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Zhang Y, Li T, Miao J, Zhang Z, Yang M, Wang Z, Yang B, Zhang J, Li H, Su Q, Guo J. Gamma-glutamyl transferase 5 overexpression in cerebrovascular endothelial cells improves brain pathology, cognition, and behavior in APP/PS1 mice. Neural Regen Res 2025; 20:533-547. [PMID: 38819065 PMCID: PMC11317949 DOI: 10.4103/nrr.nrr-d-23-01525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
JOURNAL/nrgr/04.03/01300535-202502000-00030/figure1/v/2024-05-28T214302Z/r/image-tiff In patients with Alzheimer's disease, gamma-glutamyl transferase 5 (GGT5) expression has been observed to be downregulated in cerebrovascular endothelial cells. However, the functional role of GGT5 in the development of Alzheimer's disease remains unclear. This study aimed to explore the effect of GGT5 on cognitive function and brain pathology in an APP/PS1 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease, as well as the underlying mechanism. We observed a significant reduction in GGT5 expression in two in vitro models of Alzheimer's disease (Aβ1-42-treated hCMEC/D3 and bEnd.3 cells), as well as in the APP/PS1 mouse model. Additionally, injection of APP/PS1 mice with an adeno-associated virus encoding GGT5 enhanced hippocampal synaptic plasticity and mitigated cognitive deficits. Interestingly, increasing GGT5 expression in cerebrovascular endothelial cells reduced levels of both soluble and insoluble amyloid-β in the brains of APP/PS1 mice. This effect may be attributable to inhibition of the expression of β-site APP cleaving enzyme 1, which is mediated by nuclear factor-kappa B. Our findings demonstrate that GGT5 expression in cerebrovascular endothelial cells is inversely associated with Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis, and that GGT5 upregulation mitigates cognitive deficits in APP/PS1 mice. These findings suggest that GGT5 expression in cerebrovascular endothelial cells is a potential therapeutic target and biomarker for Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanli Zhang
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China
- Department of Neurology, Sixth Hospital of Shanxi Medical University (General Hospital of Tisco), Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Tian Li
- Department of Physiology, Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Ministry of Education, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Jie Miao
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Zhina Zhang
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Mingxuan Yang
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Zhuoran Wang
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Bo Yang
- Department of Hernia and Abdominal Wall Surgery, Shanxi Bethune Hospital, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Tongji Shanxi Hospital, Third Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Jiawei Zhang
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Haiting Li
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Qiang Su
- Department of Physiology, Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Ministry of Education, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China
- Department of Laboratory Medicine of Fenyang College, Shanxi Medical University, Fenyang, Shanxi Province, China
| | - Junhong Guo
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China
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2
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Baumann HM, Mobley DL. Impact of protein conformations on binding free energy calculations in the beta-secretase 1 system. J Comput Chem 2024; 45:2024-2033. [PMID: 38725239 PMCID: PMC11236511 DOI: 10.1002/jcc.27365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 01/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
In binding free energy calculations, simulations must sample all relevant conformations of the system in order to obtain unbiased results. For instance, different ligands can bind to different metastable states of a protein, and if these protein conformational changes are not sampled in relative binding free energy calculations, the contribution of these states to binding is not accounted for and thus calculated binding free energies are inaccurate. In this work, we investigate the impact of different beta-sectretase 1 (BACE1) protein conformations obtained from x-ray crystallography on the binding of BACE1 inhibitors. We highlight how these conformational changes are not adequately sampled in typical molecular dynamics simulations. Furthermore, we show that insufficient sampling of relevant conformations induces substantial error in relative binding free energy calculations, as judged by a variation in calculated relative binding free energies up to 2 kcal/mol depending on the starting protein conformation. These results emphasize the importance of protein conformational sampling and pose this BACE1 system as a challenge case for further method development in the area of enhanced protein conformational sampling, either in combination with binding calculations or as an endpoint correction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah M Baumann
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - David L Mobley
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
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3
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Rajani RM, Ellingford R, Hellmuth M, Harris SS, Taso OS, Graykowski D, Lam FKW, Arber C, Fertan E, Danial JSH, Swire M, Lloyd M, Giovannucci TA, Bourdenx M, Klenerman D, Vassar R, Wray S, Sala Frigerio C, Busche MA. Selective suppression of oligodendrocyte-derived amyloid beta rescues neuronal dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease. PLoS Biol 2024; 22:e3002727. [PMID: 39042667 PMCID: PMC11265669 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3002727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Reduction of amyloid beta (Aβ) has been shown to be effective in treating Alzheimer's disease (AD), but the underlying assumption that neurons are the main source of pathogenic Aβ is untested. Here, we challenge this prevailing belief by demonstrating that oligodendrocytes are an important source of Aβ in the human brain and play a key role in promoting abnormal neuronal hyperactivity in an AD knock-in mouse model. We show that selectively suppressing oligodendrocyte Aβ production improves AD brain pathology and restores neuronal function in the mouse model in vivo. Our findings suggest that targeting oligodendrocyte Aβ production could be a promising therapeutic strategy for treating AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rikesh M. Rajani
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Robert Ellingford
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mariam Hellmuth
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Samuel S. Harris
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Orjona S. Taso
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - David Graykowski
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Francesca Kar Wey Lam
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Charles Arber
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, University College London Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Emre Fertan
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - John S. H. Danial
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews, St. Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Swire
- Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marcus Lloyd
- Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Tatiana A. Giovannucci
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, University College London Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mathieu Bourdenx
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - David Klenerman
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Robert Vassar
- Department of Neurology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Selina Wray
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, University College London Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Carlo Sala Frigerio
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marc Aurel Busche
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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Tan S, Wu L, Liu J, Wu Z, Cheng Q, Qu Q, Zhu L, Yan Y, Wu H, Ling TJ, Liu RT, Yang S. Quercetin-3-O-glc-1-3-rham-1-6-glucoside decreases Aβ production, inhibits Aβ aggregation and neurotoxicity, and prohibits the production of inflammatory cytokines. Eur J Pharmacol 2024; 970:176491. [PMID: 38503399 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.176491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease with the hallmark of aggregation of beta-amyloid (Aβ) into extracellular fibrillar deposition. Accumulating evidence suggests that soluble toxic Aβ oligomers exert diverse roles in neuronal cell death, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and the eventual pathogenesis of AD. Aβ is derived from the sequential cleavage of amyloid-β precursor protein (APP) by β-secretase (BACE1) and γ-secretase. The current effect of single targeting is not ideal for the treatment of AD. Therefore, developing multipotent agents with multiple properties, including anti-Aβ generation and anti-Aβ aggregation, is attracting more attention for AD treatment. Previous studies indicated that Quercetin was able to attenuate the effects of several pathogenetic factors in AD. Here, we showed that naturally synthesized Quercetin-3-O-glc-1-3-rham-1-6-glucoside (YCC31) could inhibit Aβ production by reducing β-secretase activity. Further investigations indicated that YCC31 could suppress toxic Aβ oligomer formation by directly binding to Aβ. Moreover, YCC31 could attenuate Aβ-mediated neuronal death, ROS and NO production, and pro-inflammatory cytokines release. Taken together, YCC31 targeting multiple pathogenetic factors deserves further investigation for drug development of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Tan
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Linmei Wu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Jiayi Liu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Zhaoyuan Wu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Qiang Cheng
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Qiuhao Qu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Lianghao Zhu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Yizhu Yan
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Hao Wu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Tie-Jun Ling
- State Key Laboratory of Tea Plant Biology and Utilization, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Rui-Tian Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China.
| | - Shigao Yang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China.
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Abdallah AE. Review on anti-alzheimer drug development: approaches, challenges and perspectives. RSC Adv 2024; 14:11057-11088. [PMID: 38586442 PMCID: PMC10995770 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra08333k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer is an irreversible progressive neurodegenerative disease that causes failure of cerebral neurons and disability of the affected person to practice normal daily life activities. There is no concrete evidence to identify the exact reason behind the disease, so several relevant hypotheses emerged, highlighting many possible therapeutic targets, such as acetylcholinesterase, cholinergic receptors, N-methyl d-aspartate receptors, phosphodiesterase, amyloid β protein, protein phosphatase 2A, glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta, β-secretase, γ-secretase, α-secretase, serotonergic receptors, glutaminyl cyclase, tumor necrosis factor-α, γ-aminobutyric acid receptors, and mitochondria. All of these targets have been involved in the design of new potential drugs. An extensive number of these drugs have been studied in clinical trials. However, only galantamine, donepezil, and rivastigmine (ChEIs), memantine (NMDA antagonist), and aducanumab and lecanemab (selective anti-Aβ monoclonal antibodies) have been approved for AD treatment. Many drugs failed in the clinical trials to such an extent that questions have been posed about the significance of some of the aforementioned targets. On the contrary, the data of other drugs were promising and shed light on the significance of their targets for the development of new potent anti-alzheimer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdallah E Abdallah
- Pharmaceutical Medicinal Chemistry & Drug Design Department, Faculty of Pharmacy (Boys), Al-Azhar University 11884 Cairo Egypt
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6
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Morgan DG, Lamb BT. Transgenic amyloid precursor protein mouse models of amyloidosis. Incomplete models for Alzheimer's disease but effective predictors of anti-amyloid therapies. Alzheimers Dement 2024; 20:1459-1464. [PMID: 38085800 PMCID: PMC10916971 DOI: 10.1002/alz.13566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Amyloid precursor protein (APP) transgenic mice are models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) amyloidosis, not all of AD. Diffuse, compacted, and vascular deposits in APP mice mimic those found in AD cases. METHODS Most interventional studies in APP mice start treatment early in the process of amyloid deposition, consistent with a prevention treatment regimen. Most clinical trials treat patients with established amyloid deposits in a therapeutic treatment regimen. RESULTS The first treatment to reduce amyloid and cognitive impairment in mice was immunotherapy. The APP mouse models not only predicted efficacy, but presaged the vascular leakage called ARIA. The recent immunotherapy clinical trials that removed amyloid and slowed cognitive decline confirms the utility of these early APP models when used in therapeutic designs. DISCUSSION New mouse models of AD pathologies will add to the research armamentarium, but the early models have accurately predicted responses to amyloid therapies in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- David G. Morgan
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, and Alzheimer's AllianceCollege of Human MedicineMichigan State UniversityGrand RapidsMichiganUSA
| | - Bruce T. Lamb
- Department of Medical and Molecular GeneticsStark Neurosciences Research InstituteIndianapolisIndianaUSA
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Yi L, Luo M, Wang M, Dong Z, Du Y. Fangchinoline alleviates cognitive impairments through enhancing autophagy and mitigating oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease models. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1288506. [PMID: 38146492 PMCID: PMC10749363 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1288506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating, progressive, neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides and subsequent oxidative stress, resulting in a cascade of cytotoxic effects. Fangchinoline (Fan), a bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid isolated from traditional Chinese herb Stephania tetrandra S. Moorec, has been reported to possess multiple potent biological activities, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. However, the potential neuroprotective efficacy of Fan against AD remains unknown. Methods: N2AAPP cells, the mouse neuroblastoma N2A cells stably transfected with human Swedish mutant APP695, were served as an in vitro AD model. A mouse model of AD was constructed by microinjection of Aβ1-42 peptides into lateral ventricle of WT mice. The neuroprotective effects of Fan on AD were investigated through a combination of Western blot analysis, immunoprecipitation and behavioral assessments. Results and discussion: It was found that Fan effectively attenuated the amyloidogenic processing of APP by augmenting autophagy and subsequently fostering lysosomal degradation of BACE1 in N2AAPP cells, as reflected by the decrease in P62 levels, concomitant with the increase in Beclin-1 and LC3-II levels. More importantly, Fan significantly ameliorated cognitive impairment in an Aβ1-42-induced mouse model of AD via the induction of autophagy and the inhibition of oxidative stress, as evidenced by an increase in antioxidants including glutathione reductase (GR), total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), and superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD-1) and a decrease in pro-oxidants including hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (i-NOS), coupled with a reduction in apoptosis marker, cleaved caspase-3. Taken together, our study demonstrate that Fan ameliorates cognitive dysfunction through promoting autophagy and mitigating oxidative stress, making it a potential therapeutic agent for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilin Yi
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Pediatric Research Institute, Children’s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Man Luo
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Pediatric Research Institute, Children’s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Maoju Wang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Pediatric Research Institute, Children’s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhifang Dong
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Pediatric Research Institute, Children’s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Institute for Brain Science and Disease of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yehong Du
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Pediatric Research Institute, Children’s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
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8
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Fronza MG, Alves D, Praticò D, Savegnago L. The neurobiology and therapeutic potential of multi-targeting β-secretase, glycogen synthase kinase 3β and acetylcholinesterase in Alzheimer's disease. Ageing Res Rev 2023; 90:102033. [PMID: 37595640 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2023.102033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, affecting almost 50 million of people around the world, characterized by a complex and age-related progressive pathology with projections to duplicate its incidence by the end of 2050. AD pathology has two major hallmarks, the amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides accumulation and tau hyperphosphorylation, alongside with several sub pathologies including neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, loss of neurogenesis and synaptic dysfunction. In recent years, extensive research pointed out several therapeutic targets which have shown promising effects on modifying the course of the disease in preclinical models of AD but with substantial failure when transposed to clinic trials, suggesting that modulating just an isolated feature of the pathology might not be sufficient to improve brain function and enhance cognition. In line with this, there is a growing consensus that an ideal disease modifying drug should address more than one feature of the pathology. Considering these evidence, β-secretase (BACE1), Glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) has emerged as interesting therapeutic targets. BACE1 is the rate-limiting step in the Aβ production, GSK-3β is considered the main kinase responsible for Tau hyperphosphorylation, and AChE play an important role in modulating memory formation and learning. However, the effects underlying the modulation of these enzymes are not limited by its primarily functions, showing interesting effects in a wide range of impaired events secondary to AD pathology. In this sense, this review will summarize the involvement of BACE1, GSK-3β and AChE on synaptic function, neuroplasticity, neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. Additionally, we will present and discuss new perspectives on the modulation of these pathways on AD pathology and future directions on the development of drugs that concomitantly target these enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana G Fronza
- Neurobiotechnology Research Group (GPN) - Centre for Technology Development CDTec, Federal University of Pelotas (UFPel), Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Diego Alves
- Laboratory of Clean Organic Synthesis (LASOL), Center for Chemical, Pharmaceutical and Food Sciences (CCQFA), UFPel, RS, Brazil
| | - Domenico Praticò
- Alzheimer's Center at Temple - ACT, Temple University, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Lucielli Savegnago
- Neurobiotechnology Research Group (GPN) - Centre for Technology Development CDTec, Federal University of Pelotas (UFPel), Pelotas, RS, Brazil.
