Floristic composition and utilization of ethnomedicinal plant species in home gardens of the Eastern Himalaya

The nexus between ecology of foraging and food security: cross-cultural perceptions of wild food plants in Kashmir Himalaya

BACKGROUND

Wild food plants (WFPs) play an important role in the traditional dietary habits of various indigenous communities worldwide, particularly in mountainous regions. To understand the dynamics of food preferences, cross-cultural studies on food plants should be conducted across diverse ethnic groups in a given area. In this context, the current study investigated the use of WFPs by seven different cultural groups in the Kashmir Himalayan Region. In this area, people gather wild plants and their parts for direct consumption, traditional foods, or sale in local markets. Despite this reliance, documentation of the food system, especially concerning WFPs, is notably lacking. Hence, our research aimed to document WFPs, along with associated traditional ecological knowledge, and identify major threats to their long-term sustainability in Division Muzaffarabad.

METHODS

Through a comprehensive approach involving questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, and market surveys, we gathered data from 321 respondents. PCA was performed to analyze threats and plant use using "factoextra" in R software. Origin Pro was used to create a chord diagram, while R software was used to generate a Polar heat map. Additionally, a Venn diagram was created using Bioinformatics software.

RESULTS

The study included 321 informants, of whom 75.38% were men and 24.61% were women. In total, 113 plant taxa from 74 genera and 41 botanical families were reported. Polygonaceae and Rosaceae accounted for the majority (17 species each), followed by Lamiaceae (7 species). Leaves were the most used part as food sources (41.04%), followed by fruits (33.33%). Most of the species are consumed as cooked (46.46%) and as raw snacks (37.80%). A total of 47 plant species were collected and cooked as wild vegetables, followed by 40 species used as fruits. This study is the first to describe the market potential and ecological distribution of WFPs in the study area. Cross-comparison showed that utilization of WFPs varies significantly across the region and communities, including their edible parts and mode of consumption. Jaccard index (JI) value ranged from 5.81 to 25. Furthermore, the current study describes 29 WFPs and 10 traditional food dishes that have rarely been documented in Pakistan's ethnobotanical literature. Climate change, invasive species, expansion of agriculture, and plant diseases are some of the most significant threats to WFPs in the study area.

CONCLUSIONS

The older age group has more knowledge about WFPs compared to the younger generation, who are not interested in learning about the utilization of WFPs. This lack of interest in information about WFPs among the younger generation can be attributed to their limited access to markets and availability of food plants in the study area. Traditional gathering of food plants has been reduced in younger generations during recent years; therefore, it is crucial to develop effective conservation strategies. These efforts not only safeguard indigenous flora, food knowledge, and cultural heritage, but they also contribute to food security and public health by utilizing local wild foods in the examined area.

Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used to treat human ailments in Quara district, northwestern Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Ethiopia is recognized as one of the centers of origin for the diversity of many plant species, including medicinal plants. Throughout the country, a large proportion of the population relies on these therapeutic plant species for primary healthcare. While such traditional medicinal knowledge has been documented in some regions, there is a lack of information from the Quara district of northwestern Ethiopia. Therefore, this study aimed to document the indigenous and local knowledge of the use of medicinal plants among three ethnic groups residing in the area.

METHODOLOGY

An ethnobotanical study was conducted from August 2022 to October 2023 in ten kebeles of the Quara district. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, field walks, and focus group discussions with 286 informants using snowball, purposive, and random sampling techniques. Quantitative analyses included Rahman's similarity index (RSI), informant consensus factor (ICF), and direct matrix ranking (DMR). Descriptive statistics were used to analyze basic ethnobotanical data.

