCR ribotyping and whole genome sequencing. Results C. difficile was detected on 31 out of 157 (19.8%) dairy farms. The highest prevalence was found in calves <4 weeks (17.5%). None of the 99 human samples collected were positive. Thirty-seven cultured isolates belonged to 11 different PCR ribotypes (RT) of which RT695 (56.8%) and RT078/126 (16.2%) were most abundant. In the database of the Netherlands National Expertise Centre for C. difficile infections (CDI, >10.000 patient isolates), RT695 was found in only two patients with hospital-onset CDI, diagnosed in 2020 and 2021. Sequence analysis of 21C. difficile RT695 from cattle revealed that all isolates belonged to clade 5, ST11 and contained genes encoding toxin A, toxin B and binary toxin. RT695 strains carried antimicrobial resistance genes typically found in clade 5C. difficile. Groups of genetically related RT695 isolates were found between dairy farms, whereas identical strains were only present in individual farms. Conclusions C. difficile was found in ∼20% of dairy farms with a predominance of the relatively unknown RT695. Isolates of RT695 belonged to the same clade and sequence type as RT078/126, which is recognized as an important zoonotic type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tryntsje Cuperus
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Ben Wit
- Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (NVWA), Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Greetje Castelijn
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Paul Hengeveld
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Marieke Opsteegh
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Joke van der Giessen
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Céline Harmanus
- Leiden University Center for Infectious Diseases (LUCID), Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Joffrey van Prehn
- Leiden University Center for Infectious Diseases (LUCID), Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), Leiden, the Netherlands
- National Expertise Centre for Clostridiodes difficile infections at Leiden University Center for Infectious Diseases (LUCID), Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), Leiden, the Netherlands and Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Ed J. Kuijper
- Leiden University Center for Infectious Diseases (LUCID), Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), Leiden, the Netherlands
- National Expertise Centre for Clostridiodes difficile infections at Leiden University Center for Infectious Diseases (LUCID), Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), Leiden, the Netherlands and Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Wiep Klaas Smits
- Leiden University Center for Infectious Diseases (LUCID), Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), Leiden, the Netherlands
- National Expertise Centre for Clostridiodes difficile infections at Leiden University Center for Infectious Diseases (LUCID), Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), Leiden, the Netherlands and Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
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3
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Cersosimo LM, Worley JN, Bry L. Approaching toxigenic Clostridia from a One Health perspective. Anaerobe 2024; 87:102839. [PMID: 38552896 PMCID: PMC11180571 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2024.102839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
Spore-forming pathogens have a unique capacity to thrive in diverse environments, and with temporal persistence afforded through their ability to sporulate. Their prevalence in diverse ecosystems requires a One Health approach to identify critical reservoirs and outbreak-associated transmission chains, given their capacity to freely move across soils, waterways, foodstuffs and as commensals or infecting pathogens in human and animal populations. Among anaerobic spore-formers, genomic resources for pathogens including C. botulinum, C. difficile, and C. perfringens enable our capacity to identify common and unique factors that support their persistence in diverse reservoirs and capacity to cause disease. Publicly available genomic resources for spore-forming pathogens at NCBI's Pathogen Detection program aid outbreak investigations and longitudinal monitoring in national and international programs in public health and food safety, as well as for local healthcare systems. These tools also enable research to derive new knowledge regarding disease pathogenesis, and to inform strategies in disease prevention and treatment. As global community resources, the continued sharing of strain genomic data and phenotypes further enhances international resources and means to develop impactful applications. We present examples showing use of these resources in surveillance, including capacity to assess linkages among clinical, environmental, and foodborne reservoirs and to further research investigations into factors promoting their persistence and virulence in different settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Cersosimo
- Massachusetts Host-Microbiome Center, Dept. Pathology, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Jay N Worley
- Massachusetts Host-Microbiome Center, Dept. Pathology, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; National Center for Biotechnology Information, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Lynn Bry
