Prevalence of self-medication practice among health sciences students in Kermanshah, Iran

Unused, expired pharmaceuticals and their disposal practices among the general public in Burdur-Türkiye: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Unused pharmaceuticals are currently a public health problem. This study aimed to identify unused pharmaceuticals, research practices about the disposal methods, classify the medicines according to Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical codes (ATC) and, to determine the number of unused medicines.

METHODS

The study was designed as a cross-sectional study. Data were collected between April and August 2023 in Burdur-Türkiye by non-probability sampling technique (convenience method). Pharmaceuticals were classified according to ATC. Statistical Package for Social Science SPSS (V.24) package program was used for data analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 1120 people, 1005 in the first sample group and 115 in the second sample group, participated in the study. Findings of first sample group: A total of 4097 boxes of unused pharmaceuticals (4.7 ± 4.3 boxes/per capita) were detected. It was found that pharmaceuticals were stored in areas such as kitchens (59.1%) and refrigerators (38.6%), the reason for keeping them was reuse (41%), and the disposal practice was household garbage (81%). Paracetamol (648 boxes), Other cold preparation (303 boxes), Dexketoprofen (239 boxes), Diclofenac (218 boxes), Amoxicillin and beta-lactamase inhibitor (190 boxes) were found to be the most frequently unused pharmaceuticals. Using the unused medicines at home without consulting a physician was 94.1% (self-medication). Findings of second sample group: Of the 6189 dosage forms in 265 boxes pharmaceutical, 3132(50.6%) dosage forms were used and 3057(49.4%) were found to be unused.

CONCLUSION

There is a significant amount and number of unused medicines in households, and self-medication is common. Medicines are not properly disposed of and some of them expire. Public information is needed. A "drug take-back system" for unused medicines can be useful in solving this problem.

The prevalence and causes of self-medication among medical university students in Iran during COVID-19 outbreak and its implications for public health and health systems: A cross-sectional study

Background and Aims

Self-medication is a worldwide phenomenon that brings advantages and disadvantages to public health and health systems. This study investigated the extent and causes of self-medication among medical university students and its implications for public health in Iran in 2020.

Methods

The present study was designed as a descriptive-analytical cross-sectional study that examined the knowledge, attitude, and practice of self-medication. The population of the study was the students of health sciences programs who all entered the study. The data collection tool included a questionnaire designed online and available to students. The content validity ratio of the questionnaire was 0.84, and the alpha Cronbach coefficient was calculated at 0.8936.

Results

The prevalence of self-medication among medical university students was 19%. The most common reason for self-medication was the safety of medicines (66.67%). The most usual form of medication used was the tablet (35.67%), the most common drug taken was acetaminophen (69.01%), and the most common disease to self-medicate for was headache (67.36%). Estimating the odds ratio of self-medication with demographic variables showed no relationship. However, after adjusting the variables, age and type of degree showed an association with self-medication, as the older participants and postgraduate students had positive attitudes toward self-medication.

Conclusion

Self-medication may be helpful, but it often needs proper guidance and logic and can carry various risks. Considering that medical sciences students will be influential in society in the future, it is necessary to pay more attention to correcting their drug use culture and providing access to health services for everyone. Appropriate prescription of medicines, controlling drug sales in pharmacies, highlighting the role of pharmacists in safe self-medication, and controlling the prevalence of self-medication is necessary.

Antimicrobial stewardship: knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding antimicrobial use and resistance among non-healthcare students at the University of Zambia

Background

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a significant threat to the world and could become humanity's next major challenge. This study assessed non-healthcare students' knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) towards antimicrobial use (AMU) and AMR at the University of Zambia.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted among 443 non-healthcare students from August to October 2022 using a structured questionnaire. Data analysis was done using IBM SPSS version 24.0.

Results

Of the 433 participants, 55.2%, 63.5% and 45% had moderate KAP scores regarding AMU and AMR. The prevalence of self-medication with antibiotics was 76.7%. Male participants were less likely to have good knowledge (OR = 0.524, 95% CI: 0.347-0.792) and positive attitudes (OR = 0.585, 95% CI: 0.364-0.940) towards AMU and AMR compared with females. Students who were studying Engineering and Mining were more likely to have good knowledge of AMR (OR = 1.891, 95% CI: 1.197-2.987) compared with those in Social Sciences. Those who were in their fourth and fifth years were more likely to have positive attitudes towards AMU and AMR (OR = 1.851, 95% CI: 1.147-2.986) compared with those who were in the first, second and third years. Finally, students who practised self-medication were less likely to have good self-reported practice towards AMR (OR = 0.442, 95% CI: 0.278-0.702) compared with those who did not.

Conclusions

This study demonstrated that non-healthcare students had moderate KAP regarding AMU and AMR. All university students should be provided with education about AMU and AMR through free short courses, seminars, workshops, and AMR and antimicrobial stewardship awareness campaigns.