RESULTS

A total of 128 medicinal plant species from 112 genera and 50 families were documented and used to treat 14 disease categories. There was a 28% overlap in medicinal plant knowledge among the three ethnic groups studied. Fabaceae was the most represented family with 22 species. Trees accounted for the majority of the documented plants (37.5%), and leaves were the most commonly used plant parts (23.1%). Oral administration (56.7%) of plant extracts was the primary mode of remedy preparation and use. The highest ICF value (0.93) was recorded for circulatory and blood-related disorders. The study identified nine plants and 39 therapeutic uses not previously reported in Ethiopia. The RSI showed high overlap with neighboring areas and low similarity with distant areas. Top-ranked multipurpose plants were Ziziphus spina-christi and Terminalia leiocarpa, with agricultural expansion and fuelwood collection identified as major threats.

CONCLUSION

The findings demonstrate the rich diversity of medicinal plants and associated traditional knowledge in the Quara district. The high ethnobotanical indices warrant further phytochemical and pharmacological investigations. Integrated conservation efforts are recommended to address the challenges facing these valuable plant resources.

Plant cultural indicators of forest resources from the Himalayan high mountains: implications for improving agricultural resilience, subsistence, and forest restoration

AIM

Biocultural legacy practices are intricately tied to forestry resources, ethnic identity, and social cohesiveness. This study aims to determine the plant cultural values of forest resources and identify plant cultural indicators in each ethnic group, which can aid in long-term natural resource management plans in the current debate on socio-environmental and ecological transitions.

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and field observations were employed to collect data for a comprehensive and systematic ethnobotanical survey from February 2018 to October 2022.

RESULTS

A total of 330 informants reported 154 plant species from 65 families. Asteraceae was the most prominent botanical family, with herbaceous plant groups outnumbering trees and shrubs. The Gujjar and Pahari groups exhibited the highest level of overlap, followed by significant overlaps between the Gujjar and Kashmiri communities. The close affinity observed between the Gujjar and Pahari groups suggests the horizontal pattern of local plant knowledge between these communities, influenced by their sociocultural interactions and intermarriages. Notably, the Pahari community displayed a rich understanding of medicinal plants and shared unique uses for the reported taxa. This study affirms that both ecological factors and sociocultural influences have played significant roles in shaping local plant knowledge. A total of 31 plant species have been identified as plant cultural markers among all four ethnic groups. We observed a positive correlation between plant cultural values and plant use with the Gujjar and Kashmiri ethnic groups. Artemisia absinthium reported the highest use value of (0.57) with use reports of (189). Adonis aestivalis, Cynoglossum nervosum, Geum elatum, Geranium himalayense, Juncus inflexus, Oxalis acetosella, Polygonatum biflorum, and Salvia hians from the Himalayan region are among the plant taxa whose ethnomedicinal applications are described here for the first time.

CONCLUSION

Our data show that local and indigenous forest knowledge and practices could significantly contribute to forest conservation and ecological transition. This may happen if stakeholders generate clear frameworks and biocultural conservation strategies aimed at both dynamically preserve natural habitats and ways of traditional management of local natural resources.

The local medicinal plant knowledge in Kashmir Western Himalaya: a way to foster ecological transition via community-centred health seeking strategies

BACKGROUND

The mountainous region of Kashmir is a biodiversity hotspot, with diverse local communities and a rich cultural history linked to nature. Mountain ecosystems are highly vulnerable to climate change. This study emphasises the need to record the indigenous ethnoecological knowledge of wild plants used for the treatment of various ailments at higher elevations in remote areas where globalisation poses a threat to this traditional knowledge.

METHODS

The field survey was carried out in 2020-2022, to collect data on wild medicinal plants. Informants were selected randomly to collect indigenous medicinal knowledge using semi-structured interviews and group discussions. Various quantitative indices were employed to evaluate ethnomedicinal data.