- Massachusetts Host-Microbiome Center, Dept. Pathology, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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Cersosimo LM, Worley JN, Bry L. Approaching pathogenic Clostridia from a One Health perspective. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.08.574718. [PMID: 38260382 PMCID: PMC10802438 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.08.574718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Spore-forming pathogens have a unique capacity to thrive in diverse environments, and with temporal persistence afforded through their ability to sporulate. These behaviors require a One Health approach to identify critical reservoirs and outbreak-associated transmission chains, given their capacity to freely move across soils, waterways, foodstuffs, and as commensals or infecting pathogens in human and veterinary populations. Among anaerobic spore-formers, genomic resources for pathogens including C. botulinum, C. difficile, and C. perfringens enable our capacity to identify common and unique factors that support their persistence in diverse reservoirs and capacity to cause disease. Publicly available genomic resources for spore-forming pathogens at NCBI's Pathogen Detection program aid outbreak investigations and longitudinal monitoring in national and international programs in public health and food safety, as well as for local healthcare systems. These tools also enable research to derive new knowledge regarding disease pathogenesis, and to inform strategies in disease prevention and treatment. As global community resources, the continued sharing of strain genomic data and phenotypes further enhances international resources and means to develop impactful applications. We present examples showing use of these resources in surveillance, including capacity to assess linkages among clinical, environmental, and foodborne reservoirs and to further research investigations into factors promoting their persistence and virulence in different settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M. Cersosimo
- Massachusetts Host-Microbiome Center, Dept. Pathology, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Jay N. Worley
- Massachusetts Host-Microbiome Center, Dept. Pathology, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, NIH, Bethesda, MD
| | - Lynn Bry
- Massachusetts Host-Microbiome Center, Dept. Pathology, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Dept. Pathology, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Boston, MA
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5
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Rodriguez-Diaz C, Seyboldt C, Rupnik M. Non-human Clostridioides difficile Reservoirs and Sources: Animals, Food, Environment. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2024; 1435:329-350. [PMID: 38175482 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-42108-2_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is ubiquitous and is found in humans, animals and in variety of environments. The substantial overlap of ribotypes between all three main reservoirs suggests the extensive transmissions. Here we give the overview of European studies investigating farm, companion and wild animals, food and environments including water, soil, sediment, wastewater treatment plants, biogas plants, air, and households. Studies in Europe are more numerous especially in last couple of years, but are still fragmented in terms of countries, animal species, or type of environment covered. Soil seem to be the habitat of divergent unusual lineages of C. difficile. But the most important aspect of animals and environment is their role in C. difficile transmissions and their potential as a source for human infection is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Rodriguez-Diaz
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga y Plataforma de Nanomedicina-IBIMA Plataforma BIONAND, UGC de Aparato Digestivo, Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Victoria, Málaga, Spain
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals and Health (FARAH), Department of Food Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Christian Seyboldt
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Jena, Germany
| | - Maja Rupnik
- National Laboratory for Health, Environment and Food, NLZOH, Maribor, Slovenia
- University of Maribor, Faculty of Medicine, Maribor, Slovenia
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Couturier J, Davies K, Barbut F. Ribotypes and New Virulent Strains Across Europe. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2024; 1435:151-168. [PMID: 38175475 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-42108-2_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Clostridioides (formerly Clostridium) difficile is a major bacterial cause of post-antibiotic diarrhoea. The epidemiology of C. difficile infections (CDIs) has dramatically changed since the early 2000s, with an increasing incidence and severity across Europe. This trend is partly due to the emergence and rapid worldwide spread of the hypervirulent and epidemic PCR ribotype 027. Profiles of patients with CDI have also evolved, with description of community-acquired (CA) infections in patients with no traditional risk factors for CDI. However, epidemiological studies indicated that some European countries have successfully controlled the dissemination of the 027 clone whereas other countries reported the emergence of other virulent or unusual strains. The aims of this review are to summarize the current European CDI epidemiology and to describe the new virulent C. difficile strains circulating in Europe, as well as other potential emerging strains described elsewhere. Standardized typing methods and surveillance programmes are mandatory for a better understanding and monitoring of CDI in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanne Couturier
- National Reference Laboratory for C. difficile, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, Paris, France.