Using the Simulated Patient Method to Evaluate the Community Pharmacy Management of Childhood Diarrhoea: A Systematic Review

The simulated patient method has been widely used to assess community pharmacy practice in the management of childhood diarrhoea. In such a process, a community pharmacist is required to explore a patient's history, choose the right medication and provide drug-related information. The aim of this review was to evaluate the aforementioned practice. A comprehensive literature search was carried out over Sage Journal, PubMed, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar, and the analysis was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. Eligible articles were those published from 2011 to 2021 and original studies that used the simulated patient method to examine the pharmaceutical services provided by pharmacists in relation to childhood diarrhoea. The eight studies that satisfied the eligibility criteria were reviewed. These investigations were undertaken in Brazil, Nigeria, Turkey, Ethiopia and Pakistan. Five of the studies focused on history taking with regard to the characteristics of diarrhoea and revealed that the evaluated pharmacists asked about patient histories. In terms of therapy, three studies indicated that the evaluated pharmacists recommended the administration of oral rehydration salts. Pharmacies should improve their history-taking process, provide drug-related information and recommend therapies to increase the knowledge of simulated patients about diarrhoea treatment in children.

Exploring health seeking behaviors for common cold management

Background

The prevalence of common cold can impose financial burden on the healthcare systems, despite its simple and self-limiting symptoms.

Objective

This study examines the behavior of patients suffering from symptoms of the common cold and explores the factors that may influence such behaviors.

Methods

A descriptive-analytic cross-sectional study was conducted in 2019, in Tehran, Iran, using cluster sampling in socioeconomically diverse areas within the city. The participants' behaviors and related factors were evaluated using a 10-item questionnaire. Data collection process involved selecting 5 shopping centers and 404 individuals participated the study. SPSS version 24 was used for analysis.

Results

The results showed that 42.1% of the respondents would consult a physician immediately upon experiencing cold symptoms, while 11.4% would consult a pharmacist.In addition, 14.3% would try self-medication, 28.3% relied on traditional home remedies, and 15%indicated not to make use of any remedies or interventions. The study indicated a correlation between people's behaviors concerning the common cold and their level of health self-confidence, knowledge of the common cold, lifestyle, gender, marital status, occupational status, insurance status, and average family spending.

Conclusion

The findings of this study are significant in that they shed light on the behaviors of individuals and associated factors related to seeking medical assistance for the common cold. This knowledge can assist healthcare systems in developing strategies aimed at enhancing treatment outcomes, and decreasing costs.

[Evaluation of self-medication practices and their characteristics among Uvira in Democratic Republic of Congo students]

Introduction

self-medication poses a threat to public health. The purpose of this study was to evaluate self-medication practices among Uvira students in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).

Methods

we conducted a cross-sectional descriptive study based on an indirect interview of 700 students, using a self-administered survey questionnaire. Data were processed using XLSTAT.

Results

according to the survey conducted on these 700 students, the prevalence of self-medication was 99.3% (n=695), of which 42.3% (n=294) started during adolescence. Of the total respondents, 57.4% (n=399) said they resorted to self-medication every time they fell ill and were short of money (n=471, 67.7%) for a consultation. The most commonly cited pathology encountered during this practice was malaria (n=212, 30.5%). Of all drugs used, paracetamol was in the first place (n=106, 15.3%) while the tablet was the form most used by these students (n=598, 86%). In terms of the drug combination, Fansidar-Coartem (n=106, 17.2%) was the most common; the dosage was age-dependent in 65.6% (n=456) of cases. This study also showed that 37.4% (n=695) of the students interviewed used phytotherapy, mainly to treat malaria (n=124, 47.3%).

Conclusion

among Uvira students, self-medication is extremely used, especially against malaria. Efforts must be made by healthcare personnel in collaboration with policymakers to raise awareness about the rational use of medications, in order to better control and potentially eradicate this practice that is harmful to health.

Prevalence of Self-Medication Among Female University Students During Examinations: A Cross-Sectional Study in Saudi Arabia

Introduction Those who practice self-care using over-the-counter (OTC) products believe that these medications are relatively safe. They can be used to treat mild illnesses that do not require medical consultation. However, improper self-medication using OTC medicines because of inadequate knowledge of their side effects and interactions can result in drug-related issues and even death. The current study was performed using the foundation year students of Princess Nourah Bint Abdul Rahman University (PNU) as subjects, to examine the use of OTC medicines during examination times. Methods This cross-sectional study was done on 213 (response rates 87.7%) foundation-year female students in the Health Colleges at PNU in Riyadh. Using a 26-item, self-administered, online questionnaire, data were collected. Results It was found that more than 50% of the students used OTC medicines habitually during exam periods. A majority (90.6%; p< 0.0001) of the students mentioned that the overuse of Panadol Extra was very safe while 67.6% (p< 0.0001) of them declared that nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) would not induce stomach ulcer formation. A higher percentage (67.6%; p<0.0001) of the students confirmed using OTC medicines during exam time for headache relief. A higher percentage (72.8%; p< 0.0001) of the students indicated that because the OTC medications were readily available and they believed these drugs were safe, they used sizable quantities during the time of the examinations. Furthermore, 69% (p< 0.0001) of the students confessed that because of a friend's recommendations, they started trying OTC medicine. Above 67% (p< 0.0001) stated that OTC medications are inexpensive and easily available in Saudi Arabia. Conclusion To conclude, the findings of this study reiterated the high usage of OTC medicines by female students during the time of examination, and the highest used were painkillers.