RESULTS

A total of 110 medicinal plants belonging to 49 families were recorded in the study area. These medicinal plants are extensively used by local communities for the treatment of 20 major disease categories. Asteraceae was the dominant family contributing (9.09%) to medicinal plants, followed by Polygonaceae (8.18%), Apiaceae (7.27%), Lamiaceae (5.45%), and Ranunculaceae (5.45%). We observed 166 remedies were used for the treatment of various diseases in humans, and 9 remedies were used for animals. The most frequently used medicinal remedy was tea or decoction (30.91%). Among the medicinal plants, herbs (85.5%) were most frequently used by the local populations of Kashmir, whereas leaves (10.26%) were used for the treatment of various ailments. Out of 110 species, 31 were endemic, 15 of which are endemic to the Kashmir region and 16 to the Western Himalaya. The highest RFC value was reported for Allium humile (0.77), the highest UV value for Fritillaria cirrhosa (1.33), and the highest ICF value for gastro-intestinal/digestive disorders (0.85).

CONCLUSIONS

Local communities still rely on wild medicinal plants for primary healthcare. These communities retained valuable indigenous knowledge, which needs to be preserved for the conservation and sustainable utilisation of natural resources. Further field exploration is required to fully explore indigenous knowledge in the mountainous regions of Kashmir, and this knowledge has the potential to support the ongoing ecological transition.

Taxus wallichiana Zucc. (Himalayan Yew): A Medicinal Plant Exhibiting Antibacterial Properties

Taxus wallichiana Zucc. or the Himalayan yew is a gymnosperm growing along the Himalayan region of India and adjacent countries. Traditionally, this plant was extensively used by indigenous people for folk medicines for treating various diseases such as fever, headache, diarrhoea, fractures, problems of the nervous system etc. It is also practiced in the Unani system of medicine. The plant is rich in various bio-organic compounds and natural products, such as hydrocarbons, glycosides, flavonoids, phenol, tannins, terpenoids etc. In this research work, an effort has been made to highlight the valuable properties of T. wallichiana. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the secondary metabolites (flavonoids, glycosides, phenols, saponins, tannins, terpenoids) and antibacterial potential of methanol extracts and the subsequent fractions of the leaves and fruit of Taxus wallichiana Zucc. In order to rationalise traditional use, methanol extracts from the leaves and fruit of Taxus wallichiana Zucc. were tested against five bacteria using the agar well diffusion method. Ciprofloxacin was used as a standard. All extracts and fractions displayed significant anti-microbial effects. Taxus wallichiana leaves and fruit methanolic extracts showed a maximum zone of inhibition with Bacillus subtilis, which is 18 ± 0.0 mm, and Staphylococcus aureus, 19 ± 0.2 mm. The methanolic extracts of the leaves of Taxus wallichiana tested positive for glycosides, flavonoids, phenol, tannins and terpenoids, whereas the T. wallichiana fruit tested positive for flavonoids, saponins and terpenoids. According to the research findings, it was identified that the methanol extract of Taxus wallichiana exhibited quite high anti-microbial activity as well as secondary metabolites, and with this quality, together with lots of its other values, this plant can very well become a source of medicine for the better management of a large number of diseases, including cancer, and value-added products.

Advances in Ecosystem Services Valuation Studies in India: Learnings from a Systematic Review

Ecosystem services (ES) concept has gained global momentum as they hold immense importance for human well-being. On the other hand, direct and indirect drivers of biodiversity loss have led to deterioration of ecosystem health and their capacity to deliver ecosystem services. Worldwide, ES assessments have been increasingly used by administrators to formulate sustainable and environment centric policies. Similarly, there has been continuous expansion of ES related work in India to capture the material and non-material benefits derived from diverse ecosystems in the country. In the current paper, 105 research articles/reports have been reviewed to assess the growing trajectory of ES research and also to map their methodological approaches. The lacunae in the studies and literature have been critically examined. Analysis of the study shows that ES derived from forests have been captured widely while marine ecosystems have not received appropriate scholarly attention. Similarly, dearth of studies focusing on long- and short-term implications of climate change and other environmental challenges on the ES delivery was also evident. A strong need is felt to integrate interdisciplinary approaches for holistic ES assessment. Also, future ES assessments must assimilate traditional as well as indigenous knowledge systems within ES assessment framework to ensure formulation of tangible, sustainable policies.