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9
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Conte M, De Feo MS, Sidrak MMA, Corica F, Gorica J, Granese GM, Filippi L, De Vincentis G, Frantellizzi V. Imaging of Tauopathies with PET Ligands: State of the Art and Future Outlook. Diagnostics (Basel) 2023; 13:diagnostics13101682. [PMID: 37238166 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics13101682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Tauopathies are a group of diseases characterized by the deposition of abnormal tau protein. They are distinguished into 3R, 4R, and 3R/4R tauopathies and also include Alzheimer's disease (AD) and chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging represents a pivotal instrument to guide clinicians. This systematic review aims to summarize the current and novel PET tracers. (2) Methods: Literature research was conducted on Pubmed, Scopus, Medline, Central, and the Web of Science using the query "pet ligands" and "tauopathies". Articles published from January 2018 to 9 February, 2023, were searched. Only studies on the development of novel PET radiotracers for imaging in tauopathies or comparative studies between existing PET tracers were included. (3) Results: A total of 126 articles were found, as follows: 96 were identified from PubMed, 27 from Scopus, one on Central, two on Medline, and zero on the Web of Science. Twenty-four duplicated works were excluded, and 63 articles did not satisfy the inclusion criteria. The remaining 40 articles were included for quality assessment. (4) Conclusions: PET imaging represents a valid instrument capable of helping clinicians in diagnosis, but it is not always perfect in differential diagnosis, even if further investigations on humans for novel promising ligands are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Conte
- Department of Radiological Sciences, Oncology and Anatomo-Pathology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Silvia De Feo
- Department of Radiological Sciences, Oncology and Anatomo-Pathology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Marko Magdi Abdou Sidrak
- Department of Radiological Sciences, Oncology and Anatomo-Pathology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Ferdinando Corica
- Department of Radiological Sciences, Oncology and Anatomo-Pathology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Joana Gorica
- Department of Radiological Sciences, Oncology and Anatomo-Pathology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Giorgia Maria Granese
- Department of Radiological Sciences, Oncology and Anatomo-Pathology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Luca Filippi
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Santa Maria Goretti Hospital, 00410 Latina, Italy
| | - Giuseppe De Vincentis
- Department of Radiological Sciences, Oncology and Anatomo-Pathology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Viviana Frantellizzi
- Department of Radiological Sciences, Oncology and Anatomo-Pathology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy
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10
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Ulku I, Liebsch F, Akerman SC, Schulz JF, Kulic L, Hock C, Pietrzik C, Di Spiezio A, Thinakaran G, Saftig P, Multhaup G. Mechanisms of amyloid-β34 generation indicate a pivotal role for BACE1 in amyloid homeostasis. Sci Rep 2023; 13:2216. [PMID: 36750595 PMCID: PMC9905473 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-28846-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The beta‑site amyloid precursor protein (APP) cleaving enzyme (BACE1) was discovered due to its "amyloidogenic" activity which contributes to the production of amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptides. However, BACE1 also possesses an "amyloidolytic" activity, whereby it degrades longer Aβ peptides into a non‑toxic Aβ34 intermediate. Here, we examine conditions that shift the equilibrium between BACE1 amyloidogenic and amyloidolytic activities by altering BACE1/APP ratios. In Alzheimer disease brain tissue, we found an association between elevated levels of BACE1 and Aβ34. In mice, the deletion of one BACE1 gene copy reduced BACE1 amyloidolytic activity by ~ 50%. In cells, a stepwise increase of BACE1 but not APP expression promoted amyloidolytic cleavage resulting in dose-dependently increased Aβ34 levels. At the cellular level, a mislocalization of surplus BACE1 caused a reduction in Aβ34 levels. To align the role of γ-secretase in this pathway, we silenced Presenilin (PS) expression and identified PS2-γ-secretase as the main γ-secretase that generates Aβ40 and Aβ42 peptides serving as substrates for BACE1's amyloidolytic cleavage to generate Aβ34.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irem Ulku
- Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Filip Liebsch
- Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3G 0B1, Canada.,Department of Chemistry, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - S Can Akerman
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
| | - Jana F Schulz
- Institut Für Chemie Und Biochemie, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195, Berlin, Germany.,Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), 13125, Berlin, Germany
| | - Luka Kulic
- Roche Pharma Research & Early Development, F.Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., 4070, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Hock
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Un Iversity of Zurich, 8952, Schlieren, Switzerland.,Neurimmune AG, 8952, Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Claus Pietrzik
- Department Molecular Neurodegeneration, Institute of Pathobiochemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University of Mainz, Duesbergweg 6, 55099, Mainz, Germany
| | | | - Gopal Thinakaran
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Byrd Alzheimer's Institute, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33613, USA
| | - Paul Saftig
- Biochemisches Institut, CAU Kiel, Olshausenstr. 40, 24098, Kiel, Germany
| | - Gerhard Multhaup
- Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3G 0B1, Canada. .,Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada.
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Kirschenbaum D, Dadgar‐Kiani E, Catto F, Voigt FF, Trevisan C, Bichsel O, Shirani H, Nilsson KPR, Frontzek KJ, Paganetti P, Helmchen F, Lee JH, Aguzzi A. Whole-brain microscopy reveals distinct temporal and spatial efficacy of anti-Aβ therapies. EMBO Mol Med 2023; 15:e16789. [PMID: 36382364 PMCID: PMC9832821 DOI: 10.15252/emmm.202216789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Many efforts targeting amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques for the treatment of Alzheimer's Disease thus far have resulted in failures during clinical trials. Regional and temporal heterogeneity of efficacy and dependence on plaque maturity may have contributed to these disappointing outcomes. In this study, we mapped the regional and temporal specificity of various anti-Aβ treatments through high-resolution light-sheet imaging of electrophoretically cleared brains. We assessed the effect on amyloid plaque formation and growth in Thy1-APP/PS1 mice subjected to β-secretase inhibitors, polythiophenes, or anti-Aβ antibodies. Each treatment showed unique spatiotemporal Aβ clearance, with polythiophenes emerging as a potent anti-Aβ compound. Furthermore, aligning with a spatial-transcriptomic atlas revealed transcripts that correlate with the efficacy of each Aβ therapy. As observed in this study, there is a striking dependence of specific treatments on the location and maturity of Aβ plaques. This may also contribute to the clinical trial failures of Aβ-therapies, suggesting that combinatorial regimens may be significantly more effective in clearing amyloid deposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Kirschenbaum
- Institute of NeuropathologyUniversity Hospital ZurichUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | | | - Francesca Catto
- Institute of NeuropathologyUniversity Hospital ZurichUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Fabian F Voigt
- Laboratory of Neural Circuit Dynamics, Brain Research InstituteUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
- Neuroscience Center ZurichUniversity of Zurich & ETH ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Chiara Trevisan
- Institute of NeuropathologyUniversity Hospital ZurichUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Oliver Bichsel
- Institute of NeuropathologyUniversity Hospital ZurichUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Hamid Shirani
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Physics, Chemistry and BiologyLinköping UniversityLinköpingSweden
| | - K Peter R Nilsson
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Physics, Chemistry and BiologyLinköping UniversityLinköpingSweden
| | - Karl J Frontzek
- Institute of NeuropathologyUniversity Hospital ZurichUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Paolo Paganetti
- Laboratory for Biomedical NeurosciencesTorricella‐TaverneNeurocenter of Southern Switzerland, Ente Cantonale OspedalieroSwitzerland
- Faculty of Biomedical NeurosciencesUniversità della Svizzera ItalianaLuganoSwitzerland
| | - Fritjof Helmchen
- Laboratory of Neural Circuit Dynamics, Brain Research InstituteUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Jin Hyung Lee
- Department of BioengineeringStanford UniversityStanfordCAUSA
- Department of Neurology and Neurological SciencesStanford UniversityStanfordCAUSA
- Department of Electrical EngineeringStanford UniversityStanfordCAUSA
- Department of NeurosurgeryStanford UniversityStanfordCAUSA
| | - Adriano Aguzzi
- Institute of NeuropathologyUniversity Hospital ZurichUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
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12
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Experimental evidence for temporal uncoupling of brain Aβ deposition and neurodegenerative sequelae. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7333. [PMID: 36443293 PMCID: PMC9705543 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34538-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain Aβ deposition is a key early event in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer´s disease (AD), but the long presymptomatic phase and poor correlation between Aβ deposition and clinical symptoms remain puzzling. To elucidate the dependency of downstream pathologies on Aβ, we analyzed the trajectories of cerebral Aβ accumulation, Aβ seeding activity, and neurofilament light chain (NfL) in the CSF (a biomarker of neurodegeneration) in Aβ-precursor protein transgenic mice. We find that Aβ deposition increases linearly until it reaches an apparent plateau at a late age, while Aβ seeding activity increases more rapidly and reaches a plateau earlier, coinciding with the onset of a robust increase of CSF NfL. Short-term inhibition of Aβ generation in amyloid-laden mice reduced Aβ deposition and associated glial changes, but failed to reduce Aβ seeding activity, and CSF NfL continued to increase although at a slower pace. When short-term or long-term inhibition of Aβ generation was started at pre-amyloid stages, CSF NfL did not increase despite some Aβ deposition, microglial activation, and robust brain Aβ seeding activity. A dissociation of Aβ load and CSF NfL trajectories was also found in familial AD, consistent with the view that Aβ aggregation is not kinetically coupled to neurotoxicity. Rather, neurodegeneration starts when Aβ seeding activity is saturated and before Aβ deposition reaches critical (half-maximal) levels, a phenomenon reminiscent of the two pathogenic phases in prion disease.