Prevalence and reasons for self-medication for prevention of COVID-19 among the adult population in Kermanshah-Iran

AIM

To determine the prevalence of self-medication and reasons for self-medication (SM) for the prevention/treatment of COVID-19 among the adult population.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

METHODS

This study was performed on 147 adults in Kermanshah, Iran. Data were collected by a researcher-made questionnaire and analysed by SPSS-18 software using descriptive and inferential statistics.

RESULTS

The prevalence of SM in the participants was 69.4%. Vitamin D and vitamin B complex were the most commonly used drugs. The most common symptoms leading to SM were fatigue and rhinitis. Strengthening the immune system and prevention of COVID-19 (48%) were the main reasons for SM. Factors related to SM included marital status [OR = 8.04, 95% CI = (3.62, 17.83)], education [OR = 0.16, 95%CI = (0.08, 0.35)] and monthly income [OR = 0.09, 95%CI = (0.03, 0.26)].

PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION

Yes.

Prevalence and influencing factors of self-medication during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Arab region: a multinational cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

The novel coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) has begun with a wave of misinformation and fear of infection. This may have led people to self-medicate inappropriately. The World Health Organization describes self-medication (SM) as utilizing medicines to relieve symptoms or health conditions without consulting a physician. Inappropriate drug use is a burden on both health resources and patient health in the Arab region. This study aimed to detect the prevalence and influencing factors of self-medication among the general Arab population during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

A multinational cross-sectional study was conducted among the general population of ten Arab countries from early August to late October 2021. Participants aged 18 years or older could join the study via social media platforms. A convenience sampling technique was used. A developed and validated web-based questionnaire was used to collect data on self-medication practice, associated influencing factors, information sources, commonly used medications, and commonly treated conditions. Descriptive, univariate, and multivariate regression analyses were applied using IBM SPSS v 26 and R v 4.0.0 software.

RESULTS

A total of 8163 participants completed the questionnaire, and 518 participants were excluded from the analysis due to inconsistencies in their data. Almost two-thirds (62.7%) of participants reported practicing self-medication during the COVID-19 pandemic. At the country level, Egypt had the highest prevalence of self-medication practice (72.1%), while Palestine had the lowest prevalence (40.4%). The most commonly used drugs were analgesics, antipyretics, and vitamins (86, 65.1, and 57.1%, respectively), while antitussives and antibiotics scored 47.6 and 43.3%, respectively. Experience with similar health conditions (74.6%) and urgency of the problem (47.2%) were the most frequent factors that led to self-medication. Additionally, 38.2% of the self-medicated participants (SMPs) used drugs as prophylaxis against COVID-19. Pharmacist consultation was the most common source of information about self-medication (66.7%). Multivariate analysis showed that predictors of self-medication were older age (p = 0.008), presence of chronic illness (p = 0.015), and having monthly income or medical insurance that does not cover the treatment cost (p = 0.001, p < 0.001, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Self-medication is considered a common practice across the Arab population. It is necessary to regulate policies and raise awareness among the public about self-medication.

Self-medication practice in Kathmandu Metropolitan City: A cross-sectional study

Objectives

Self-medication is increasingly popular among people in developing nations like Nepal where the expense of healthcare is relatively high and over-the-counter) medications are widely and easily accessible. Although this method has certain advantages, it is also clear that it has some drawbacks, including the potential for adverse drug reactions, drug resistance, medication interactions, and increased morbidity and mortality. This study aimed to evaluate the use of self-medication in nine wards of Kathmandu Metropolitan City (ward no. 4, 5, 13, 15, 16, 17, 23, 31, and 32).

Methods

This cross-sectional descriptive survey was conducted in the chosen wards of Kathmandu Metropolitan city for 3 months from August to October 2021. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 372 patients who were seeking self-medication. The participants were chosen randomly.

Results

Self-medication was common among people (78%). The most frequent ailments for which participants self-medicated were the common cold (17.1%), headache (14.7%), fever (14.5%), and cough (7.6%). Anticold medications (18.2%), non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (17.4%), antipyretics (15.2%), and analgesics (9.1%) were the most popular drug classes used in self-medication. The two most frequent justifications for self-medication were the absence of any major ailment (35%) and self-experience (22.7%). When symptoms started, the majority of patients started taking medication for themselves, and 47.7% of them got their prescriptions directly from the pharmacist by explaining their symptoms. When the symptoms were not relieved by the medication used for self-medication, it was found that the majority of participants (79.7%) stopped using the medication and visit the doctor.