- Université Paris Cité, UMR INSERM 1139, Paris, France.
| | - Kerrie Davies
- Healthcare Associated Infections Research Group, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust and University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
- European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) study group for Clostridioides difficile (ESGCD), Basel, Switzerland
| | - Frédéric Barbut
- National Reference Laboratory for C. difficile, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, Paris, France
- Université Paris Cité, UMR INSERM 1139, Paris, France
- European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) study group for Clostridioides difficile (ESGCD), Basel, Switzerland
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Abad-Fau A, Sevilla E, Martín-Burriel I, Moreno B, Bolea R. Update on Commonly Used Molecular Typing Methods for Clostridioides difficile. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1752. [PMID: 37512924 PMCID: PMC10384772 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11071752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the significant Clostridioides difficile molecular typing techniques currently employed in research and medical communities. The main objectives of this review are to describe the key molecular typing methods utilized in C. difficile studies and to highlight the epidemiological characteristics of the most prevalent strains on a global scale. Geographically distinct regions exhibit distinct strain types of C. difficile, with notable concordance observed among various typing methodologies. The advantages that next-generation sequencing (NGS) offers has changed epidemiology research, enabling high-resolution genomic analyses of this pathogen. NGS platforms offer an unprecedented opportunity to explore the genetic intricacies and evolutionary trajectories of C. difficile strains. It is relevant to acknowledge that novel routes of transmission are continually being unveiled and warrant further investigation, particularly in the context of zoonotic implications and environmental contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Abad-Fau
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragon-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
- Centro de Encefalopatías y Enfermedades Transmisibles Emergentes, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Eloísa Sevilla
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragon-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
- Centro de Encefalopatías y Enfermedades Transmisibles Emergentes, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Martín-Burriel
- Centro de Encefalopatías y Enfermedades Transmisibles Emergentes, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
- Laboratorio de Genética Bioquímica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragon-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Bernardino Moreno
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragon-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
- Centro de Encefalopatías y Enfermedades Transmisibles Emergentes, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Rosa Bolea
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragon-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
- Centro de Encefalopatías y Enfermedades Transmisibles Emergentes, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
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Spigaglia P, Barbanti F, Faccini S, Vescovi M, Criscuolo EM, Ceruti R, Gaspano C, Rosignoli C. Clostridioides difficile in Pigs and Dairy Cattle in Northern Italy: Prevalence, Characterization and Comparison between Animal and Human Strains. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1738. [PMID: 37512910 PMCID: PMC10383565 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11071738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
It has been observed that novel strains of Clostridioides difficile can rapidly emerge and move between animal and human hosts. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of C. difficile in pigs and dairy cattle in northern Italy and to characterize and compare C. difficile animal strains with those from patients from the same geographical area. The C. difficile strains were isolated from animals from farms and slaughterhouses (cross-sectional studies) and from neonatal animals with enteric disorders in routine diagnostic investigations (passive surveillance). Samples positive for C. difficile were found in 87% of the pig farms and in 40% of the cattle farms involved in the cross-sectional studies, with a 20% prevalence among suckling piglets and 6.7% prevalence in neonatal calves, with no significant difference between animals with and without diarrheal symptoms. The prevalence of C. difficile in older animal categories was significantly lower. This result suggests that young age is an important risk factor for C. difficile colonization. In cross-sectional studies at slaughterhouses, in both the heavy pigs and dairy cows examined, only 2% of the intestinal content samples were positive for C. difficile and no contamination was found on the surface of the carcasses. Considering passive surveillance, the prevalence rates of positive samples were 29% in piglets and 1.4% in calves. Overall, 267 strains of animal origin and 97 from humans were collected. In total, 39 ribotypes (RTs) were identified, with RT 078 and RT 018 being predominant among animals and humans, respectively. Several RTs overlapped between animals and patients. In particular, RT 569 was identified as an emergent type in our country. Resistance to erythromycin and moxifloxacin was widely diffused among C. difficile strains, regardless of origin. This study supports C. difficile as a pathogen of one-health importance and highlights the need for a collaborative approach between physicians and veterinarians to control and prevent infections that are able to cross species and geographical barriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Spigaglia
- Dipartimento di Malattie Infettive, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Barbanti
- Dipartimento di Malattie Infettive, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Silvia Faccini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "B. Ubertini", Sede Territoriale di Mantova, 46100 Mantova, Italy
| | - Mariella Vescovi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "B. Ubertini", Sede Territoriale di Mantova, 46100 Mantova, Italy
| | | | - Rossella Ceruti
- Servizio di Medicina di Laboratorio, ASST Ospedale "Carlo Poma", 46100 Mantova, Italy
| | - Clara Gaspano
- Servizio di Medicina di Laboratorio, ASST Ospedale "Carlo Poma", 46100 Mantova, Italy
| | - Carlo Rosignoli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "B. Ubertini", Sede Territoriale di Mantova, 46100 Mantova, Italy
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Xu M, Selvaraj GK, Lu H. Environmental sporobiota: Occurrence, dissemination, and risks. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 869:161809. [PMID: 36702282 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Spore-forming bacteria known as sporobiota are widespread in diverse environments from terrestrial and aquatic habitats to industrial and healthcare systems. Studies on sporobiota have been mainly focused on food processing and clinical fields, while a large amount of sporobiota exist in natural environments. Due to their persistence and capabilities of transmitting virulence factors and antibiotic resistant genes, environmental sporobiota could pose significant health risks to humans. These risks could increase as global warming and environmental pollution has altered the life cycle of sporobiota. This review summarizes the current knowledge of environmental sporobiota, including their occurrence, characteristics, and functions. An interaction network among clinical-, food-related, and environment-related sporobiota is constructed. Recent and effective methods for detecting and disinfecting environmental sporobiota are also discussed. Key problems and future research needs for better understanding and reducing the risks of environmental sporobiota and sporobiome are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Xu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecological Health, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Ganesh-Kumar Selvaraj
- Department of Microbiology, St. Peter's Institute of Higher Education and Research, Chennai 600054, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Huijie Lu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecological Health, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Key Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Environmental Safety, Zhejiang, China.