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13
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Guanidine-based β amyloid precursor protein cleavage enzyme 1 (BACE-1) inhibitors for the Alzheimer's disease (AD): A review. Bioorg Med Chem 2022; 74:117047. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2022.117047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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14
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Blume T, Filser S, Sgobio C, Peters F, Neumann U, Shimshek D, Saito T, Saido TC, Brendel M, Herms J. β-secretase inhibition prevents structural spine plasticity deficits in AppNL-G-F mice. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:909586. [PMID: 35936777 PMCID: PMC9354544 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.909586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
All clinical BACE1-inhibitor trials for the treatment of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) have failed due to insufficient efficacy or side effects like worsening of cognitive symptoms. However, the scientific evidence to date suggests that BACE1-inhibition could be an effective preventative measure if applied prior to the accumulation of amyloid-beta (Aβ)-peptide and resultant impairment of synaptic function. Preclinical studies have associated BACE1-inhibition-induced cognitive deficits with decreased dendritic spine density. Therefore, we investigated dose-dependent effects of BACE1-inhibition on hippocampal dendritic spine dynamics in an APP knock-in mouse line for the first time. We conducted in vivo two-photon microscopy in the stratum oriens layer of hippocampal CA1 neurons in 3.5-month-old AppNL-G-FGFP-M mice over 6 weeks to monitor the effect of potential preventive treatment with a high and low dose of the BACE1-inhibitor NB-360 on dendritic spine dynamics. Structural spine plasticity was severely impaired in untreated AppNL-G-FGFP-M mice, although spines were not yet showing signs of degeneration. Prolonged high-dose BACE1-inhibition significantly enhanced spine formation, improving spine dynamics in the AD mouse model. We conclude that in an early AD stage characterized by low Aβ-accumulation and no irreversible spine loss, BACE1-inhibition could hold the progressive synapse loss and cognitive decline by improving structural spine dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Blume
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Munich, Germany
- Center for Neuropathology and Prion Research, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Severin Filser
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Carmelo Sgobio
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Munich, Germany
- Center for Neuropathology and Prion Research, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Ulf Neumann
- Department of Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Derya Shimshek
- Department of Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Takashi Saito
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan
- Department of Neurocognitive Science, Institute of Brain Science, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Aichi, Japan
| | - Takaomi C. Saido
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan
| | - Matthias Brendel
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology, Munich, Germany
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Munich, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Jochen Herms
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Munich, Germany
- Center for Neuropathology and Prion Research, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology, Munich, Germany
- *Correspondence: Jochen Herms
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15
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Rombouts FJR, Hsiao CC, Bache S, De Cleyn M, Heckmann P, Leenaerts J, Martinéz-Lamenca C, Van Brandt S, Peschiulli A, Vos A, Gijsen HJM. Modulating physicochemical properties of tetrahydropyridine-2-amine BACE1 inhibitors with electron-withdrawing groups: A systematic study. Eur J Med Chem 2022; 228:114028. [PMID: 34920170 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.114028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A common challenge for medicinal chemists is to reduce the pKa of strongly basic groups' conjugate acids into a range that preserves the desired effects, usually potency and/or solubility, but avoids undesired effects like high volume of distribution (Vd), limited membrane permeation, and off-target binding to, notably, the hERG channel and monoamine receptors. We faced this challenge with a 3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyridine-2-amine scaffold harboring an amidine, a key structural component of potential inhibitors of BACE1, the rate-limiting enzyme in the production of Aβ species that make up amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease. In our endeavor to balance potency with desirable properties to achieve brain penetration, we introduced a diverse set of groups in beta position of the amidine that modulate logD, PSA and pKa. Given the synthetic challenge to prepare these highly functionalized warheads, we first developed a design flow including predicted physicochemical parameters which allowed us to select only the most promising candidates for synthesis. For this we evaluated a set of commercial packages to predict physicochemical properties, which can guide medicinal chemists in their endeavors to modulate pKa values of amidine and amine bases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chien-Chi Hsiao
- Janssen Research & Development, Turnhoutseweg 30, B-2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Solène Bache
- Janssen Research & Development, Turnhoutseweg 30, B-2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Michel De Cleyn
- Janssen Research & Development, Turnhoutseweg 30, B-2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Pauline Heckmann
- Janssen Research & Development, Turnhoutseweg 30, B-2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Jos Leenaerts
- Janssen Research & Development, Turnhoutseweg 30, B-2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | | | - Sven Van Brandt
- Janssen Research & Development, Turnhoutseweg 30, B-2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Aldo Peschiulli
- Janssen Research & Development, Turnhoutseweg 30, B-2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Ann Vos
- Janssen Research & Development, Turnhoutseweg 30, B-2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Harrie J M Gijsen
- Janssen Research & Development, Turnhoutseweg 30, B-2340, Beerse, Belgium
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16
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Fronza MG, Baldinotti R, Fetter J, Rosa SG, Sacramento M, Nogueira CW, Alves D, Praticò D, Savegnago L. Beneficial effects of QTC-4-MeOBnE in an LPS-induced mouse model of depression and cognitive impairments: The role of blood-brain barrier permeability, NF-κB signaling, and microglial activation. Brain Behav Immun 2022; 99:177-191. [PMID: 34624485 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2021.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical and preclinical investigations have suggested a possible biological link betweenmajor depressive disorder (MDD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Therefore, a pharmacologic approach to treating MDD could be envisioned as a preventative therapy for some AD cases. In line with this, 1-(7-chloroquinolin-4-yl)-N-(4-methoxybenzyl)-5-methyl-1H-1,2,3-triazole-4 carboxamide (QTC-4-MeOBnE) is characterized as an inhibitor of β-secretase, glycogen synthase kinase 3β, and acetylcholinesterase and has also shown secondary effects underlying the modulation of neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity pathways. Therefore, we investigated the effects of QTC-4-MeOBnE treatment (0.1 or 1 mg/kg) on depressive-like behavior and cognitive impairments elicited by repeated injections of lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 250 μg/kg) in mice. Injections of LPS for seven days led to memory impairments and depressive-like behavior, as evidenced in the Y-maze/object recognition test and forced swimming/splash tests, respectively. However, these impairments were prevented in mice that, after the last LPS injection, were also treated with QTC-4-MeOBnE (1 mg/kg). This effect was associated with restoring blood-brain barrier permeability, reducing oxidative/nitrosative biomarkers, and decreasing neuroinflammation mediated NF-κB signaling in the hippocampus and cortex of the mice. To further investigate the involvement with NF-κB signaling, we evaluated the effects of QTC-4-MeOBnE on microglial cell activation through canonical and non-canonical pathways and the modulation of the involved components. Together, our findings highlight the pharmacological benefits of QTC-4-MeOBnE in a mouse model of sickness behavior and memory impairments, supporting the novel concept that since this molecule produces anti-depressant activity, it could also be beneficial for preventing AD onset and related dementias in subjects suffering from MDD through inflammatory pathway modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana G Fronza
- Neurobiotechnology Research Group (GPN) - Centre for Technology Development CDTec, Federal University of Pelotas (UFPel), Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Rodolfo Baldinotti
- Neurobiotechnology Research Group (GPN) - Centre for Technology Development CDTec, Federal University of Pelotas (UFPel), Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Jenifer Fetter
- Neurobiotechnology Research Group (GPN) - Centre for Technology Development CDTec, Federal University of Pelotas (UFPel), Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Suzan Gonçalves Rosa
- Laboratory of Synthesis, Reactivity and Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of Organocalcogens, Center for Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Manoela Sacramento
- Laboratory of Clean Organic Synthesis (LASOL), Center for Chemical, Pharmaceutical and Food Sciences (CCQFA), UFPel, RS, Brazil
| | - Cristina Wayne Nogueira
- Laboratory of Synthesis, Reactivity and Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of Organocalcogens, Center for Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Diego Alves
- Laboratory of Clean Organic Synthesis (LASOL), Center for Chemical, Pharmaceutical and Food Sciences (CCQFA), UFPel, RS, Brazil
| | - Domenico Praticò
- Alzheimer's Center at Temple - ACT, Temple University, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Lucielli Savegnago
- Neurobiotechnology Research Group (GPN) - Centre for Technology Development CDTec, Federal University of Pelotas (UFPel), Pelotas, RS, Brazil.
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17
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Machauer R, Lueoend R, Hurth K, Veenstra SJ, Rueeger H, Voegtle M, Tintelnot-Blomley M, Rondeau JM, Jacobson LH, Laue G, Beltz K, Neumann U. Discovery of Umibecestat (CNP520): A Potent, Selective, and Efficacious β-Secretase (BACE1) Inhibitor for the Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease. J Med Chem 2021; 64:15262-15279. [PMID: 34648711 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
After identification of lead compound 6, 5-amino-1,4-oxazine BACE1 inhibitors were optimized in order to improve potency, brain penetration, and metabolic stability. Insertion of a methyl and a trifluoromethyl group at the 6-position of the 5-amino-1,4-oxazine led to 8 (NB-360), an inhibitor with a pKa of 7.1, a very low P-glycoprotein efflux ratio, and excellent pharmacological profile, enabling high central nervous system penetration and exposure. Fur color changes observed with NB-360 in efficacy studies in preclinical animal models triggered further optimization of the series. Herein, we describe the steps leading to the discovery of 3-chloro-5-trifluoromethyl-pyridine-2-carboxylic acid [6-((3R,6R)-5-amino-3,6-dimethyl-6-trifluoromethyl-3,6-dihydro-2H-[1,4]oxazin-3-yl)-5-fluoro-pyridin-2-yl]amide 15 (CNP520, umibecestat), an inhibitor with superior BACE1/BACE2 selectivity and pharmacokinetics. CNP520 reduced significantly Aβ levels in mice and rats in acute and chronic treatment regimens without any side effects and thus qualified for Alzheimer's disease prevention studies in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer Machauer
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Rainer Lueoend
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Konstanze Hurth
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Siem J Veenstra
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Heinrich Rueeger
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Markus Voegtle
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Jean-Michel Rondeau
- Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, Structural Biology Platform, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Laura H Jacobson
- Department of Neuroscience, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Grit Laue
- Pharmacokinetic-Sciences, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Karen Beltz
- Pharmacokinetic-Sciences, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ulf Neumann
- Department of Neuroscience, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
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18
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Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that currently has no cure. The aged population is growing globally, creating an urgent need for more promising therapies for this debilitating disease. Much effort has been made in recent decades, and the field is highly dynamic, with numerous trials. The main focus of these trials includes disease modification and symptomatic treatment. Some have shown beneficial outcomes, while others have shown no significant benefits. Here, we cover the outcome of recently published AD clinical trials, as well as the mechanism of action of these therapeutical agents, to re-think drug development strategies and directions for future studies.
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19
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Miranda A, Montiel E, Ulrich H, Paz C. Selective Secretase Targeting for Alzheimer's Disease Therapy. J Alzheimers Dis 2021; 81:1-17. [PMID: 33749645 DOI: 10.3233/jad-201027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is associated with marked atrophy of the cerebral cortex and accumulation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Amyloid plaques are formed by oligomers of amyloid-β (Aβ) in the brain, with a length of 42 and 40 amino acids. α-secretase cleaves amyloid-β protein precursor (AβPP) producing the membrane-bound fragment CTFα and the soluble fragment sAβPPα with neuroprotective activity; β-secretase produces membrane-bound fragment CTFβ and a soluble fragment sAβPPβ. After α-secretase cleavage of AβPP, γ-secretase cleaves CTFα to produce the cytoplasmic fragment AICD and P3 in the non-amyloidogenic pathway. CTFβ is cleaved by γ-secretase producing AICD as well as Aβ in amyloidogenic pathways. In the last years, the study of natural products and synthetic compounds, such as α-secretase activity enhancers, β-secretase inhibitors (BACE-1), and γ-secretase activity modulators, have been the focus of pharmaceuticals and researchers. Drugs were improved regarding solubility, blood-brain barrier penetration, selectivity, and potency decreasing Aβ42. In this regard, BACE-1 inhibitors, such as Atabecestat, NB-360, Umibecestat, PF-06751979 Verubecestat, LY2886721, Lanabecestat, LY2811376 and Elenbecestat, were submitted to phase I-III clinical trials. However, inhibition of Aβ production did not recover cognitive functions or reverse disease progress. Novel strategies are being developed, aiming at a partial reduction of Aβ production, such as the development of γ-secretase modulators or α-secretase activity enhancers. Such therapeutic tools shall focus on slowing down or minimizing the progression of neuronal damage. Here, we summarize structures and activities of the latest compounds designed for AD treatment, with remarkable in vitro, in vivo, and clinical phase activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvaro Miranda
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - Enrique Montiel
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - Henning Ulrich
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Cristian Paz
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
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20
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Gadhave K, Kumar D, Uversky VN, Giri R. A multitude of signaling pathways associated with Alzheimer's disease and their roles in AD pathogenesis and therapy. Med Res Rev 2021; 41:2689-2745. [PMID: 32783388 PMCID: PMC7876169 DOI: 10.1002/med.21719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The exact molecular mechanisms associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology continue to represent a mystery. In the past decades, comprehensive data were generated on the involvement of different signaling pathways in the AD pathogenesis. However, the utilization of signaling pathways as potential targets for the development of drugs against AD is rather limited due to the immense complexity of the brain and intricate molecular links between these pathways. Therefore, finding a correlation and cross-talk between these signaling pathways and establishing different therapeutic targets within and between those pathways are needed for better understanding of the biological events responsible for the AD-related neurodegeneration. For example, autophagy is a conservative cellular process that shows link with many other AD-related pathways and is crucial for maintenance of the correct cellular balance by degrading AD-associated pathogenic proteins. Considering the central role of autophagy in AD and its interplay with many other pathways, the finest therapeutic strategy to fight against AD is the use of autophagy as a target. As an essential step in this direction, this comprehensive review represents recent findings on the individual AD-related signaling pathways, describes key features of these pathways and their cross-talk with autophagy, represents current drug development, and introduces some of the multitarget beneficial approaches and strategies for the therapeutic intervention of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kundlik Gadhave
- School of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Himachal Pradesh, 175005, India
| | - Deepak Kumar
- School of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Himachal Pradesh, 175005, India
| | - Vladimir N. Uversky
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Byrd Alzheimer’s Research Institute, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
- Laboratory of New Methods in Biology, Institute for Biological Instrumentation, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Moscow Region, Russia
| | - Rajanish Giri
- School of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Himachal Pradesh, 175005, India
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21
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Meier SR, Sehlin D, Roshanbin S, Lim Falk V, Saito T, Saido TC, Neumann U, Rokka J, Eriksson J, Syvanen S. 11C-PIB and 124I-antibody PET provide differing estimates of brain amyloid-beta after therapeutic intervention. J Nucl Med 2021; 63:302-309. [PMID: 34088777 PMCID: PMC8805773 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.121.262083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
PET imaging of amyloid-β (Aβ) has become an important component of Alzheimer disease diagnosis. 11C-Pittsburgh compound B (11C-PiB) and analogs bind to fibrillar Aβ. However, levels of nonfibrillar, soluble, aggregates of Aβ appear more dynamic during disease progression and more affected by Aβ-reducing treatments. The aim of this study was to compare an antibody-based PET ligand targeting nonfibrillar Aβ with 11C-PiB after β-secretase (BACE-1) inhibition in 2 Alzheimer disease mouse models at an advanced stage of Aβ pathology. Methods: Transgenic ArcSwe mice (16 mo old) were treated with the BACE-1 inhibitor NB-360 for 2 mo, whereas another group was kept as controls. A third group was analyzed at the age of 16 mo as a baseline. Mice were PET-scanned with 11C-PiB to measure Aβ plaque load followed by a scan with the bispecific radioligand 124I-RmAb158-scFv8D3 to investigate nonfibrillar aggregates of Aβ. The same study design was then applied to another mouse model, AppNL-G-F. In this case, NB-360 treatment was initiated at the age of 8 mo and animals were scanned with 11C-PiB-PET and 125I-RmAb158-scFv8D3 SPECT. Brain tissue was isolated after scanning, and Aβ levels were assessed. Results:124I-RmAb158-scFv8D3 concentrations measured with PET in hippocampus and thalamus of NB-360–treated ArcSwe mice were similar to those observed in baseline animals and significantly lower than concentrations observed in same-age untreated controls. Reduced 125I-RmAb158-scFv8D3 retention was also observed with SPECT in hippocampus, cortex, and cerebellum of NB-360–treated AppNL-G-F mice. Radioligand in vivo concentrations corresponded to postmortem brain tissue analysis of soluble Aβ aggregates. For both models, mice treated with NB-360 did not display a reduced 11C-PiB signal compared with untreated controls, and further, both NB-360 and control mice tended, although not reaching significance, to show higher 11C-PiB signal than the baseline groups. Conclusion: This study demonstrated the ability of an antibody-based radioligand to detect changes in brain Aβ levels after anti-Aβ therapy in ArcSwe and AppNL-G-F mice with pronounced Aβ pathology. In contrast, the decreased Aβ levels could not be quantified with 11C-PiB PET, suggesting that these ligands detect different pools of Aβ.