Taneyan Lanjang Shared Home Gardens and Sustainable Rural Livelihoods of Ethnic Madurese in Madura Island, Indonesia

The ethnic Madurese are among the top five most populous ethnic groups in Indonesia. Their traditional settlements have a special design called Taneyan Lanjang (TL). TL settlements consist of several elements, which are arranged in a specific pattern that is affected by local and Islamic culture. The gardening space of a TL settlement—here referred to as the shared home garden (SHG)—is shared by several family households. The ethnic Madurese apply traditional knowledge to manage their home gardens. This study investigated the features of TLs and SHGs, mostly in relation to cultural matters, the utilization of plants, management based on local knowledge, and their contribution to rural livelihoods. The study area consisted of the four regencies of Madura Island, Indonesia. A total of 200 TL settlements were observed, and 4 key informants and 400 respondents who were engaged in TL were questioned through in-depth interviews. The plant species cultivated in the SHGs were recorded and identified according to the database of The Plant List. In total, 108 plant species within 40 plant families were recorded. Fabaceae had the highest number of species, with 10 species (9.26%), most of which are used as food (65.7%). We identified and characterized the most important services and functions provided by SHGs to rural livelihoods that directly benefit rural communities.

A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Plant Resources among Five Ethnic Groups in the Western Himalayan Region of Jammu and Kashmir

Simple Summary

For generations, local ethnic communities have amassed a vast body of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) on the use of plant resources. Ethnobiologists have recently focused on cross-cultural studies in order to record and measure the processes guiding the evolution of TEK within a specific society; both to preserve it and use it sustainably in the future. The current study documents the TEK of plant resources from five ethnic communities of the Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) region, Western Himalayas. Through semi-structured interviews and group discussions, we recorded a total of 127 plant species used by local ethnic groups for various provisioning services (i.e., medicine, food, fodder, fuelwood, herbal tea) and/or with spiritual significance. Across the ethnic groups, Gujjar reported the highest number of plants (25% species), followed by Pahari (24% species), and the lowest number of plants were reported by Dogra (12% species). Looking at plant uses among different cultural groups, we discovered that, especially, some ritual practices were associated with specific plants. We found a relatively high overlap in the use of specific plants among the ethnic groups, namely Gujjar, Bakarwal, and Pahari. Certain species were found to be common in all cultures due to their food value. The current study is a collaborative effort that includes not only documenting, but also cross-cultural comparisons of the documented species, in order to better understand the diverse traditional plant usage systems. This will not only increase regional understanding of cross-cultural ethnobotany, but it will also open opportunities for local people to be rewarded for promoting and celebrating their expertise and participating in future development activities.

Abstract

Plant resources have always been valuable in human life, and many plant species are used in medicine, food, and ritual, and resource utilization is closely related to cultural diversity. Our study was conducted from June 2019 to April 2021, during which we aimed to document the local knowledge of plant resources of five ethnic groups, i.e., the Gujjar, Bakarwal, Kashmiri, Pahari, and Dogra communities of the Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) region, Western Himalayas. Through semi-structured interviews (N = 342) and group discussions (N = 38), we collected data on the ethnobotanical uses of plant resources. The data was subjected to hierarchical cluster analysis and ordination techniques (Principal Component Analysis) via, R software of version 4.0.0. Traditional uses were classified into three groups, i.e., single-, double-, and multi-use groups. The study recorded a total of 127 plant species, belonging to 113 genera and distributed among 64 botanical families. The dominant plant families were the Asteraceae, with 8% of all species, followed by Lamiaceae (6%), Polygonaceae (5%) and Ranunculaceae (4%). The recorded plant taxa were frequently used for medicine (51.4% responses), followed by food (14.9%), and fodder (9.5%). Principal component analysis (PCA) separated three groups of provisioning services depending on plant consumption preference levels. Comparative analysis showed remarkable similarities in plant uses (food, medicinal) among the Gujjar and Bakarwal ethnic groups, as both groups share a common culture. Some plants like Azadirachta indica, Brassica campestris, Ulmus wallichiana, Amaranthus blitum, and Celtis australis were also used for magico-religious purposes. We also recorded some medicinal uses that are new to the ethnobotanical literature of the J&K Himalayas, such as for Betula utilis, Sambucus wightiana, and Dolomiaea macrocephala, in our case for example local medicinal recipe, which is derived from Dolomiaea macrocephala, often known as Nashasta, used to treat weakness, back pain, and joint pain. Similarly, we also recorded new food uses for Eremurus himalaicus. Moreover, we also observed some plants for instance, Fragaria nubicola, Betula utilis and Juniperus communis have spiritual significance (i.e., amulets and scrolls) for this part of the Himalayan region. The present study provides a useful tool for resource management and can help in developing scientifically informed strategies for the conservation of plant resources.