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Tsai BY, Chien CC, Huang SH, Zheng JY, Hsu CY, Tsai YS, Hung YP, Ko WC, Tsai PJ. The emergence of Clostridioides difficile PCR ribotype 127 at a hospital in northeastern Taiwan. JOURNAL OF MICROBIOLOGY, IMMUNOLOGY, AND INFECTION = WEI MIAN YU GAN RAN ZA ZHI 2022; 55:896-909. [PMID: 35042668 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2021.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several studies have highlighted the incidence of Clostridioides difficile infections (CDIs) in Taiwan and certain ribotypes have been related to severe clinical diseases. A study was conducted to investigate the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) ribotypes and genetic relatedness of clinical C. difficile strains collected from January 2009 to December 2015 at a hospital in northeastern Taiwan. MATERIAL AND METHODS A modified two-step typing algorithm for C. difficile was used by combining a modified 8-plex and 3'-truncated tcdA screening PCR. In addition, MLVA typing was adopted for investigation of bacterial clonality and transmission. RESULTS Among a total of 86 strains, 24 (28%) were nontoxigenic and 62 (72%) had both tcdA and tcdB (A + B+). No tcdA-negative and tcdB-positive (A-B+) strains were identified. Binary toxin (CDT)-producing (cdtA+/cdtB+) strains were started to be identified in 2013. The 21 (34%) A+B+ clinical strains with binary toxin and tcdC deletion were identified as RT127 strains, which contained both RT078-lineage markers and fluoroquinolone (FQ)-resistant mutations (Thr82Ile in gyrA). Multiple loci variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) for phylogenetic relatedness of RT127 strains indicated that 20 of 21 strains belonged to a clonal complex that was identical to a clinical strain collected from southern Taiwan in 2011, suggestive of a clonal expansion in Taiwan. CONCLUSION A two-step typing method could rapidly confirm species identification and define the toxin gene profile of C. difficile isolates. The clonal expansion of RT127 strains in Taiwan indicates monitoring and surveillance of toxigenic C. difficile isolates from human, animal, and environment are critical to develop One Health prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo-Yang Tsai
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
| | - Chun-Chih Chien
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Kaohsiung, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| | - Shu-Huan Huang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Kee-Lung, Keelung, Taiwan.
| | - Jun-Yuan Zheng
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Kee-Lung, Kee-Lung, Taiwan.