Conclusion

The prevalence of self-medication in Kathmandu city was ascertained by assessing the practice among residents of the Kathmandu Metropolitan city. The study showed self-medication is common among people and therefore, proper education about drug use and self-medication is needed.

Self-medication in Chinese residents and the related factors of whether or not they would take suggestions from medical staff as an important consideration during self-medication

Objective

To investigate the status of Chinese residents' self-medication behavior and the important factors to consider when purchasing OTC drugs, and to explore the related factors of the possibility that Chinese residents take medical staff's suggestions as important factors to consider when purchasing OTC drugs.

Study design

A cross-sectional survey.

Methods

A questionnaire was developed for exploring the sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents, their self-medication status, and important considerations. The questionnaire includes several scales including Health Literacy Scale-Short Form (HLS-SF), EQ-5D Visual Analog Scale (EQ-5D-VAS), Big Five Inventary-10 Items (BFI-10), and New General Self Efficacy Scale (NGSES). After carrying out a multi-stage sampling method, the questionnaire was conducted nationwide from July 10 to September 15, 2021. Next, descriptive statistics were conducted to analyze the general features. Logistic regression was then used to analyze the related factors of the possibility that the respondents took the suggestions of medical staff as an important consideration when purchasing OTC drugs.

Results

Nine thousand two hundred fifty-six qualified questionnaires were received. 99.06% of Chinese adults had self-medication behaviors. The types of OTC drugs purchased most by the respondents were NSAIDs (5,421/9,256 people, 58.57%) and vitamins/minerals (4,851/9,256 people, 52.41%). 86.2% of the respondents took the suggestions of medical staff as an important consideration when purchasing OTC drugs. The results of multi-factor logistic regression showed that women, those living in the central and western regions of China, those suffering from chronic diseases, those with high agreeableness, high conscientiousness, high neuroticism and openness, high health literacy, high EQ-5D-VAS, and those with high self-efficacy are more likely to take medical staff's suggestions as important factors to consider.

Conclusion

The vast majority of Chinese adults have self-medication behavior. Important considerations when purchasing OTC drugs include medical staff's suggestions, drug safety and drug efficacy. Whether residents take the suggestions of medical staff as an important consideration is related to their sociological characteristics, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness, health literacy, self-assessment health status, and self-efficacy. When purchasing and using OTC drugs, residents should carefully listen to the suggestions from medical staff. They should also carefully consider their own conditions before buying OTC drugs.

Self-Medication Behaviors of Chinese Residents and Consideration Related to Drug Prices and Medical Insurance Reimbursement When Self-Medicating: A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

Self-medication has become a common phenomenon. Economic factors are important factors that affect the self-medication of residents. This study aimed to investigate the current status of self-medication behaviors in China and explored the related factors affecting considerations associated with medical insurance reimbursement or drug price in self-medication.

METHODS

A national cross-sectional investigation was conducted among Chinese people over 18 years old under a multi-stage sampling method through a questionnaire, which includes demographic sociological characteristics, self-medication behaviors and scales. The Chi-square test was used to analyze whether the respondents consider medical insurance reimbursement or drug price as an important factor when purchasing over-the-counter (OTC) drugs. Logistic regression was used to examine the associated factors of considering medical insurance reimbursement or drug price.

RESULTS

In total, 9256 respondents were included in this study; 37.52% of the respondents regarded drug prices as an important consideration, and 28.53% of the respondents attached great importance to medical insurance reimbursement. Elderly respondents who lived in the central region, had medical insurance, and had lower levels of health literacy were more likely to consider the medical insurance reimbursement, while respondents with high monthly family income as well as students were less likely to consider the same issue (p < 0.05). Respondents settled in the central and western regions, students, those without fixed occupations, those who suffered from chronic diseases, or those with lower health literacy were more likely to consider drug prices, while the respondents with bachelor degrees, urban population and high per capita monthly income were less likely to consider the drug prices (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Self-medication behaviors with OTC drugs were prevalent in China, and consideration factors of medical insurance reimbursement or drug prices were related to socio-demographic characteristics and health literacy. There is a need to take measures to reduce the economic burden of self-medication, improve the health literacy of residents and strengthen public health education.

A cross-sectional questionnaire based study to assess and compare knowledge of drug schedules amongst healthcare professionals in a medical college

Background

Ensuring quality, safety and efficacy of all pharmaceuticals is the responsibility of drug regulators. However, healthcare workers should be aware of the legal/regulatory provisions involved. This study was planned to assess and compare the knowledge of various drugs schedules under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 amongst medical students, post graduate residents and pharmacists.

Methods

A questionnaire was designed based on review of literature and was validated. After obtaining ethical clearance and consent from participants, questionnaire was administered to students undergoing internship/6 th semester/4 th semester, post graduate residents and pharmacy students. Participants' knowledge was assessed based on the percentage of correct responses and the intergroup comparison was done by applying ANOVA test.