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22
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Rueeger H, Lueoend R, Machauer R, Veenstra SJ, Holzer P, Hurth K, Voegtle M, Frederiksen M, Rondeau JM, Tintelnot-Blomley M, Jacobson LH, Staufenbiel M, Laue G, Neumann U. Synthesis of the Potent, Selective, and Efficacious β-Secretase (BACE1) Inhibitor NB-360. J Med Chem 2021; 64:4677-4696. [PMID: 33844524 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c02143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Starting from lead compound 4, the 1,4-oxazine headgroup was optimized to improve potency and brain penetration. Focusing at the 6-position of the 5-amino-1,4-oxazine, the insertion of a Me and a CF3 group delivered an excellent pharmacological profile with a pKa of 7.1 and a very low P-gp efflux ratio enabling high central nervous system (CNS) penetration and exposure. Various synthetic routes to access BACE1 inhibitors bearing a 5-amino-6-methyl-6-(trifluoromethyl)-1,4-oxazine headgroup were investigated. Subsequent optimization of the P3 fragment provided the highly potent N-(3-((3R,6R)-5-amino-3,6-dimethyl-6-(trifluoromethyl)-3,6-dihydro-2H-1,4-oxazin-3-yl)-4-fluorophenyl)-5-cyano-3-methylpicolinamide 54 (NB-360), able to reduce significantly Aβ levels in mice, rats, and dogs in acute and chronic treatment regimens.
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Pinpointing Brain TREM2 Levels in Two Mouse Models of Alzheimer's Disease. Mol Imaging Biol 2021; 23:665-675. [PMID: 33620643 PMCID: PMC8410720 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-021-01591-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) is expressed by brain microglia. Microglial activation, as observed in Alzheimer's disease (AD) as well as in transgenic mice expressing human amyloid-beta, appears to increase soluble TREM2 (sTREM2) levels in CSF and brain. In this study, we used two different transgenic mouse models of AD pathology and investigated the potential of TREM2 to serve as an in vivo biomarker for microglial activation in AD. PROCEDURES We designed and generated a bispecific antibody based on the TREM2-specific monoclonal antibody mAb1729, fused to a single-chain variable fragment of the transferrin receptor binding antibody 8D3. The 8D3-moiety enabled transcytosis of the whole bispecific antibody across the blood-brain barrier. The bispecific antibody was radiolabeled with I-125 (ex vivo) or I-124 (PET) and administered to transgenic AD and wild-type (WT) control mice. Radioligand retention in the brain of transgenic animals was compared to WT mice by isolation of brain tissue at 24 h or 72 h, or with in vivo PET at 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h. Intrabrain distribution of radiolabeled mAb1729-scFv8D3CL was further studied by autoradiography, while ELISA was used to determine TREM2 brain concentrations. RESULTS Transgenic animals displayed higher total exposure, calculated as the AUC based on SUV determined at 24h, 48h, and 72h post injection, of PET radioligand [124I]mAb1729-scFv8D3CL than WT mice. However, differences were not evident in single time point PET images or SUVs. Ex vivo autoradiography confirmed higher radioligand concentrations in cortex and thalamus in transgenic mice compared to WT, and TREM2 levels in brain homogenates were considerably higher in transgenic mice compared to WT. CONCLUSION Antibody-based radioligands, engineered to enter the brain, may serve as PET radioligands to follow changes of TREM2 in vivo, but antibody formats with faster systemic clearance to increase the specific signal in relation to that from blood in combination with antibodies showing higher affinity for TREM2 must be developed to further progress this technique for in vivo use.
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Yen YC, Kammeyer AM, Tirlangi J, Ghosh AK, Mesecar AD. A Structure-Based Discovery Platform for BACE2 and the Development of Selective BACE Inhibitors. ACS Chem Neurosci 2021; 12:581-588. [PMID: 33544569 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to perform routine structure-guided drug design for selective BACE inhibitors has been limited because of the lack of robust platform for BACE2 expression, purification, and crystallization. To overcome this limitation, we developed a platform that produces 2-3 mg of pure BACE2 protein per liter of E. coli culture, and we used this protein to design macrocyclic compounds that potently and selectively inhibit BACE1 over BACE2. Compound 2 was found to potently inhibit BACE 1 (Ki = 5 nM) with a selectivity of 214-fold over BACE2. The X-ray crystal structures of unbound BACE2 (2.2 Å) and BACE2 bound to compound 3 (3.0 Å and Ki = 7 nM) were determined and compared to the X-ray structures of BACE1 revealing the S1-S3 subsite as a selectivity determinant. This platform should enable a more rapid development of new and selective BACE inhibitors for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease or type II diabetes.
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Rombouts F, Kusakabe KI, Hsiao CC, Gijsen HJM. Small-molecule BACE1 inhibitors: a patent literature review (2011 to 2020). Expert Opin Ther Pat 2020; 31:25-52. [PMID: 33006491 DOI: 10.1080/13543776.2021.1832463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Inhibition of β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) has been extensively pursued as potential disease-modifying treatment for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Clinical failures with BACE inhibitors have progressively raised the bar forever cleaner candidates with reduced cardiovascular liability, toxicity risk, and increased selectivity over cathepsin D (CatD) and BACE2. AREAS COVERED This review provides an overview of patented BACE1 inhibitors between 2011 and 2020 per pharmaceutical company or research group and highlights the progress that was made in dialing out toxicity liabilities. EXPERT OPINION Despite an increasingly crowded IP situation, significant progress was made using highly complex chemistry in avoiding toxicity liabilities, with BACE1/BACE2 selectivity being the most remarkable achievement. However, clinical trial data suggest on-target toxicity is likely a contributing factor, which implies the only potential future of BACE1 inhibitors lies in careful titration of highly selective compounds in early populations where the amyloid burden is still minimal as prophylactic therapy, or as an affordable oral maintenance therapy following amyloid-clearing therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederik Rombouts
- Medicinal Chemistry, Janssen Research & Development , Beerse, Belgium
| | - Ken-Ichi Kusakabe
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry Research, Shionogi & Co., Ltd ., Toyonaka, Osaka, Japan
| | - Chien-Chi Hsiao
- Medicinal Chemistry, Janssen Research & Development , Beerse, Belgium
| | - Harrie J M Gijsen
- Medicinal Chemistry, Janssen Research & Development , Beerse, Belgium
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Qiu R, Ahn JE, Alexander R, Brodney MA, He P, Leurent C, Mancuso J, Margolin RA, Tankisheva E, Chen D. Safety, Tolerability, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacodynamic Effects of PF-06751979, a Potent and Selective Oral BACE1 Inhibitor: Results from Phase I Studies in Healthy Adults and Healthy Older Subjects. J Alzheimers Dis 2020; 71:581-595. [PMID: 31424395 PMCID: PMC6839502 DOI: 10.3233/jad-190228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
PF-06751979 is a selective inhibitor of the beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme-1, which is a key aspartyl protease in the generation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides, thought to be critical for the cerebral degeneration observed in Alzheimer's disease. Two Phase I studies (NCT02509117, NCT02793232) investigated the safety/tolerability, pharmacokinetics (PK), and pharmacodynamics (PD) of PF-06751979. Single-ascending doses up to 540 mg and multiple-ascending doses up to 275 mg once daily (QD) in healthy adults, and multiple doses of 50 mg or 125 mg QD in healthy older subjects were assessed. PF-06751979 was well tolerated at all doses given, and all treatment-related adverse events (AEs) were mild to moderate. PK parameters remained consistent across the PF-06751979 QD dosing regimens, and no notable food effects were observed. PD analysis showed that PF-06751979 reduced the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma levels of Aβ peptides in a dose-dependent manner, with the greatest reductions observed in subjects treated with 275 mg QD (approximately 92% and 93% reduction in CSF Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 observed at 24 h after Day 14 dose, respectively). A drug interaction study (NCT03126721) using midazolam indicated that there was no clinically meaningful effect of multiple doses of PF-06751979 100 mg QD on the PK of single-dose midazolam in healthy adults. Overall, these data suggest that PF-06751979 with daily dosing is favorable for further clinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Ping He
- Biogen Inc, Cambridge, MA, USA
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Johnson ECB, Ho K, Yu GQ, Das M, Sanchez PE, Djukic B, Lopez I, Yu X, Gill M, Zhang W, Paz JT, Palop JJ, Mucke L. Behavioral and neural network abnormalities in human APP transgenic mice resemble those of App knock-in mice and are modulated by familial Alzheimer's disease mutations but not by inhibition of BACE1. Mol Neurodegener 2020; 15:53. [PMID: 32921309 PMCID: PMC7489007 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-020-00393-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most frequent and costly neurodegenerative disorder. Although diverse lines of evidence suggest that the amyloid precursor protein (APP) is involved in its causation, the precise mechanisms remain unknown and no treatments are available to prevent or halt the disease. A favorite hypothesis has been that APP contributes to AD pathogenesis through the cerebral accumulation of the amyloid-β peptide (Aβ), which is derived from APP through sequential proteolytic cleavage by BACE1 and γ-secretase. However, inhibitors of these enzymes have failed in clinical trials despite clear evidence for target engagement. METHODS To further elucidate the roles of APP and its metabolites in AD pathogenesis, we analyzed transgenic mice overexpressing wildtype human APP (hAPP) or hAPP carrying mutations that cause autosomal dominant familial AD (FAD), as well as App knock-in mice that do not overexpress hAPP but have two mouse App alleles with FAD mutations and a humanized Aβ sequence. RESULTS Although these lines of mice had marked differences in cortical and hippocampal levels of APP, APP C-terminal fragments, soluble Aβ, Aβ oligomers and age-dependent amyloid deposition, they all developed cognitive deficits as well as non-convulsive epileptiform activity, a type of network dysfunction that also occurs in a substantive proportion of humans with AD. Pharmacological inhibition of BACE1 effectively reduced levels of amyloidogenic APP C-terminal fragments (C99), soluble Aβ, Aβ oligomers, and amyloid deposits in transgenic mice expressing FAD-mutant hAPP, but did not improve their network dysfunction and behavioral abnormalities, even when initiated at early stages before amyloid deposits were detectable. CONCLUSIONS hAPP transgenic and App knock-in mice develop similar pathophysiological alterations. APP and its metabolites contribute to AD-related functional alterations through complex combinatorial mechanisms that may be difficult to block with BACE inhibitors and, possibly, also with other anti-Aβ treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik C. B. Johnson
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, 1650 Owens Street, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
- Department of Neurology and Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Kaitlyn Ho
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, 1650 Owens Street, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Gui-Qiu Yu
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, 1650 Owens Street, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Melanie Das
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, 1650 Owens Street, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Pascal E. Sanchez
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, 1650 Owens Street, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Biljana Djukic
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, 1650 Owens Street, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Isabel Lopez
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, 1650 Owens Street, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Xinxing Yu
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, 1650 Owens Street, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Michael Gill
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, 1650 Owens Street, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Weiping Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Hormones and Development, Tianjin Institute of Endocrinology, Tianjin Medical University Metabolic Diseases Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Jeanne T. Paz
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, 1650 Owens Street, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
- Department of Neurology and Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Jorge J. Palop
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, 1650 Owens Street, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
- Department of Neurology and Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
| | - Lennart Mucke
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, 1650 Owens Street, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
- Department of Neurology and Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158 USA
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Matafora V, Farris F, Restuccia U, Tamburri S, Martano G, Bernardelli C, Sofia A, Pisati F, Casagrande F, Lazzari L, Marsoni S, Bonoldi E, Bachi A. Amyloid aggregates accumulate in melanoma metastasis modulating YAP activity. EMBO Rep 2020; 21:e50446. [PMID: 32749065 PMCID: PMC7507035 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202050446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Revised: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Melanoma progression is generally associated with increased transcriptional activity mediated by the Yes-associated protein (YAP). Mechanical signals from the extracellular matrix are sensed by YAP, which then activates the expression of proliferative genes, promoting melanoma progression and drug resistance. Which extracellular signals induce mechanotransduction, and how this is mediated, is not completely understood. Here, using secretome analyses, we reveal the extracellular accumulation of amyloidogenic proteins, i.e. premelanosome protein (PMEL), in metastatic melanoma, together with proteins that assist amyloid maturation into fibrils. We also confirm the accumulation of amyloid-like aggregates, similar to those detected in Alzheimer disease, in metastatic cell lines, as well as in human melanoma biopsies. Mechanistically, beta-secretase 2 (BACE2) regulates the maturation of these aggregates, which in turn induce YAP activity. We also demonstrate that recombinant PMEL fibrils are sufficient to induce mechanotransduction, triggering YAP signaling. Finally, we demonstrate that BACE inhibition affects cell proliferation and increases drug sensitivity, highlighting the importance of amyloids for melanoma survival, and the use of beta-secretase inhibitors as potential therapeutic approach for metastatic melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Umberto Restuccia
- IFOM‐ FIRC Institute of Molecular OncologyMilanItaly
- Present address:
ADIENNE Pharma & BiotechCaponagoItaly
| | - Simone Tamburri
- IFOM‐ FIRC Institute of Molecular OncologyMilanItaly
- Present address:
Department of Experimental OncologyIEO‐European Institute of Oncology IRCCSMilanItaly
| | | | - Clara Bernardelli
- IFOM‐ FIRC Institute of Molecular OncologyMilanItaly
- Present address:
Fondazione Politecnico di MilanoMilanItaly
| | - Andrea Sofia
- IFOM‐ FIRC Institute of Molecular OncologyMilanItaly
- University of InsubriaVareseItaly
| | - Federica Pisati
- IFOM‐ FIRC Institute of Molecular OncologyMilanItaly
- Cogentech SRL Benefit CorporationMilanItaly
| | | | - Luca Lazzari
- IFOM‐ FIRC Institute of Molecular OncologyMilanItaly
| | | | - Emanuela Bonoldi
- Department of Laboratory MedicineDivision of PathologyGrande Ospedale Metropolitano NiguardaMilanItaly
| | - Angela Bachi
- IFOM‐ FIRC Institute of Molecular OncologyMilanItaly
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Zhao J, Liu X, Xia W, Zhang Y, Wang C. Targeting Amyloidogenic Processing of APP in Alzheimer's Disease. Front Mol Neurosci 2020; 13:137. [PMID: 32848600 PMCID: PMC7418514 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2020.00137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of senile dementia, characterized by neurofibrillary tangle and amyloid plaque in brain pathology. Major efforts in AD drug were devoted to the interference with the production and accumulation of amyloid-β peptide (Aβ), which plays a causal role in the pathogenesis of AD. Aβ is generated from amyloid precursor protein (APP), by consecutive cleavage by β-secretase and γ-secretase. Therefore, β-secretase and γ-secretase inhibition have been the focus for AD drug discovery efforts for amyloid reduction. Here, we review β-secretase inhibitors and γ-secretase inhibitors/modulators, and their efficacies in clinical trials. In addition, we discussed the novel concept of specifically targeting the γ-secretase substrate APP. Targeting amyloidogenic processing of APP is still a fundamentally sound strategy to develop disease-modifying AD therapies and recent advance in γ-secretase/APP complex structure provides new opportunities in designing selective inhibitors/modulators for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhao
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Xinyue Liu
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Weiming Xia
- Geriatric Research Education Clinical Center, Edith Nourse Rogers Memorial Veterans Hospital, Bedford, MA, United States
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Yingkai Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Chunyu Wang
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
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Potential Role of Venular Amyloid in Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21061985. [PMID: 32183293 PMCID: PMC7139584 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21061985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2020] [Revised: 03/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Insurmountable evidence has demonstrated a strong association between Alzheimer's disease (AD) and cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), along with various other cerebrovascular diseases. One form of CAA, which is the accumulation of amyloid-beta peptides (Aβ) along cerebral vessel walls, impairs perivascular drainage pathways and contributes to cerebrovascular dysfunction in AD. To date, CAA research has been primarily focused on arterial Aβ, while the accumulation of Aβ in veins and venules were to a lesser extent. In this review, we describe preclinical models and clinical studies supporting the presence of venular amyloid and potential downstream pathological mechanisms that affect the cerebrovasculature in AD. Venous collagenosis, impaired cerebrovascular pulsatility, and enlarged perivascular spaces are exacerbated by venular amyloid and increase Aβ deposition, potentially through impaired perivascular clearance. Gaining a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms involved in venular Aβ deposition and associated pathologies will give insight to how CAA contributes to AD and its association with AD-related cerebrovascular disease. Lastly, we suggest that special consideration should be made to develop Aβ-targeted therapeutics that remove vascular amyloid and address cerebrovascular dysfunction in AD.
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Transient upregulation of translational efficiency in prodromal and early symptomatic Tg2576 mice contributes to Aβ pathology. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 139:104787. [PMID: 32032729 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.104787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
TG2576 mice show highest levels of the full length mutant Swedish Human Amyloid Precursor Protein (APPKM670/671LN) during prodromal and early sympotomatic stages. Interestingly, this occurs in association with the unbalanced expression of two of its RNA Binding proteins (RBPs) opposite regulators, the Fragile-X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP) and the heteronuclear Ribonucleoprotein C (hnRNP C). Whether an augmentation in overall translational efficiency also contributes to the elevation of APP levels at those early developmental stages is currently unknown. We investigated this possibility by performing a longitudinal polyribosome profiling analysis of APP mRNA and protein in total hippocampal extracts from Tg2576 mice. Results showed that protein polysomal signals were exclusively detected in pre-symptomatic (1 months) and early symptomatic (3 months) mutant mice. Differently, hAPP mRNA polysomal signals were detected at any age, but a peak of expression was found when mice were 3-month old. Consistent with an early but transient rise of translational efficiency, the phosphorylated form of the initial translation factor eIF2α (p-eIF2α) was reduced at pre-symptomatic and early symptomatic stages, whereas it was increased at the fully symptomatic stage. Pharmacological downregulation of overall translation in early symptomatic mutants was then found to reduce hippocampal levels of full length APP, Aβspecies, BACE1 and Caspase-3, to rescue predominant LTD at hippocampal synapses, to revert dendritic spine loss and memory alterations, and to reinstate memory-induced c-fosactivation. Altogether, our findings demonstrate that overall translation is upregulated in prodromal and early symptomatic Tg2576 mice, and that restoring proper translational control at the onset of AD-like symptoms blocks the emergence of the AD-like phenotype.
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Nuñez-Borque E, González-Naranjo P, Bartolomé F, Alquézar C, Reinares-Sebastián A, Pérez C, Ceballos ML, Páez JA, Campillo NE, Martín-Requero Á. Targeting Cannabinoid Receptor Activation and BACE-1 Activity Counteracts TgAPP Mice Memory Impairment and Alzheimer's Disease Lymphoblast Alterations. Mol Neurobiol 2020; 57:1938-1951. [PMID: 31898159 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-019-01813-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), the leading cause of dementia in the elderly, is a neurodegenerative disorder marked by progressive impairment of cognitive ability. Patients with AD display neuropathological lesions including senile plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and neuronal loss. There are no disease-modifying drugs currently available. With the number of affected individuals increasing dramatically throughout the world, there is obvious urgent need for effective treatment strategy for AD. The multifactorial nature of AD encouraged the development of multifunctional compounds, able to interact with several putative targets. Here, we have evaluated the effects of two in-house designed cannabinoid receptors (CB) agonists showing inhibitory actions on β-secretase-1 (BACE-1) (NP137) and BACE-1/butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) (NP148), on cellular models of AD, including immortalized lymphocytes from late-onset AD patients. Furthermore, the performance of TgAPP mice in a spatial navigation task was investigated following chronic administration of NP137 and NP148. We report here that NP137 and NP148 showed neuroprotective effects in amyloid-β-treated primary cortical neurons, and NP137 in particular rescued the cognitive deficit of TgAPP mice. The latter compound was able to blunt the abnormal cell response to serum addition or withdrawal of lymphoblasts derived from AD patients. It is suggested that NP137 could be a good drug candidate for future treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilio Nuñez-Borque
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CSIC), Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Fernando Bartolomé
- Neurodegenerative Disorders Group, Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Carolina Alquézar
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CSIC), Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California, Box 1207, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | | | | | - Maria L Ceballos
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Insituto Cajal (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan A Páez
- Instituto de Química Médica (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Nuria E Campillo
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CSIC), Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Ángeles Martín-Requero
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CSIC), Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.
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Volloch V, Olsen BR, Rits S. AD "Statin": Alzheimer's Disorder is a "Fast" Disease Preventable by Therapeutic Intervention Initiated Even Late in Life and Reversible at the Early Stages. ANNALS OF INTEGRATIVE MOLECULAR MEDICINE 2020; 2:75-89. [PMID: 32201863 PMCID: PMC7083596 DOI: 10.33597/aimm.02-1006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The present study posits that Alzheimer's disorder is a "fast" disease. This is in sharp contrast to a view, prevailing until now, that Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a quintessential "slow" disease that develops throughout the life as one prolonged process. According to this view, beta-amyloid (Aβ) is produced and secreted solely by the beta-amyloid precursor protein (βAPP) proteolytic/secretory pathway. As its extracellular levels increase, it triggers neurodegeneration starting relatively early in life. Damages accumulate and manifest, late in life in sporadic Alzheimer's Disease (SAD) cases, as AD symptoms. In familial AD (FAD) cases, where mutations in βAPP gene or in presenilins increase production of either common Aβ isoform or of its more toxic isoforms, neurodegeneration reaches critical threshold sooner and AD symptoms occur earlier in life, mostly in late 40s and 50s. There are currently no preventive AD therapies but if they were available, according to this viewpoint it would be largely futile to intervene late in life in case of potential SAD or at mid-age in cases of FAD because, although AD symptoms have not yet manifested, the damage has already occurred during the preceding decades. In this paradigm, to be effective, preventive therapeutic intervention should be initiated early in life. The outlook suggested by the present study is radically different. According to it, Alzheimer's disease evolves in two stages. The first stage is a slow process of intracellular beta-amyloid accumulation. It occurs via βAPP proteolytic/secretory pathway and cellular uptake of secreted Aβ common to Homo sapiens, including healthy humans, and to non-human mammals, and results neither in significant damage, nor in manifestation of the disease. The second stage occurs exclusively in humans, commences shortly before symptomatic onset of the disease, sharply accelerates the production and increases intracellular levels of Aβ that is not secreted but is retained intracellularly, generates significant damages, triggers AD symptoms, and is fast. It is driven by an Aβ generation pathway qualitatively and quantitatively different from βAPP proteolytic process and entirely independent of beta-amyloid precursor protein, and results in rapid and substantial intracellular accumulation of Aβ, consequent significant neurodegeneration, and symptomatic AD. In this paradigm, a preventive therapy for AD, an AD "statin", would be effective when initiated at any time prior to commencement of the second stage. Moreover, there are good reasons to believe that with a drug blocking βAPP-independent Aβ production pathway in the second stage, it would be possible not only to preempt the disease but also to stop and to reverse it even when early AD symptoms have already manifested. The present study posits a notion of AD as a Fast Disease, offers evidence for the occurrence of the AD-specific Aβ production pathway, describes cellular and molecular processes constituting an engine that drives Alzheimer's disease, and explains why non-human mammals are not susceptible to AD and why only a subset of humans develop the disease. It establishes that Alzheimer's disease is preventable by therapeutic intervention initiated even late in life, details a powerful mechanism underlying the disease, suggests that Aβ produced in the βAPP-independent pathway is retained intracellularly, elaborates why neither BACE inhibition nor Aβ immunotherapy are effective in treatment of AD and why intracellularly retained beta-amyloid could be the primary agent of neuronal death in Alzheimer's disease, necessitates generation of a novel animal AD model capable of producing Aβ via βAPP-independent pathway, proposes therapeutic targets profoundly different from previously pursued components of the βAPP proteolytic pathway, and provides conceptual rationale for design of drugs that could be used not only preemptively but also for treatment and reversal of the early stages of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Volloch
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, USA
| | - Bjorn R Olsen
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, USA
| | - Sophia Rits
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Children’s Hospital, Boston, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, USA
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34
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Early restoration of parvalbumin interneuron activity prevents memory loss and network hyperexcitability in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Mol Psychiatry 2020; 25:3380-3398. [PMID: 31431685 PMCID: PMC7714697 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-019-0483-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Neuronal network dysfunction is increasingly recognized as an early symptom in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and may provide new entry points for diagnosis and intervention. Here, we show that amyloid-beta-induced hyperexcitability of hippocampal inhibitory parvalbumin (PV) interneurons importantly contributes to neuronal network dysfunction and memory impairment in APP/PS1 mice, a mouse model of increased amyloidosis. We demonstrate that hippocampal PV interneurons become hyperexcitable at ~16 weeks of age, when no changes are observed yet in the intrinsic properties of pyramidal cells. This hyperexcitable state of PV interneurons coincides with increased inhibitory transmission onto hippocampal pyramidal neurons and deficits in spatial learning and memory. We show that treatment aimed at preventing PV interneurons from becoming hyperexcitable is sufficient to restore PV interneuron properties to wild-type levels, reduce inhibitory input onto pyramidal cells, and rescue memory deficits in APP/PS1 mice. Importantly, we demonstrate that early intervention aimed at restoring PV interneuron activity has long-term beneficial effects on memory and hippocampal network activity, and reduces amyloid plaque deposition, a hallmark of AD pathology. Taken together, these findings suggest that early treatment of PV interneuron hyperactivity might be clinically relevant in preventing memory decline and delaying AD progression.