| | - Chih-Yu Hsu
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
| | - Yau-Sheng Tsai
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
| | - Yuan-Pin Hung
- Departments of Internal Medicine, Tainan Hospital, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Tainan, Taiwan; Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
| | - Wen-Chien Ko
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan; Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
| | - Pei-Jane Tsai
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan; Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan; Center of Infectious Disease and Signaling Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan; Department of Pathology, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
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11
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Tsai CS, Hung YP, Lee JC, Syue LS, Hsueh PR, Ko WC. Clostridioides difficile infection: an emerging zoonosis? Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2021; 19:1543-1552. [PMID: 34383624 DOI: 10.1080/14787210.2021.1967746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile) infection (CDI) is the most common cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and one of the common infections in healthcare facilities. In recent decades, there has been an emerging threat of community-acquired CDI (CA-CDI). Environmental transmission of C. difficile in the community setting has become a major concern, and animals are an important reservoir for C. difficile causing human diseases. AREAS COVERED In this article, the molecular epidemiology of C. difficile in animals and recent evidences of zoonotic transfer to humans are reviewed based on an electronic search in the databases of PubMed and Google Scholar. EXPERT OPINION C. difficile can be found in stool from diarrheal dogs and cats; therefore, household pets could be a potential source. C. difficile will threaten human health because hypervirulent C. difficile ribotype 078 strains have been found in retail chickens, pig farms, and slaughterhouses. Risk factors for fecal C. difficile carriage in animals include young age, dietary changes, and antibiotic abuse in domestic animals. With the advent of whole genome sequencing techniques, there will be more solid evidence indicating zoonotic transfer of C. difficile from animals to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chin-Shiang Tsai
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, Dou-Liou Branch, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Yunlin, Taiwan.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.,Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Yuan-Pin Hung
- Department of Internal Medicine, Tainan Hospital, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Chieh Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Ling-Shan Syue
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Po-Ren Hsueh
- Departments of Laboratory Medicine and Internal Medicine, China Medical University Hospital, School of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Chien Ko
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.,Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
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12
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Weese JS, Slovis N, Rousseau J. Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile in neonatal foals and mares at a referral hospital. J Vet Intern Med 2021; 35:1140-1146. [PMID: 33656757 PMCID: PMC7995440 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.16094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding the epidemiology of Clostridium difficile is important for the development and assessment of infection prevention and control practices, as well as surveillance methods and interpretation of diagnostic testing results. OBJECTIVE Our objective was to longitudinally evaluate C. difficile shedding in neonatal foals and mares admitted to a referral hospital neonatal intensive care unit. ANIMALS Foals admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit, along with their dams. METHODS Rectal swabs were collected from mares and foals at admission, and then approximately every 3 days, when possible. Selective culture for C. difficile was performed and isolates were characterized by toxin gene PCR and ribotyping. RESULTS Clostridium difficile was isolated from 103/409 (25%) samples; 65/208 (31%) from foals and 38/201 (19%) from mares. Cumulatively, C. difficile was isolated from at least 1 sample from 50/113 (44%) foals and 30/97 (31%) mares. No association was found between hospitalization day and isolation of C. difficile (P = .13). Twenty-three different ribotypes were identified, with ribotype 078 predominating. Fifteen foals had 2 positive samples during hospitalization. In only 6/15 (40%) foals was the same strain identified both times (5 ribotype 078 and 1 ribotype 012). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE Clostridium difficile is an important pathogen in adult horses and foals, and our findings highlight the complexity surrounding the epidemiology of this opportunistic pathogen. It can be found commonly, transiently, and cluster within a facility in the absence of identifiable disease occurrences or clusters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Scott Weese
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Nathan Slovis
- McGee Medical Center, Hagyard Equine Medical Institute, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Joyce Rousseau
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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13
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Redding L, Huang E, Ryave J, Webb T, Barnhart D, Baker L, Bender J, Kristula M, Kelly D. Clostridioides difficile on dairy farms and potential risk to dairy farm workers. Anaerobe 2021; 69:102353. [PMID: 33639290 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2021.102353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 02/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile causes severe colitis in people and is a significant enteric pathogen in many species of animals, including swine, horses, and potentially cattle. C. difficile is shed in feces, and transmission occurs horizontally via the fecal-oral route. Livestock has been suggested as a potential reservoir for C. difficile, and while studies have shown that swine and farm workers can be colonized with identical clones of C. difficile, the zoonotic transmission of C. difficile from livestock to people has not been definitively demonstrated. The goal of this study was to determine whether dairy calves and dairy farm workers harbored genetically similar isolates of C. difficile. First, we validated a glove juice protocol for detecting C. difficile on farm workers' hands. We then visited 23 farms and collected 1) fecal samples from 92 dairy calves, 2) hand rinsates from 38 dairy farm workers, and 3) fecal samples from five of the dairy farm workers who were willing to submit them. All samples underwent anaerobic culture and qPCR to detect C. difficile. C. difficile was detected on 15 of the farms (65.2%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 42.7%-83.6%) and in 28 calves (30.4%, 95% CI 21.2-40.9%) but in none of the hand rinsates or human fecal samples. Thus, the zoonotic transmission of C. difficile on dairy farms could not be demonstrated, and dairy farmers did not appear to be at increased risk of acquiring C. difficile via the fecal-oral route.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel Redding
- University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA, USA.