Results

Overall, nearly half of the participants had poor knowledge about schedule H1. Sixth semester MBBS students had maximum knowledge followed by interns whereas pharmacy students, 4 th semester MBBS students and PG residents had poor knowledge about drug schedules.

Conclusion

The study clearly highlights the need for further knowledge dissemination about drug schedules. We recommend that a capsule course be developed especially for post graduate residents and final year pharmacy students.

Risk factors associated with self-medication among the indigenous communities of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

Background

In developing countries like Bangladesh, self-medication has become a predicament associated with health risks and clinical complications. To date, no studies have been conducted on the practice of self-medication among the indigenous population living in Chittagong Hill Tract (CHT).

Objectives

This study was aimed to determine the prevalence of self-medication and analyzing the factors associated with it among the indigenous population in CHT.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted from late October to early December 2020; among different indigenous group populations residing in the three districts of CHT aged 18 or more. A pre-tested and semi-structured questionnaire was developed to collect data on socio-demographic characteristics, health status, frequency of self-medication, reasons for self-medication in last one year, as well as other variables. Multivariate logistic regression was performed to assess associated factors with self-medication.

Results

A total of 1350 people from different indigenous populations were interviewed, among whom 49.9% practiced self-medication. The rate of self-prescribed antibiotics usage (80.9%) was significantly higher compared to other drugs. Self-prescribed medications were mostly used for diarrhea and food poisoning (60.6%), cough, cold and fever (51.4%), and headache (51.4%). A common source of self-prescribed medicines was community or retail pharmacy and the most reported reason for self-prescribed medication was the long-distance of healthcare facilities from home.

Conclusion

The prevalence of self-medication is substantially high among indigenous people and the effect is alarming. Particular concern is the misuse of antibiotics and analgesic drugs. Increasing awareness among the population of the negative effect of self-medication and implementation of proper policies and actions are urgently needed to prevent self-medication among indigenous population in Bangladesh.

The Reasons for Self-Medication from the Perspective of Iranian Nursing Students: A Qualitative Study

Background

The prevalence of self-medication has increased dramatically worldwide. This study was conducted to determine the reasons for self-medication from the perspective of Iranian nursing students.

Methods

This qualitative study was conducted using the content analysis method. Fifteen nursing students were selected by the purposeful sampling method. Data were collected by in-depth semistructured interviews. Qualitative content analysis method was used for data analysis. The MAXQDA software was used for data management.

Results

Data saturation was achieved with fifteen interviews with nine women and six men, with a mean age of 26.5 ± 4.8 years. The reasons for self-medication were explained in five categories and fifteen subcategories. Some of the reasons for self-medication were having medication information, having previous experience, easy access to medicine, lack of enough time, access to medical staff, cost of a doctor's visit, inadequate respect for patient privacy, pharmaceutical advertising in the media, and information explosion. Discussion. Several factors are involved in self-medication. Given the dangers of self-medication, health policymakers must adopt strict policies for pharmacies that sell drugs without a prescription. Furthermore, it is helpful to run training courses on self-medication risks for students.

Self-Medication Practices in Medical Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Analysis

Background and Objectives

During the pandemic, the growing influence of social media, accessibility of over-the-counter medications, and fear of contracting the virus may have led to self-medication practices among the general public. Medical students are prone to such practices due to relevant background knowledge, and access to drugs. This study was carried out to determine and analyze the prevalence of self-medication practices among medical students in Pakistan.

Materials and Methods

This descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted online in which the participants were asked about the general demographics, their self-medication practices and the reasons to use. All participants were currently enrolled in a medical college pursuing medical or pharmacy degree. Non-probability sampling technique was used to recruit participants.

Results

A total of 489 respondents were included in the final analysis. The response rate was 61%. Majority of the respondents were females and 18–20 years of age. Self-medication was quite prevalent in our study population with 406 out of 489 individuals (83.0%) were using any of the drugs since the start of pandemic. The most commonly utilized medications were Paracetamol (65.2%) and multivitamins (56.0%). The reasons reported for usage of these medications included cold/flu, or preventive measures for COVID-19. The common symptoms reported for self-medication included fever (67.9%), muscle pain (54.0%), fatigue (51.7%), sore throat (46.6%), and cough (44.4%). Paracetamol was the most commonly used drug for all symptoms. Female gender, being in 3rd year of medical studies, and individuals with good self-reported health were found more frequent users of self-medication practices.

Conclusion

Our study revealed common self-medication practices among medical and pharmacy students. It is a significant health issue especially during the pandemic times, with high consumption reported as a prevention or treating symptoms of COVID-19.

Self-Medication With Over-the-counter Medicines Among the Working Age Population in Metropolitan Areas of Thailand

Background and Objectives: Self-medication with over-the-counter (OTC) medicines is becoming an increasingly popular practice around the world. The global prevalence rate of self-medication ranges from 11.2% to 93.7%, depending on the target population and country. However, there is a lack of data on the prevalence and practices of self-medication among the working-age population, particularly in Thailand metropolitan areas. The current study describes the prevalence of self-medication practices, adverse drug reactions and severity, reasons for self-medication, and basic medication knowledge among people of working age in metropolitan areas in Thailand.