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Volloch V, Olsen B, Rits S. Alzheimer's Disease is Driven by Intraneuronally Retained Beta-Amyloid Produced in the AD-Specific, βAPP-Independent Pathway: Current Perspective and Experimental Models for Tomorrow. ANNALS OF INTEGRATIVE MOLECULAR MEDICINE 2020; 2:90-114. [PMID: 32617536 PMCID: PMC7331974 DOI: 10.33597/aimm.02-1007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
A view of the origin and progression of Alzheimer's disease, AD, prevailing until now and formalized as the Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis theory, maintains that the disease is initiated by overproduction of beta-amyloid, Aβ, which is generated solely by the Aβ precursor protein, βAPP, proteolytic pathway and secreted from the cell. Consequent extracellular accumulation of Aβ triggers a cascade of molecular and cellular events leading to neurodegeneration that starts early in life, progresses as one prolonged process, builds up for decades, and culminates in symptomatic manifestations of the disease late in life. In this paradigm, a time window for commencement of therapeutic intervention is small and accessible only early in life. The outlook introduced in the present study is fundamentally different. It posits that the βAPP proteolytic/secretory pathway of Aβ production causes AD in humans no more than it does in either short- or long-lived non-human mammals that share this pathway with humans, accumulate beta-amyloid as they age, but do not develop the disease. Alzheimer's disease, according to this outlook, is driven by an additional powerful AD-specific pathway of Aβ production that operates in affected humans, is completely independent of the βAPP precursor, and is not available in non-human mammals. The role of the βAPP proteolytic pathway in the disease in humans is activation of this additional AD-specific Aβ production pathway. This occurs through accumulation of intracellular Aβ, primarily via ApoE-assisted cellular uptake of secreted beta-amyloid, but also through retention of a fraction of Aβ produced in the βAPP proteolytic pathway. With time, accumulated intracellular Aβ triggers mitochondrial dysfunction. In turn, cellular stresses associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, including ER stress, activate a second, AD-specific, Aβ production pathway: Asymmetric RNA-dependent βAPP mRNA amplification; animal βAPP mRNA is ineligible for this process. In this pathway, every conventionally produced βAPP mRNA molecule serves potentially as a template for production of severely 5'-truncated mRNA encoding not the βAPP but its C99 fragment (hence "asymmetric"), the immediate precursor of Aβ. Thus produced, N-terminal signal peptide-lacking C99 is processed not in the secretory pathway on the plasma membrane, but at the intracellular membrane sites, apparently in a neuron-specific manner. The resulting Aβ is, therefore, not secreted but is retained intraneuronally and accumulates rapidly within the cell. Increased levels of intracellular Aβ augment mitochondrial dysfunction, which, in turn, sustains the activity of the βAPP mRNA amplification pathway. These self-propagating mutual Aβ overproduction/mitochondrial dysfunction feedback cycles constitute a formidable two-stroke engine, an engine that drives Alzheimer's disease. The present outlook envisions Alzheimer's disorder as a two-stage disease. The first stage is a slow process of intracellular beta-amyloid accumulation. It results neither in significant neurodegenerative damage, nor in manifestation of the disease. The second stage commences with the activation of the βAPP mRNA amplification pathway shortly before symptomatic onset of the disease, sharply increases the rate of Aβ generation and the extent of its intraneuronal accumulation, produces significant damages, triggers AD symptoms, and is fast. In this paradigm, the time window of therapeutic intervention is wide open, and preventive treatment can be initiated any time, even late in life, prior to commencement of the second stage of the disease. Moreover, there are good reasons to believe that with a drug blocking the βAPP mRNA amplification pathway, it would be possible not only to preempt the disease but also to stop and to reverse it even when early AD symptoms have already manifested. There are numerous experimental models of AD, all based on a notion of the exceptionality of βAPP proteolytic/secretory pathway in Aβ production in the disease. However, with no drug even remotely effective in Alzheimer's disease, a long list of candidate drugs that succeeded remarkably in animal models, yet failed utterly in human clinical trials of potential AD drugs, attests to the inadequacy of currently employed AD models. The concept of a renewable supply of beta-amyloid, produced in the βAPP mRNA amplification pathway and retained intraneuronally in Alzheimer's disease, explains spectacular failures of both BACE inhibition and Aβ-immunotherapy in human clinical trials. This concept also forms the basis of a new generation of animal and cell-based experimental models of AD, described in the present study. These models incorporate Aβ- or C99-encoding mRNA amplification pathways of Aβ production, as well as intracellular retention of their product, and can support not only further investigation of molecular mechanisms of AD but also screening for and testing of candidate drugs aimed at therapeutic targets suggested by the present study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Volloch
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, USA
| | - Bjorn Olsen
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, USA
| | - Sophia Rits
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Children’s Hospital, Boston, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, USA
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Volloch V, Olsen BR, Rits S. Precursor-Independent Overproduction of Beta-Amyloid in AD: Mitochondrial Dysfunction as Possible Initiator of Asymmetric RNA-Dependent βAPP mRNA Amplification. An Engine that Drives Alzheimer's Disease. ANNALS OF INTEGRATIVE MOLECULAR MEDICINE 2019; 1:61-74. [PMID: 31858090 PMCID: PMC6922309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The present study defines RNA-dependent amplification of βAPP mRNA as a molecular basis of beta-amyloid overproduction in Alzheimer's disease. In this process, βAPP mRNA serves as a template for RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, RdRp complex. The resulting antisense RNA self-primes its extension utilizing two complementary elements: 3'-terminal and internal, located within an antisense segment corresponding to the coding portion of βAPP mRNA. The extension produces 3'-terminal fragment of βAPP mRNA, a part of a hairpin-structured antisense/sense RNA molecule. Cleavage at the 3' end of the hairpin loop produces RNA end product encoding a C-terminal fragment of βAPP. Since each conventional βAPP mRNA can be used repeatedly as a template, the process constitutes an asymmetric mRNA amplification. The 5'-most translation initiation codon of the amplified mRNA is the AUG preceding immediately and in-frame the Aβ-coding segment. Translation from this codon overproduces Aβ independently of βAPP. Such process can occur in humans but not in mice and other animals where segments of βAPP antisense RNA required for self-priming have little, if any, complementarity. This explains why Alzheimer's disease occurs exclusively in humans and implies that βAPP mRNA amplification is requisite in AD. In AD, therefore, there are two pathways of beta-amyloid production: βAPP proteolytic pathway and βAPP mRNA amplification pathway independent of βAPP and insensitive to beta-secretase inhibition. This implies that in healthy humans, where only the proteolytic pathway is in operation, Aβ production should be suppressed by the BACE inhibition, and indeed it is. However, since βAPP-independent pathway operating in AD is by far the predominant one, BACE inhibition has no effect in Alzheimer's disease. It appears that, physiologically, the extent of beta-amyloid overproduction sufficient to trigger amyloid cascade culminating in AD requires asymmetric RNA-dependent amplification of βAPP mRNA and cannot be reached without it. In turn, the occurrence of mRNA amplification process depends on the activation of inducible components of RdRp complex by certain stresses, for example the ER stress in case of amplification of mRNA encoding extracellular matrix proteins. In case of Alzheimer's disease, such an induction appears to be triggered by stresses associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, a phenomenon closely linked to AD. The cause-and-effect relationships between mitochondrial dysfunction and AD appear to be very different in familial, FAD, and sporadic, SAD cases. In FAD, increased levels or more toxic species of Aβ resulting from the abnormal proteolysis of βAPP trigger mitochondrial dysfunction, activate mRNA amplification and increase the production of Aβ, reinforcing the cycle. Thus in FAD, mitochondrial dysfunction is an intrinsic component of the amyloid cascade. The reverse sequence is true in SAD where aging-related mitochondrial dysfunction activates amplification of βAPP mRNA and enhances the production of Aβ. This causes further mitochondrial dysfunction, the cycle repeats and degeneration increases. Thus in SAD, the initial mitochondrial dysfunction arises prior to the disease, independently of and upstream from the increased Aβ production, i.e. in SAD, mitochondrial pathology hierarchically supersedes Aβ pathology. This is the primary reason for the formulation of the Mitochondrial Cascade Hypothesis. But even in terms of the MCH, the core of the disease is the amyloid cascade as defined in the amyloid cascade hypothesis, ACH. The role of mitochondrial dysfunction in relation to this core is causative in SAD and auxiliary in FAD. In FAD, the initial increase in the production of Aβ is mutations-based and occurs relatively early in life, whereas in SAD it is coerced by an aging-contingent component, but both lead to mechanistically identical self-perpetuating mutual Aβ/mitochondrial dysfunction feedback cycles, an engine that drives, via RNA-dependent βAPP mRNA amplification, overproduction of beta-amyloid and, consequently, AD; hence drastic difference in the age of onset, yet profound pathological and symptomatic similarity in the progression, of familial and sporadic forms of Alzheimer's disease. Interestingly, the recent findings that mitochondrial microprotein PIGBOS interacts with the ER in mitigating the unfolded protein response indicate a possible connection between mitochondrial dysfunction and ER stress, implicated in activation of RNA-dependent mRNA amplification pathway. The possible involvement of mitochondrial dysfunction in βAPP mRNA amplification makes it a promising therapeutic target. Recent successes in mitigating, and even reversing, Aβ-induced metabolic defects with anti-diabetes drug metformin are encouraging in this respect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Volloch
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, USA
| | - Bjorn R Olsen
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, USA
| | - Sophia Rits
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Children’s Hospital, Boston, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, USA
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The Role of Secretase Pathway in Long-term Brain Inflammation and Cognitive Impairment in an Animal Model of Severe Sepsis. Mol Neurobiol 2019; 57:1159-1169. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-019-01808-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Yen YC, Kammeyer AM, Jensen KC, Tirlangi J, Ghosh AK, Mesecar AD. Development of an Efficient Enzyme Production and Structure-Based Discovery Platform for BACE1 Inhibitors. Biochemistry 2019; 58:4424-4435. [PMID: 31549827 PMCID: PMC7284891 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.9b00714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
BACE1 (Beta-site Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) Cleaving Enzyme 1) is a promising therapeutic target for Alzheimer's Disease (AD). However, efficient expression, purification, and crystallization systems are not well described or detailed in the literature nor are approaches for treatment of enzyme kinetic data for potent inhibitors well described. We therefore developed a platform for expression and purification of BACE1, including protein refolding from E.coli inclusion bodies, in addition to optimizing a reproducible crystallization procedure of BACE1 bound with inhibitors. We also report a detailed approach to the proper analysis of enzyme kinetic data for compounds that exhibit either rapid-equilibrium or tight-binding mechanisms. Our methods allow for the purification of ∼15 mg of BACE1 enzyme from 1 L of culture which is higher than reported yields in the current literature. To evaluate the data analysis approach developed here, a well-known potent inhibitor and two of its derivatives were tested, analyzed, and compared. The inhibitory constants (Ki) obtained from the kinetic studies are in agreement with dissociation constants (Kd) that were also determined using isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) experiments. The X-ray structures of these three compounds in complex with BACE1 were readily obtained and provide important insight into the structure and thermodynamics of the BACE1-inhibitor interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Chen Yen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Annalissa M. Kammeyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Katherine C. Jensen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette Indiana 47907, United States
| | | | - Arun K. Ghosh
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette Indiana 47907, United States, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Andrew D. Mesecar
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette Indiana 47907, United States, Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette Indiana 47907, United States, Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette Indiana 47907, United States,Corresponding Author:. Tel.: (765) 494-1924
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Pettus LH, Bourbeau MP, Bradley J, Bartberger MD, Chen K, Hickman D, Johnson M, Liu Q, Manning JR, Nanez A, Siegmund AC, Wen PH, Whittington DA, Allen JR, Wood S. Discovery of AM-6494: A Potent and Orally Efficacious β-Site Amyloid Precursor Protein Cleaving Enzyme 1 (BACE1) Inhibitor with in Vivo Selectivity over BACE2. J Med Chem 2019; 63:2263-2281. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b01034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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β-Secretase BACE1 Is Required for Normal Cochlear Function. J Neurosci 2019; 39:9013-9027. [PMID: 31527119 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0028-19.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Revised: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β-secretase BACE1 initiates the production and accumulation of neurotoxic amyloid-β peptides, which is widely considered an essential pathogenic mechanism in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here, we report that BACE1 is essential for normal auditory function. Compared with wild-type littermates, BACE1-/- mice of either sex exhibit significant hearing deficits, as indicated by increased thresholds and reduced amplitudes in auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) and decreased distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs). Immunohistochemistry revealed aberrant synaptic organization in the cochlea and hypomyelination of auditory nerve fibers as predominant neuropathological substrates of hearing loss in BACE1-/- mice. In particular, we found that fibers of spiral ganglion neurons (SGN) close to the organ of Corti are disorganized and abnormally swollen. BACE1 deficiency also engenders organization defects in the postsynaptic compartment of SGN fibers with ectopic overexpression of PSD95 far outside the synaptic region. During postnatal development, auditory fiber myelination in BACE1-/- mice lags behind dramatically and remains incomplete into adulthood. We relate the marked hypomyelination to the impaired processing of Neuregulin-1 when BACE1 is absent. To determine whether the cochlea of adult wild-type mice is susceptible to AD treatment-like suppression of BACE1, we administered the established BACE1 inhibitor NB-360 for 6 weeks. The drug suppressed BACE1 activity in the brain, but did not impair hearing performance and, upon neuropathological examination, did not produce the characteristic cochlear abnormalities of BACE1-/- mice. Together, these data strongly suggest that the hearing loss of BACE1 knock-out mice represents a developmental phenotype.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Given its crucial role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), BACE1 is a prime pharmacological target for AD prevention and therapy. However, the safe and long-term administration of BACE1-inhibitors as envisioned in AD requires a comprehensive understanding of the various physiological functions of BACE1. Here, we report that BACE1 is essential for the processing of auditory signals in the inner ear, as BACE1-deficient mice exhibit significant hearing loss. We relate this deficit to impaired myelination and aberrant synapse formation in the cochlea, which manifest during postnatal development. By contrast, prolonged pharmacological suppression of BACE1 activity in adult wild-type mice did not reproduce the hearing deficit or the cochlear abnormalities of BACE1 null mice.