| | - Elizabeth Huang
- University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jacob Ryave
- University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA, USA
| | - Terry Webb
- University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA, USA
| | - Denise Barnhart
- University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA, USA
| | - Linda Baker
- University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA, USA
| | - Joseph Bender
- University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA, USA
| | - Michaela Kristula
- University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA, USA
| | - Donna Kelly
- University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA, USA
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Clostridioides difficile in Calves in Central Italy: Prevalence, Molecular Typing, Antimicrobial Susceptibility and Association with Antibiotic Administration. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11020515. [PMID: 33669325 PMCID: PMC7920295 DOI: 10.3390/ani11020515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Clostridioides difficile is a leading cause of nosocomial and community-acquired diarrhoea in men. The infection most commonly occurs in people who have recently been treated with antibiotics. Indistinguishable C. difficile strains have been isolated from livestock and humans, which has shed light on a possible zoonotic origin of this infection. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and risk factors of C. difficile in calves bred in dairy and beef cattle farms of the Umbria, central Italy. We estimated a 19.8% prevalence of farms positive for C. difficile. The C. difficile isolates from calves were potentially toxigenic and resistant to antibiotics, including lincosamides, quinolones, vancomycin and linezolid. Isolates belonging to ribotype RT-126, which is also commonly reported in humans, showed the highest number of resistance to the antimicrobials tested. Furthermore, we observed an almost sixfold increased risk for C. difficile on farms where penicillins had been prescribed. This, together with the detection of toxigenic and antibiotic-resistant isolates, strongly suggests the need for a reduction of antibiotic use in cattle. Abstract The emergence of Clostridioides difficile as the main agent of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea has raised concerns about its potential zoonotic role in different animal species. The use of antimicrobials is a major risk factor for C. difficile infection. Here, we provide data on C. difficile infection in dairy and beef calves in Umbria, a region in central Italy. This cross-sectional study focuses on prevalence, risk factors, ribotypes, toxinotypes and antimicrobial resistance profiles of circulating ribotypes. A prevalence of 19.8% (CI95%, 12–27.6%) positive farms was estimated, and the prescription of penicillins on the farms was associated with C. difficile detection (OR = 5.58). Eleven different ribotypes were found, including the ST11 sublineages RT-126 and -078, which are also commonly reported in humans. Thirteen isolates out of 17 showed resistance to at least one of clindamycin, moxifloxacin, linezolid and vancomycin. Among them, multiple-drug resistance was observed in two isolates, belonging to RT-126. Furthermore, RT-126 isolates were positive for tetracycline resistance determinants, confirming that tetracycline resistance is widespread among ST11 isolates from cattle. The administration of penicillins increased the risk of C. difficile in calves: this, together with the recovery of multi-resistant strains, strongly suggests the need for minimising antibiotic misuse on cattle farms.
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Masarikova M, Simkova I, Plesko M, Eretova V, Krutova M, Cizek A. The Colonisation of Calves in Czech Large-Scale Dairy Farms by Clonally-Related Clostridioides difficile of the Sequence Type 11 Represented by Ribotypes 033 and 126. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8060901. [PMID: 32549307 PMCID: PMC7356540 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8060901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
To investigate a possible Clostridioides difficile reservoir in the Czech Republic, we performed a study in 297 calves from 29 large-scale dairy farms. After enrichment, faecal samples were inoculated onto selective agar for C. difficile. From the 297 samples, 44 C. difficile isolates were cultured (prevalence of 14.8%, 10 farms). The Holstein breed and use of digestate were associated with C. difficile colonisation (p ˂ 0.05). C. difficile isolates belonged to the ribotype/sequence type: RT033/ST11 (n = 37), RT126/ST11 (n = 6) and RT046/ST35 (n = 1). A multiple-locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis revealed four clonal complexes of RT033 isolates and one clonal complex of RT126 isolates. All isolates were sensitive to amoxicillin, metronidazole and vancomycin. Forty isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin, twenty-one to clindamycin, seven to erythromycin, seven to tetracycline and six to moxifloxacin. Moxifloxacin resistant isolates revealed an amino-acid substitution Thr82Ile in the GyrA. In conclusion, the calves of Holstein breed from farms using digestate as a product of bio-gas plants are more likely to be colonised by clonally-related C. difficile of ST 11 represented by ribotypes 033 and 126. The identified resistance to moxifloxacin with a Thr82Ile substitution in the GyrA highlights the need for further monitoring by the "One health approach".