Methods: We conducted an online cross-sectional study between December 2020 and January 2021. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze self-medication data. A chi-square test was used to assess the association between self-medication and sociodemographic characteristics.

Results: This study found high prevalence of self-medication among the working-age population in metropolitan areas of Thailand (88.2%). The most commonly used drug groups were NSAIDs (34.8%) and antibiotics (30.2%). Minor illness and easy access to pharmacies were the most common reasons for self-medication. Almost half of the participants&apos; illnesses (42.6%) for which they self-medicated were not always completely cured, necessitating treatment at a hospital or clinic. Although only a small number of participants (ranged from 0.6 to 6.6%) experienced adverse drug reactions as a result of self-medication, some had severe symptoms that disrupted their daily lives or required hospitalization. In terms of basic medication knowledge, we discovered that study participants misunderstood some antibiotic drug concepts.

Conclusions: According to the study findings, it is recommended that more information about the risks of self-medication, drug adverse reactions, antibiotic stewardship, more supervision of the prohibition of over-the-counter drugs and selling practices, and adequate facilities for peoples access to medical services be provided at the policy level.

Predictors of Self-medication in Iran: A Notional Survey Study

While logical use of medicine is a priority in all health systems, people do self-medication- mainly using Nonprescription Drugs or Over the Counter (OTC) drugs- for different reasons. Self-medication is rising in many developing countries that could increase healthcare expenditure. The present study aimed to find the self-medication rate and predisposing, enabling, and need factors affecting it based on the Anderson behavioral model in the Iranian population. The present study uses 22470 households’ data acquired from Iranian utilization of healthcare survey at the national level (2016). Due to the study objective, the data of 13005 people who were over 15 years old and had outpatient healthcare needs two weeks before the survey. The survey included a binary question about self-medication, which is considered a dependent variable. Age, gender, marital status, literacy, job status, socio-economic status, location, basic health insurance, complementary health insurance, and need for health services were considered as independent variables. Data were analyzed using logistic regression. The self-medication rate was calculated at 26.3% that was different among different subgroups of the population. According to the model estimates, married (OR = 0.80, CI = 0.71-0.91) and housekeepers (OR = 0.79, CI = 0.67-0.93) had significantly lower self-medication. Moreover, the urban population (OR = 1.29, CI = 1.17-1.43), people without basic (OR = 1.32, CI = 1.10-1.58), and supplementary (OR = 1.18, CI = 1.04-1.35) health insurance and also people who had two or higher number of outpatient healthcare needs had significantly more self-medication (OR = 2.96, CI = 2.67-3.29). It can be concluded that need, enabling, and predisposing factors are respectively the main determinants of self-medication behavior. From a policy point of view, increasing effective health insurance coverage with a focus on people who have more health care needs can be helpful.

Prevalence, knowledge and perception of self-medication practice among undergraduate healthcare students

BACKGROUND

Globally, self-medication is a common practice, and an increasingly perceived necessity to relieve burdens on health services. However, inappropriate self-medication may result to reduced health outcomes, increased antimicrobial resistance and economic waste. Healthcare students are the future health professionals who will be consistently responsible for educating the public on rational use of medication. This study therefore aimed to assess the prevalence, knowledge and perception of self-medication practices among healthcare students.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was carried out among 866 healthcare students in a Nigerian University, comprising medical, nursing and pharmacy students. Information was garnered from respondents using a self-administered questionnaire. Data were summarized with descriptive statistics, while Chi-square and logistic regression tests were used for categorical variables at p < 0.05.

RESULTS

Mean age was 21 ± 2.8 years, and female respondents were 447 (51.6%). Prevalence of self-medication among respondents was 473 (54.6%). A total of 288 (55.3%) demonstrated good knowledge of self-medication practices, comprising 250 (52.2%) among those who have previously self-medicated and 229 (47.8%) among those who had not. Reasons for engaging in self-medication practices were mentioned to include treatment of minor ailments (357; 32.4%), while 248 (22.5%) believed they had the medical knowledge of what to use. Analgesic (353; 30.1%), antimalarial (352; 30.0%), and antibiotics (182; 15.5%) were the commonest classes of medication used for self-medication. Headache (363; 18.4%), malaria (334; 16.9%), and cough (184; 9.3%) were the most frequently treated conditions. More than half (281; 59.4%) of the respondents' purchased their self-medicated drugs from the community pharmacy. Gender and respondents' disciplines were found to be the independent predictors for good knowledge of self-medication practice.

CONCLUSION

Prevalence of self-medication among the studied healthcare students is moderately high, while approximately half demonstrates good knowledge and perception of self-medication practices. Stimulation for self-medication practice largely arise from the perception of treating minor ailments. This underscores a need for advocacy on responsible self-medication practice during the formal training of these future health professionals, in order to avert its imminent/widespread negative consequences.