Traditions for Future Cross-National Food Security-Food and Foraging Practices among Different Native Communities in the Western Himalayas

Simple Summary

Biological and cultural history is linked with neglected and underused species (NUS). Wild food plants and animals have been the focus of important investigations carried out around the world in recent decades, and it is seen as a key issue in the fight against hunger and malnutrition. In this study, we assessed the effect of geographical, political, social and economic scenarios of neighboring countries that have led to different food and foraging practices in the erstwhile princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. We recorded 209 species, broadly classified into plants (n = 152) and animals (n = 57), used by the local people from four biogeographic regions (Kashmir, Jammu, Azad Kashmir and Ladakh) of erstwhile princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. Among wild flora, 139 vascular plants and 13 mushrooms were used by the indigenous communities, whereas in the case of wild fauna, 14 mammals, 22 birds and 21 fishes were used. The Jammu and Kashmir regions showed greater similarity, whereas the least overlap was observed between the Jammu and Ladakh regions. A cross-cultural comparison of wild food resources showed that maximum overlapping was observed in plant resources, and minimum in animals between the four regions of the study area. The usage of different wild foods is also dependent on seasonality. Wild animals and birds are preferred as food in the winter season. However, in the warm months of the year, plants and fish were preferred during the summer season due to their easy accessibility, and they replace the requirement of animals during the warm months of the year. The results of the current study show that the geopolitical scenario in this region has also affected the usage of different animal and plant species for food in the historically unified region of Jammu and Kashmir. This is one of the first comprehensive studies that document the wild food heritage essential for future projects aimed at fostering conservation, environmental sustainability, food security and climate change.

Abstract

Traditional diets exist in all cultures and geographic regions, and they often represent healthy eating options. Traditional culinary preparations have, however, often undergone profound change, even in the isolated Himalayan region. Therefore, we adapted methods to identify traditional plant foraging activities to better understand their significance in food system sustainability, as well as to promote innovative local gastronomies. Information on wild food and foraging practices was gathered from varied ethnic groups such as Kashmiri, Gujjars, Pahari, Dogra, Bakarwal, Balti, Beda and Brokpa through interviews (n = 716) and group discussions (n = 67) in four bio-geographic regions of the Jammu and Kashmir Himalayas (J&KH). The data were subjected to ordination techniques (Principal Component Analysis) via R software Ver. 4.0.0. We documented 209 food species, of which 73% were plants and 27% animals, used by the inhabitants of four bio-geographic regions of J&KH. The highest number of food plant species was recorded in Indian Kashmir, followed by Jammu, Azad Kashmir and Ladakh (81, 65, 60 and 27 species, respectively), and the maximum number of animal species was reported in Indian Kashmir, followed by Azad Kashmir, Ladakh and Jammu (33, 21, 19 and 17 species, respectively). The Azad Kashmir and Indian Kashmir regions showed greater similarity, whereas the least overlap was observed between Kashmir and Ladakh. The PCA showed considerable variation between different regions, and specific groups of species were more related to one specific region than others. The reported uses of Abies pindrow, Acacia modesta, Bergenia ciliata, Bergenia stracheyi and Juglans regia among plants, and Jynx torquilla, Streptopelia orientalis and Tadorna ferruginea among animals, are novel for the gastronomy of this part of the Himalayan region. We also recorded for the first time from this region seven unique food preparations of wild animals. This study documented extensive traditional knowledge on the usage of wild species, and is the first scientific description of wild food species and their vernacular names in the Western Himalayas, Jammu and Kashmir. Our findings can contribute significantly to combating food insecurity by revitalizing and reconsidering the rich bio-cultural food heritage around which local traditional communities have developed their food systems.