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Masarikova
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ivana Simkova
- Ruminant and Swine Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Plesko
- Ruminant and Swine Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Eretova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Charles University, 150 06 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marcela Krutova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Charles University, 150 06 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Alois Cizek
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
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Abstract
Clostridium (Clostridioides) difficile is a gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium that is an important cause of disease in people, a variably important cause of disease in some animal species, and an apparently harmless commensal in others. Regardless of whether it is a known pathogen in a particular species, it can also be found in healthy individuals, sometimes at high prevalences and typically with higher rates of carriage in young individuals. As it is investigated in more animal species, it is apparent that this bacterium is widely disseminated in a diverse range of domestic and wild animal species. Although it can be found in most species in which investigations have been performed, there are pronounced intra- and inter-species differences in prevalence and clinical relevance. A wide range of strains can be identified, some that appear to be animal associated and others that are found in humans and animals. A large percentage of strains that cause disease in people can at least sporadically be found in animals. It is a potentially important zoonotic pathogen, but there is limited direct evidence of animal-human transmission. Although C. difficile has been studied extensively over the past few decades, it remains an enigmatic organism in many ways.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Scott Weese
- Department of Pathobiology and Centre for Public Health and Zoonoses, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada (Weese)
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Clostridioides (Clostridium) Difficile in Food-Producing Animals, Horses and Household Pets: A Comprehensive Review. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7120667. [PMID: 31835413 PMCID: PMC6955671 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7120667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile is ubiquitous in the environment and is also considered as a bacterium of great importance in diarrhea-associated disease for humans and different animal species. Food animals and household pets are frequently found positive for toxigenic C. difficile without exposing clinical signs of infection. Humans and animals share common C. difficile ribotypes (RTs) suggesting potential zoonotic transmission. However, the role of animals for the development of human infection due to C. difficile remains unclear. One major public health issue is the existence of asymptomatic animals that carry and shed the bacterium to the environment, and infect individuals or populations, directly or through the food chain. C. difficile ribotype 078 is frequently isolated from food animals and household pets as well as from their environment. Nevertheless, direct evidence for the transmission of this particular ribotype from animals to humans has never been established. This review will summarize the current available data on epidemiology, clinical presentations, risk factors and laboratory diagnosis of C. difficile infection in food animals and household pets, outline potential prevention and control strategies, and also describe the current evidence towards a zoonotic potential of C. difficile infection.
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Developing Gut Microbiota Exerts Colonisation Resistance to Clostridium (syn. Clostridioides) difficile in Piglets. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7080218. [PMID: 31357520 PMCID: PMC6723027 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7080218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Revised: 07/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium (syn. Clostridioides) difficile is considered a pioneer colonizer and may cause gut infection in neonatal piglets. The aim of this study was to explore the microbiota-C. difficile associations in pigs. We used the DNA from the faeces of four sows collected during the periparturient period and from two to three of their piglets (collected weekly until nine weeks of age) for the determination of bacterial community composition (sequencing) and C. difficile concentration (qPCR). Furthermore, C. difficile-negative faeces were enriched in a growth medium, followed by qPCR to verify the presence of this bacterium. Clostridium-sensu-stricto-1 and Lactobacillus spp. predominated the gut microbiota of the sows and their offspring. C. difficile was detected at least once in the faeces of all sows during the entire sampling period, albeit at low concentrations. Suckling piglets harboured C. difficile in high concentrations (up to log10 9.29 copy number/g faeces), which gradually decreased as the piglets aged. Enrichment revealed the presence of C. difficile in previously C. difficile-negative sow and offspring faeces. In suckling piglets, the C. difficile level was negatively correlated with carbohydrate-fermenting bacteria, and it was positively associated with potential pathogens. Shannon and richness diversity indices were negatively associated with the C. difficile counts in suckling piglets. This study showed that gut microbiota seems to set conditions for colonisation resistance against C. difficile in the offspring. However, this conclusion requires further research to include host-specific factors.
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