Patterns of self-medication in Qassim Province, Saudi Arabia: A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Selling medicines in pharmacies without a prescription is a common practice in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The aim of this study was to determine the attitudes about and prevalence of non-prescribed medication for those attending community pharmacies in Qassim Province, Saudi Arabia.

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional survey based study that was designed and administered to individuals attending four community pharmacies in the main cites of Qassim Province, Saudi Arabia to obtain Over The Counter (OTC) drug use, exposure to health education, awareness of risks, important causes, and side-effects.

RESULTS

Approximately 75% of 109 individuals attending the studied pharmacies purchased non-prescribed medicines. Most participants (80%) had read the drug pamphlets and followed the instructions for use. The most common reasons for buying non-prescribed medicines were repetition of a previous prescription by a healthcare provider (30.3%), belief that the disease was minor (26.6%), convenience of pharmacist prescription (19.3%), and the low cost and shortness of time to attend health services. The most commonly used drugs were analgesics (18.3%) followed by anti-allergic medications and antibiotics, and the least commonly used drugs were laxatives and anti-diarrheal medications. There were no significant differences in the purchase of non-prescribed drugs with respect to age, gender, and educational level. Only 9% of respondents were opposed to buying non-prescribed drugs and 34% were willing to use them only when necessary.

CONCLUSIONS

There was a high prevalence of non-prescribed medicine purchase from community pharmacies in the study area. Education efforts are needed to change this behavior.

Self-medication Practice and Associated Factors among Private Health Sciences Students in Gondar Town, North West Ethiopia. A Cross-sectional Study

Self-medication is the most common practice worldwide and it may lead to irrational use of drugs. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the prevalence of self-medication practice and its associated factors among health science students. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 600 health science students in Gondar town. The data regarding self-medication practice and its associated factors were collected using a face-to-face interview on a structured questionnaire. SPSS −24 was used for data analysis and explained with univariate, and multivariate logistic regression analysis to determine the factors associated with self-medication practice (sex, age, religion, marital status, residence, department, year of study, monthly income, access to pharmacy, and peer/family pressure). A total of 554 students responded to the questionnaire with a response rate of 92.3%. Out of 554 respondents, 78.2% were practiced self-medication. Headache/fever 37.88% (n = 164) was reported as the most common complaint to practice self-medication. Among the reasons for self-medication practice, similarity of symptoms with past illness 33.49% (n = 145) was the most frequently reported. In current study, Females (AOR = 3.11, 95% CI = 1.55, 6.25), Muslim followers (AOR = 2.78, 95% CI = 1.30, 5.91), Protestant followers (AOR = 4.25, 95% CI = 1.38, 13.07), pharmacy students (AOR = 3.72, 95% CI = 1.97, 9.30), clinical nursing students (AOR = 2.88, 95% CI = 1.87, 14.48), monthly income (>500ETB) (AOR = 2.49, 95% CI = 1.12, 5.56), distance of health institution (<30 min) (AOR = 2.79, 95% CI = 1.39, 5.61), and accessibility of pharmacy (AOR = 4.85, 95% CI = 2.08, 11.29) were the independent predictors of self-medication practice. Self-medication is common in health science students in Gondar town. Health professionals should educate students on the risks and benefits of self-medication to encourage responsible self-medication. National guidelines on medicine access should be developed and strong measures should be implemented to halt the selling of medications without a proper prescription.

Prevalence and Predictors of Self-Medication Practice Among Teachers' Education Training College Students in Amhara Region, Ethiopia: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background: Self-medication practice is the use of medications without healthcare professional requests. It can lead to inappropriate medication usage, wastage of resources, increased chance of microbial resistance, and adverse drug reactions. Therefore, this study aimed at assessing the prevalence and associated factors of self-medication practice among teachers' education training college students in the Amhara region, Ethiopia. Methods: A multicentre cross-sectional study was conducted on 344 teachers' education training college students in the Amhara region, Ethiopia, from January 1 to February 28, 2020. Data on sociodemography, the practice of self-medication, and factors associated with self-medication practice were collected through a self-administered structured questionnaire. Systematic random sampling was used to select participants. Descriptive statistics and univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were done to determine various variables and factors associated with self-medication practice. Results: Out of the 344 respondents, 234 (68.0%) practiced self-medication. The most commonly cited indication for self-medication practice was headache (75, 32.05%), followed by abdominal discomfort (53, 22.6%). The respondents who were older than 26 years of age (AOR: 2.47, 95% CI: 1.18-3.94), were in the third year of study (AOR: 3.14, 95% CI: 1.94-5.79), lived in urban residence (AOR: 2.97, 95% CI: 1.06-3.64), had accessibility to a nearby pharmacy (AOR: 2.12, 95% CI: 1.43-4.46), and had peer/family pressure (AOR: 2.34, 95% Cl: 1.53-3.56) were significantly associated with self-medication practice. Conclusion: More than two-thirds of the study participants practiced self-medication. Being from an urban area, having access to a private pharmacy, and higher year of study positively affect self-medication practice.