Temporal assessment of the medicinal plants trade in public markets of the state of Paraíba, northeastern Brazil

BACKGROUND

Open and public markets are the main providers of medicinal plants in urban environments. The present study evaluated the medicinal plants sold in public markets in different municipalities in the mesoregions of the state of Paraíba, northeast of Brazil, and the possible variations in the supply of these plants in the markets over the course of a year.

METHODS

Interviews with medicinal plant traders were conducted in four mesoregions of different climatic and phytophysiognomic characteristics (ranging from Caatinga to Atlantic Forest). The versatility of the species sold was elucidated using the relative importance (RI) index, and the set of species sold by each informant in each mesoregion was compared with each other by one-way Anosim  and by the analysis of main coordinates.

RESULTS

Thirty-five plant traders identified 163 medicinal plant species (151 genders and 76 families) and more 17 non identified species. The most frequent families were Fabaceae (19 species), Asteraceae (12), Lamiaceae (11), and Myrtaceae (6). Punica granatum, Zingiber officinale, and Myracrodruon urundeuva were the species with the highest RI. The analysis of similarity showed distinct differences between the Sertão and all other mesoregions. The Agreste, an ecotone area, was also the area where more species of other regions was found. The absence of 88 species in at least one of the trading locations at some stage of the fieldwork was recorded.

CONCLUSIONS

The presence and absence of the commercialized species do not seem to be related to the period of the year or the mesoregion. There were differences in the inventory of plants commercialized in markets in recent years. We identified an intermediate zone of knowledge and use of species commercialized between the studied localities.

Plant Resources Utilization among Different Ethnic Groups of Ladakh in Trans-Himalayan Region

Simple Summary

Indigenous communities are a large resource of increasingly endangered, traditionally used medicinal plants and the associated ecological knowledge, which needs to be documented quickly as the base to establish sustainable livelihoods and healthcare systems. Through the interaction of indigenous knowledge, biodiversity, and the surrounding environment, these communities have developed their livelihoods over time. In this study, we tried to obtain an in-depth understanding of ethnomedicinal, cultural, and ritual perspectives on plant diversity in the Ladakh region and evaluated how the wild flora of Ladakh could improve local livelihoods and alleviate poverty. By surveying and applying open- and close-ended semi-structured interviews and group discussions in three communities, we documented 105 ethnobotanically important plants belonging to 39 families. The Balti and Brokpa ethnic groups showed greater similarity, whereas the least overlap in plant use was observed between Beda and Brokpa. Plants common to all cultures were mostly used for medicinal applications, while some were also used for religious purposes in the two major religions (Islam and Buddhism). A total of 37 species were shared by all cultures (Balti, Brokpa, and Beda). The cluster analysis elucidated three major clusters of different ethnobotanical usage. The first cluster included food and medicinal plants, the second included clusters of dye and flavor plants, and the third included plants used for fragrance, oil, fuel wood, and fodder. Plant parts were collected based on their availability in distinct pheno-phases according to the Tibetan traditional calendar. This study’s findings revealed that plants provide tangible economic benefits to indigenous communities, in addition to aiding in the treatment of various ailments. Sustainable use and management of wild resources can help improve livelihoods and food security and alleviate poverty.