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Rits S, Olsen BR, Volloch V. Protein-Encoding RNA to RNA Information Transfer in Mammalian Cells: RNA-dependent mRNA Amplification. Identification of Chimeric RNA Intermediates and Putative RNA End Products. ANNALS OF INTEGRATIVE MOLECULAR MEDICINE 2019; 1:23-47. [PMID: 31656957 PMCID: PMC6814175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Our initial unidirectional understanding of the flow of protein-encoding genetic information, DNA to RNA to protein, a process defined as the "Central Dogma of Molecular Biology" and usually depicted as a downward arrow, was eventually amended to account for the "vertical" information back-flow from RNA to DNA, reverse transcription, and for its "horizontal" side-flow from RNA to RNA, RNA-dependent RNA synthesis, RdRs. These processes, both potentially leading to protein production, were assumed to be strictly virus-specific. However, whereas this presumption might be true for the former, it became apparent that the cellular enzymatic machinery for the later, a conventional RNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity, RdRp, is ubiquitously present and RdRs regularly occurs in eukaryotes. The strongest evidence for the occurrence and functionality of RdRp activity in mammalian cells comes from viruses, such as hepatitis delta virus, HDV, that do not encode RdRp yet undergo a robust RNA replication once inside the host. Eventually, it became clear that RdRp activity, apparently in a non-conventional form, is constitutively present in most, if not in all, mammalian cells. Because such activity was shown to produce short transcripts, because of its apparent involvement in RNA interference phenomena, and because double-stranded RNA is known to trigger cellular responses leading to its degradation, it was generally assumed that its role in mammalian cells is restricted to a regulatory function. However, at the same time, an enzymatic activity capable of generating complete antisense RNA complements of mRNAs was discovered in mammalian cells undergoing terminal differentiation. Moreover, observations of widespread synthesis of antisense RNA initiating at the 3'poly(A) of mRNAs in human cells suggested an extensive cellular utilization of mammalian RdRp. These results led to the development of a model of RdRp-facilitated and antisense RNA-mediated amplification of mammalian mRNA. Here, we report the in vivo detection in cells undergoing terminal erythroid differentiation of the major model-predicted identifiers of such a process, a chimeric double-stranded/pinhead-structured intermediates containing both sense and antisense RNA strands covalently joined in a rigorously predicted and uniquely defined manner. We also report the identification of the putative chimeric RNA end product of mRNA amplification. It is heavily modified, uniformly truncated, yet retains the intact coding region, and terminates with the OH group at both ends; its massive cellular amount is unprecedented for a conventional mRNA transcription product and it translates into polypeptides indistinguishable from the translation product of conventional mRNA. Moreover, we describe the occurrence of the second Tier of mammalian RNA-dependent mRNA amplification, a physiologically occurring, RdRp-driven intracellular PCR process, "iPCR", and report the detection of its distinct RNA end products. Whether mammalian mRNA amplification is a specialized occurrence limited to extreme circumstances of terminal differentiation in cells programmed for only a short survival span or a general physiological phenomenon was answered in the companion article Volloch et al. Ann Integr Mol Med. 2019;1(1):1004. by the detection of major identifiers of this process for mRNA encoding α1, β1, and γ1 chains of laminin, a major extracellular matrix protein abundantly produced throughout the tissue and organ development and homeostasis and an exceptionally revealing indicator of the range and scope of this phenomenon. The results obtained introduce the occurrence of RNA-dependent mRNA amplification as a new mode of genomic protein-encoding information transfer in mammalian cells and establish it as a general physiological phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia Rits
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Children’s Hospital, Boston, USA
- Deptartment of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, USA
| | - Bjorn R. Olsen
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, USA
| | - Vladimir Volloch
- Department of Developmental Biology, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, USA
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Schelle J, Wegenast-Braun BM, Fritschi SK, Kaeser SA, Jährling N, Eicke D, Skodras A, Beschorner N, Obermueller U, Häsler LM, Wolfer DP, Mueggler T, Shimshek DR, Neumann U, Dodt HU, Staufenbiel M, Jucker M. Early Aβ reduction prevents progression of cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Ann Neurol 2019; 86:561-571. [PMID: 31359452 DOI: 10.1002/ana.25562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Clinical trials targeting β-amyloid peptides (Aβ) for Alzheimer disease (AD) failed for arguable reasons that include selecting the wrong stages of AD pathophysiology or Aβ being the wrong target. Targeting Aβ to prevent cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) has not been rigorously followed, although the causal role of Aβ for CAA and related hemorrhages is undisputed. CAA occurs with normal aging and to various degrees in AD, where its impact and treatment is confounded by the presence of parenchymal Aβ deposition. METHODS APPDutch mice develop CAA in the absence of parenchymal amyloid, mimicking hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis Dutch type (HCHWA-D). Mice were treated with a β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) inhibitor. We used 3-dimensional ultramicroscopy and immunoassays for visualizing CAA and assessing Aβ in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and brain. RESULTS CAA onset in mice was at 22 to 24 months, first in frontal leptomeningeal and superficial cortical vessels followed by vessels penetrating the cortical layers. CSF Aβ increased with aging followed by a decrease of both Aβ40 and Aβ42 upon CAA onset, supporting the idea that combined reduction of CSF Aβ40 and Aβ42 is a specific biomarker for vascular amyloid. BACE1 inhibitor treatment starting at CAA onset and continuing for 4 months revealed a 90% Aβ reduction in CSF and largely prevented CAA progression and associated pathologies. INTERPRETATION This is the first study showing that Aβ reduction at early disease time points largely prevents CAA in the absence of parenchymal amyloid. Our observation provides a preclinical basis for Aβ-reducing treatments in patients at risk of CAA and in presymptomatic HCHWA-D. ANN NEUROL 2019;86:561-571.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Schelle
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Bettina M Wegenast-Braun
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sarah K Fritschi
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Stephan A Kaeser
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Nina Jährling
- TU Wien, Vienna, Austria.,Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Daniel Eicke
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Angelos Skodras
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Natalie Beschorner
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ulrike Obermueller
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Lisa M Häsler
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - David P Wolfer
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Mueggler
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University and Swiss Federal Institute for Technology, Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | - Ulf Neumann
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Hans-Ulrich Dodt
- TU Wien, Vienna, Austria.,Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthias Staufenbiel
- Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Mathias Jucker
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Moussa-Pacha NM, Abdin SM, Omar HA, Alniss H, Al-Tel TH. BACE1 inhibitors: Current status and future directions in treating Alzheimer's disease. Med Res Rev 2019; 40:339-384. [PMID: 31347728 DOI: 10.1002/med.21622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an irreversible, progressive neurodegenerative brain disorder with no current cure. One of the important therapeutic approaches of AD is the inhibition of β-site APP cleaving enzyme-1 (BACE1), which is involved in the rate-limiting step of the cleavage process of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) leading to the generation of the neurotoxic amyloid β (Aβ) protein after the γ-secretase completes its function. The produced insoluble Aβ aggregates lead to plaques deposition and neurodegeneration. BACE1 is, therefore, one of the attractive targets for the treatment of AD. This approach led to the development of potent BACE1 inhibitors, many of which were advanced to late stages in clinical trials. Nonetheless, the high failure rate of lead drug candidates targeting BACE1 brought to the forefront the need for finding new targets to uncover the mystery behind AD. In this review, we aim to discuss the most promising classes of BACE1 inhibitors with a description and analysis of their pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic parameters, with more focus on the lead drug candidates that reached late stages of clinical trials, such as MK8931, AZD-3293, JNJ-54861911, E2609, and CNP520. In addition, the manuscript discusses the safety concerns and insignificant physiological effects, which were highlighted for the most successful BACE1 inhibitors. Furthermore, the review demonstrates with increasing evidence that despite tremendous efforts and promising results conceived with BACE1 inhibitors, the latest studies suggest that their clinical use for treating Alzheimer's disease should be reconsidered. Finally, the review sheds light on alternative therapeutic options for targeting AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nour M Moussa-Pacha
- Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Shifaa M Abdin
- Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Hany A Omar
- Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.,College of Pharmacy and College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.,Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Hasan Alniss
- Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.,College of Pharmacy and College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Taleb H Al-Tel
- Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.,College of Pharmacy and College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
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Sacher C, Blume T, Beyer L, Peters F, Eckenweber F, Sgobio C, Deussing M, Albert NL, Unterrainer M, Lindner S, Gildehaus FJ, von Ungern-Sternberg B, Brzak I, Neumann U, Saito T, Saido TC, Bartenstein P, Rominger A, Herms J, Brendel M. Longitudinal PET Monitoring of Amyloidosis and Microglial Activation in a Second-Generation Amyloid-β Mouse Model. J Nucl Med 2019; 60:1787-1793. [PMID: 31302633 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.119.227322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Nonphysiologic overexpression of amyloid-β (Aβ) precursor protein in common transgenic Aβ mouse models of Alzheimer disease likely hampers their translational potential. The novel App NL-G-F mouse incorporates a mutated knock-in, potentially presenting an improved model of Alzheimer disease for Aβ-targeting treatment trials. We aimed to establish serial small-animal PET of amyloidosis and neuroinflammation in App NL-G-F mice as a tool for therapy monitoring. Methods: App NL-G-F mice (20 homozygous and 21 heterogeneous) and 12 age-matched wild-type mice were investigated longitudinally from 2.5 to 10 mo of age with 18F-florbetaben Aβ PET and 18F-GE-180 18-kDa translocator protein (TSPO) PET. Voxelwise analysis of SUV ratio images was performed using statistical parametric mapping. All mice underwent a Morris water maze test of spatial learning after their final scan. Quantification of fibrillar Aβ and activated microglia by immunohistochemistry and biochemistry served for validation of the PET results. Results: The periaqueductal gray emerged as a suitable pseudo reference tissue for both tracers. Homozygous App NL-G-F mice had a rising SUV ratio in cortex and hippocampus for Aβ (+9.1%, +3.8%) and TSPO (+19.8%, +14.2%) PET from 2.5 to 10 mo of age (all P < 0.05), whereas heterozygous App NL-G-F mice did not show significant changes with age. Significant voxelwise clusters of Aβ deposition and microglial activation in homozygous mice appeared at 5 mo of age. Immunohistochemical and biochemical findings correlated strongly with the PET data. Water maze escape latency was significantly elevated in homozygous App NL-G-F mice compared with wild-type at 10 mo of age and was associated with high TSPO binding. Conclusion: Longitudinal PET in App NL-G-F knock-in mice enables monitoring of amyloidogenesis and neuroinflammation in homozygous mice but is insensitive to minor changes in heterozygous animals. The combination of PET with behavioral tasks in App NL-G-F treatment trials is poised to provide important insights in preclinical drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Sacher
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Munich, LMU Munich, Munich Germany
| | - Tanja Blume
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Munich, LMU Munich, Munich Germany.,DZNE-German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Munich, Germany
| | - Leonie Beyer
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Munich, LMU Munich, Munich Germany
| | - Finn Peters
- DZNE-German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Munich, Germany
| | - Florian Eckenweber
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Munich, LMU Munich, Munich Germany
| | - Carmelo Sgobio
- DZNE-German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Munich, Germany
| | - Maximilian Deussing
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Munich, LMU Munich, Munich Germany
| | - Nathalie L Albert
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Munich, LMU Munich, Munich Germany
| | - Marcus Unterrainer
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Munich, LMU Munich, Munich Germany
| | - Simon Lindner
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Munich, LMU Munich, Munich Germany
| | - Franz-Josef Gildehaus
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Munich, LMU Munich, Munich Germany
| | | | - Irena Brzak
- Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (NIBR), Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ulf Neumann
- Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (NIBR), Basel, Switzerland
| | - Takashi Saito
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan
| | - Takaomi C Saido
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan
| | - Peter Bartenstein
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Munich, LMU Munich, Munich Germany
| | - Axel Rominger
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Munich, LMU Munich, Munich Germany.,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany.,Department of Nuclear Medicine, Inselspital, University Hospital Bern, Bern, Switzerland; and
| | - Jochen Herms
- DZNE-German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany.,Center of Neuropathology and Prion Research, University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Matthias Brendel
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Munich, LMU Munich, Munich Germany .,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
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45
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Zheng Q, Kebede MT, Kemeh MM, Islam S, Lee B, Bleck SD, Wurfl LA, Lazo ND. Inhibition of the Self-Assembly of Aβ and of Tau by Polyphenols: Mechanistic Studies. Molecules 2019; 24:E2316. [PMID: 31234523 PMCID: PMC6630797 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24122316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide and tau protein are thought to play key neuropathogenic roles in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Both Aβ and tau self-assemble to form the two major pathological hallmarks of AD: amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, respectively. In this review, we show that naturally occurring polyphenols abundant in fruits, vegetables, red wine, and tea possess the ability to target pathways associated with the formation of assemblies of Aβ and tau. Polyphenols modulate the enzymatic processing of the amyloid-β precursor protein and inhibit toxic Aβ oligomerization by enhancing the clearance of Aβ42 monomer, modulating monomer-monomer interactions and remodeling oligomers to non-toxic forms. Additionally, polyphenols modulate tau hyperphosphorylation and inhibit tau β-sheet formation. The anti-Aβ-self-assembly and anti-tau-self-assembly effects of polyphenols increase their potential as preventive or therapeutic agents against AD, a complex disease that involves many pathological mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuchen Zheng
- Carlson School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Clark University, 950 Main Street, Worcester, MA 01610, USA.
| | - Micheal T Kebede
- Carlson School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Clark University, 950 Main Street, Worcester, MA 01610, USA.
| | - Merc M Kemeh
- Carlson School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Clark University, 950 Main Street, Worcester, MA 01610, USA.
| | - Saadman Islam
- Carlson School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Clark University, 950 Main Street, Worcester, MA 01610, USA.
| | - Bethany Lee
- Carlson School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Clark University, 950 Main Street, Worcester, MA 01610, USA.
| | - Stuart D Bleck
- Carlson School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Clark University, 950 Main Street, Worcester, MA 01610, USA.
| | - Liliana A Wurfl
- Carlson School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Clark University, 950 Main Street, Worcester, MA 01610, USA.
| | - Noel D Lazo
- Carlson School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Clark University, 950 Main Street, Worcester, MA 01610, USA.
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46
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Neumann U, Ufer M, Jacobson LH, Rouzade-Dominguez ML, Huledal G, Kolly C, Lüönd RM, Machauer R, Veenstra SJ, Hurth K, Rueeger H, Tintelnot-Blomley M, Staufenbiel M, Shimshek DR, Perrot L, Frieauff W, Dubost V, Schiller H, Vogg B, Beltz K, Avrameas A, Kretz S, Pezous N, Rondeau JM, Beckmann N, Hartmann A, Vormfelde S, David OJ, Galli B, Ramos R, Graf A, Lopez Lopez C. The BACE-1 inhibitor CNP520 for prevention trials in Alzheimer's disease. EMBO Mol Med 2019; 10:emmm.201809316. [PMID: 30224383 PMCID: PMC6220303 DOI: 10.15252/emmm.201809316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The beta‐site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme‐1 (BACE‐1) initiates the generation of amyloid‐β (Aβ), and the amyloid cascade leading to amyloid plaque deposition, neurodegeneration, and dementia in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Clinical failures of anti‐Aβ therapies in dementia stages suggest that treatment has to start in the early, asymptomatic disease states. The BACE‐1 inhibitor CNP520 has a selectivity, pharmacodynamics, and distribution profile suitable for AD prevention studies. CNP520 reduced brain and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Aβ in rats and dogs, and Aβ plaque deposition in APP‐transgenic mice. Animal toxicology studies of CNP520 demonstrated sufficient safety margins, with no signs of hair depigmentation, retina degeneration, liver toxicity, or cardiovascular effects. In healthy adults ≥ 60 years old, treatment with CNP520 was safe and well tolerated and resulted in robust and dose‐dependent Aβ reduction in the cerebrospinal fluid. Thus, long‐term, pivotal studies with CNP520 have been initiated in the Generation Program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulf Neumann
- Neuroscience, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Mike Ufer
- Translational Medicine, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Laura H Jacobson
- Neuroscience, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Gunilla Huledal
- PK Sciences, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Carine Kolly
- Preclinical Safety, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Rainer M Lüönd
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Rainer Machauer
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Siem J Veenstra
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Konstanze Hurth
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Heinrich Rueeger
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Derya R Shimshek
- Neuroscience, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ludovic Perrot
- Neuroscience, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Wilfried Frieauff
- Preclinical Safety, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Valerie Dubost
- Preclinical Safety, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Hilmar Schiller
- PK Sciences, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Barbara Vogg
- PK Sciences, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Karen Beltz
- PK Sciences, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Alexandre Avrameas
- Biomarker Discovery, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sandrine Kretz
- Biomarker Discovery, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicole Pezous
- Translational Medicine, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Michel Rondeau
- Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicolau Beckmann
- Musculoskeletal Diseases, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Hartmann
- Preclinical Safety, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Vormfelde
- Translational Medicine, Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Bruno Galli
- Global Drug Development, Novartis, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Rita Ramos
- Global Drug Development, Novartis, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ana Graf
- Global Drug Development, Novartis, Basel, Switzerland
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47
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Zott B, Busche MA, Sperling RA, Konnerth A. What Happens with the Circuit in Alzheimer's Disease in Mice and Humans? Annu Rev Neurosci 2019; 41:277-297. [PMID: 29986165 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-080317-061725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A major mystery of many types of neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), remains the underlying, disease-specific neuronal damage. Because of the strong interconnectivity of neurons in the brain, neuronal dysfunction necessarily disrupts neuronal circuits. In this article, we review evidence for the disruption of large-scale networks from imaging studies of humans and relate it to studies of cellular dysfunction in mouse models of AD. The emerging picture is that some forms of early network dysfunctions can be explained by excessively increased levels of neuronal activity. The notion of such neuronal hyperactivity receives strong support from in vivo and in vitro cellular imaging and electrophysiological recordings in the mouse, which provide mechanistic insights underlying the change in neuronal excitability. Overall, some key aspects of AD-related neuronal dysfunctions in humans and mice are strikingly similar and support the continuation of such a translational strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Zott
- Institute of Neuroscience, Technical University of Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany; .,Center for Integrated Protein Sciences, Technical University of Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology, Technical University of Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Marc Aurel Busche
- MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, USA.,Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
| | - Reisa A Sperling
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA.,Department of Neurology and Center for Alzheimer Research and Treatment, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.,Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
| | - Arthur Konnerth
- Institute of Neuroscience, Technical University of Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany; .,Center for Integrated Protein Sciences, Technical University of Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology, Technical University of Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
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48
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Fujimoto K, Matsuoka E, Asada N, Tadano G, Yamamoto T, Nakahara K, Fuchino K, Ito H, Kanegawa N, Moechars D, Gijsen HJM, Kusakabe KI. Structure-Based Design of Selective β-Site Amyloid Precursor Protein Cleaving Enzyme 1 (BACE1) Inhibitors: Targeting the Flap to Gain Selectivity over BACE2. J Med Chem 2019; 62:5080-5095. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b00309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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49
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Neumann U, Machauer R, Shimshek DR. The β-secretase (BACE) inhibitor NB-360 in preclinical models: From amyloid-β reduction to downstream disease-relevant effects. Br J Pharmacol 2019; 176:3435-3446. [PMID: 30657591 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of β-secretase 1 (BACE-1; also known as β-site amyloid precursor protein-cleaving enzyme-1) is a current approach to fight the amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease, and a number of BACE-1 inhibitors are being tested in clinical trials. The BACE-1 inhibitor NB-360, although not a clinical compound, turned out to be a valuable pharmacological tool to investigate the effects of BACE-1 inhibition on the deposition of different Aβ species in amyloid precursor protein (APP) transgenic mice. Furthermore, chronic animal studies with NB-360 revealed relationships between BACE-1 inhibition, Aβ deposition, and Aβ-related downstream effects on neuroinflammation, neuronal function, and markers of neurodegeneration. NB-360 effects on the processing of physiological BACE-1 substrates as well as on nonenzymatic BACE-1 functions have been investigated, complementing studies in BACE-1 knockout mice. Because NB-360 is also an inhibitor for BACE-2, nonclinical studies in adult animals revealed physiological effects of BACE-2 inhibition. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on Therapeutics for Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease: New Directions for Precision Medicine. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.18/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulf Neumann
- Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Rainer Machauer
- Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Derya R Shimshek
- Novartis Institute for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, Basel, Switzerland
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50
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Ghosh AK, Brindisi M, Yen YC, Lendy EK, Kovela S, Cárdenas EL, Reddy BS, Rao KV, Downs D, Huang X, Tang J, Mesecar AD. Highly Selective and Potent Human β-Secretase 2 (BACE2) Inhibitors against Type 2 Diabetes: Design, Synthesis, X-ray Structure and Structure-Activity Relationship Studies. ChemMedChem 2019; 14:545-560. [PMID: 30637955 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201800725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Herein we present the design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of potent and highly selective β-secretase 2 (memapsin 1, beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 2, or BACE 2) inhibitors. BACE2 has been recognized as an exciting new target for type 2 diabetes. The X-ray structure of BACE1 bound to inhibitor 2 a {N3 -[(1S,2R)-1-benzyl-2-hydroxy-3-[[(1S,2S)-2-hydroxy-1-(isobutylcarbamoyl)propyl]amino]propyl]-5-[methyl(methylsulfonyl)amino]-N1 -[(1R)-1-phenylpropyl]benzene-1,3-dicarboxamide} containing a hydroxyethylamine isostere was determined. Based on this structure, a computational docking study was performed which led to inhibitor 2 a-bound BACE2 models. These were used to optimize the potency and selectivity of inhibitors. A systematic structure-activity relationship study led to the identification of determinants of the inhibitors' potency and selectivity toward the BACE2 enzyme. Inhibitors 2 d [N3 -[(1S,2R)-1-benzyl-2-hydroxy-3-[[(1S,2S)-2-hydroxy-1-(isobutylcarbamoyl)pentyl]amino]propyl]-N1 -methyl-N1 -[(1R)-1-phenylpropyl]benzene-1,3-dicarboxamide; Ki =0.031 nm, selectivity over BACE1: ≈174 000-fold] and 3 l [N1 -((2S,3R)-3-hydroxy-1-phenyl-4-((3-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl)amino)butan-2-yl)-N3 ,5-dimethyl-N3 -((R)-1-phenylethyl)isophthalamide; Ki =1.6 nm, selectivity over BACE1: >500-fold] displayed outstanding potency and selectivity. Inhibitor 3 l is nonpeptide in nature and may pave the way to the development of a new class of potent and selective BACE2 inhibitors with clinical potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun K Ghosh
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Margherita Brindisi
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Yu-Chen Yen
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Emma K Lendy
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Satish Kovela
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Emilio Leal Cárdenas
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Bhavanam Sekhara Reddy
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Kalapala Venketeswara Rao
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Deborah Downs
- Protein Studies Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Science Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Xiangping Huang
- Protein Studies Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Science Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Jordan Tang
- Protein Studies Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Science Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Andrew D Mesecar
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
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