Abstract

The nomadic pastoral indigenous communities of the Ladakhi people share roots with Tibetan culture in terms of food, clothing, religion, festivals, and habits, and rely widely on plant resources for survival and livelihood. This survey was conducted during 2019–2021 to document the indigenous knowledge about plant resources of the Balti, Beda, and Brokpa communities of the Ladakh region, trans-Himalayas. Open- and close-ended semi-structured interviews (N = 184) and group discussions (N = 17) were used to collect the data. Quantitative data was further analyzed using various statistical tools. A total of 105 plant species belonging to 82 genera and 39 families were used as medicine, fuel wood, fragrance, oil, food, flavor, fodder, decoration, and dye. Among these, medicinal use was most prevalent, with 70% of use reports, followed by fodder and fuel wood. Leaves (27%) were the most preferred plant part used, followed by roots and flowers. The principal component analysis revealed five clusters of ethnobotanical usage, i.e., food, medicine, fuel wood, fodder, and fragrance, oil, dye, and flavor. The maximum number of plant species used was reported by the Brokpa, while the Beda reported the minimum number of plant species uses. Delphinium brunonianum, Waldheimia tomentosa, and Juniperus indica played a significant role in the cultural and religious ritual aspects, whereas Allium przewalskianum, Waldheimia tomentosa, Juniperus indica, and Hippophae rhamnoides were commonly used as a livelihood source among Ladakhi communities. The local people collected most plants (65%) for self-consumption, while the rest (35%) were sold in markets as a source of income. The sustainable utilization and management of plant resources by local people is a strategy to boost livelihoods and food security and alleviate poverty.

Ethnochemometric of plants traditionally utilised as local detergents in the forest dependent culture

The purpose of this study is to access the existing awareness of nearly forgotten Thai detergent plants by the use of chemometrics tool. A Northern Thai forest dependent community was chosen as it played vital role on knowledge retaining of plant utilisations. For initial perception, ethnobotanical survey was conducted to determine usage of plants by the community. Then the utilised plant parts were screened for phytochemicals and their relationships with the defined cleansing terms (viz., shampoo, scrub, detergent, soap, scent and spiritual) were analysed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA). From the results, the most cited plants as known, used and found were Acacia concinna, Clitoria ternetea, Oryza sativa and Citrus hystrix. Biometric analyses advised that knowledge of detergent plant utilisation was well preserved at all age ranges and it was not variable with genders. Cluster analysis described that term 'spiritual' was not narrated with cleansing properties. For phytochemical analysis, plant extracts showed positive variable of bioactive ingredients and the main compounds in the extracts was saponins. These findings confirmed that the knowledge of indigenous plant utilisation was reserved by the forest dependent community and the information is beneficial toward local plant conservation movement.

Plant diversity of the Kangchenjunga Landscape, Eastern Himalayas

The Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL) in the Eastern Himalayas is a transboundary complex shared by Bhutan, India, and Nepal. It forms a part of the 'Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot' and is one of the biologically richest landscapes in the Eastern Himalayas. In this paper, we use secondary information to review and consolidate the knowledge on the flora of the KL. We reviewed 215 journal articles, analysed the history of publications on the flora of the KL, their publication pattern in terms of temporal and spatial distribution and key research areas. Our review shows that the landscape has a long history of botanical research that dates back to the 1840s and progressed remarkably after the 1980s. Most of the studies have been carried out in India, followed by Nepal and Bhutan. The majority of these have been vegetation surveys, followed by research on ethnobotanical aspects and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). This paper describes the forest types and characteristic species of the KL and details the species richness, diversity and dominant families of seed plants. A total of 5198 species of seed plants belonging to 1548 genera and 216 families have been recorded from the landscape, including 3860 dicots, 1315 monocots and 23 gymnosperms. Among families, Orchidaceae is the most diversely represented family in terms of species richness. This paper also draws attention to the threatened and endemic flora of the KL, including 44 species that are threatened at national and global level and 182 species that are endemic. Finally, the paper reviews the major challenges facing the KL, the conservation efforts and practices that are currently in place and recommends systematic and comprehensive floral surveys, particularly long-term data collection and monitoring and transboundary collaboration, to address the existing knowledge gaps on floral diversity of the KL.