Prevalence, pattern, source of drug information, and reasons for self-medication among dermatology patients

Self-medication is common with dermatology patients. Yet, studies on this phenomenon are few. The pattern and reasons for self-medication are not clear. The objective of this study was to document the prevalence, pattern, source of drug information, and reasons for self-medication among dermatology patients. This was a prospective cross-sectional study of 468 adult dermatology patients over a 9-month period. A self-administered questionnaire was administered to all new patients to the dermatology outpatient clinic. The questionnaire had questions on sociodemographic data, self-medication, what specifically was used by the patients, source of information, and reasons for self-medication. Data were analyzed using the SPSS 22.0. Statistics such as means, medians, and frequencies. t test and chi-square test are presented. The mean age of the patients was 37.9 ± 16.3. The prevalence of self-medication was 63.7%. The pattern of self-medication was herbal only in 11.7%, western medication only in 45.6%, and western and herbal in 42.6%. Reason for self-medication was easy accessibility in 54%, difficulty seeing a doctor in 16.8%, and difficulty accessing medical care in 13.8%. Source of drug information was Pharmacist in 46.3% and friend in 26.5%. Self-medication was significant in males and in those with inflammatory diseases. Self-medication was common and this was due to ready accessibility of drugs and poor access to doctors. Self-medication was common in males and in those who have inflammatory diseases. The pattern of self-medication was dependent on age and the level of education. Source of information on drugs was pharmacists, friends, and family.

Knowledge, attitude, and practice of pharmacy and medical students regarding self-medication, a study in Zabol University of Medical Sciences; Sistan and Baluchestan province in south-east of Iran

BACKGROUND

Self-medication is defined as using medicinal products to treat the disorders or symptoms diagnosed by oneself. Although informed self-medication is one of the ways to reduce health care costs, inappropriate self-treatment can pose various risks including drug side effects, recurrence of symptoms, drug resistance, etc. The purpose of this study was to investigate the knowledge, attitude, and practice of pharmacy and medical students toward self-medication.

METHODS

This study was conducted in Zabol University of Medical Sciences in 2018. Overall, 170 pharmacy and medical students were included. A three-part researcher-made questionnaire was designed to address the students' knowledge, attitude, and practice. Statistical analysis was performed in SPSS 25 software.

RESULTS

According to the results, 97 (57.1%) students had carried out self-medication within the past 6 months. Overall, the students self-medicated on average 4.2 ± 2.9 times per year. Self-medication was more common in male students (65.4%, P = 0.043). Cold was the most common ailment treated with self-medication (93.2%), and antibiotics (74.4%) were the most commonly used drugs. The primary information sources used by the students were their previous prescriptions (47.4%). Pharmacy students had a higher level of drug information (P < 0.001). There was a statistically significant association between the level of drug information and the tendency for self-medication (P = 0.005). Disease recurrence was the most common negative complication of self-medication.

CONCLUSION

There is a need to educate pharmacy and medical students regarding self-medication and its side effects. The high prevalence of self-medication and the overuse of antibiotics can pose a significant risk of drug resistance.

Assessment of self-medication practices in the context of the COVID-19 outbreak in Togo

BACKGROUND

To date, there is no effective treatment for COVID-19, which is a pandemic disease, caused by a novel coronavirus called SARS-CoV-2. In Togo, where four in five people practice self-medication, the absence of a cure for COVID-19 and the constant progression of the disease requires an assessment of self-medication patterns in the context of the pandemic. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of self-medication to prevent COVID-19 and its associated factors in Lomé, Togo.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted in Lomé, the capital city of Togo, from April 23rd to May 8th, 2020, with a sample of participants from five sectors: the healthcare, air transport, police, road transport and informal sectors. The participants were invited to provide information about their self-medication practices to prevent COVID-19 in the 2 weeks preceding the survey.

RESULTS

A total of 955 participants (71.6% men) with a median age of 36 (IQR 32-43) were included. Approximately 22.1% were in the air transport sector, 20.5% were in the police sector, and 38.7% were in the health sector. The overall prevalence of self-medication to prevent COVID-19 was 34.2% (95% CI: 31.2-37.3%). The most commonly used products were vitamin C (27.6%) and traditional medicine (10.2%). Only 2.0% of participants reported using chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine. Female sex (aOR=1.90; p< 0.001), work in the health sector (aOR=1.89; p= 0.001), secondary education level (aOR= 2.28; p= 0.043) and university education level (aOR= 5.11; p< 0.001) were associated with self-medication.

CONCLUSION

One-third of the individuals in high-risk populations in Lomé practiced self-medication. Intensifying awareness campaigns is crucial to fight misinformation about alleged COVID-19 prevention products on social media.

Knowledge, use (misuse) and perceptions of over-the-counter analgesics in sub-Saharan Africa: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Over-the-counter (OTC) analgesics are safe for pain-management when used as recommended. Misuse can increase the risk of hypertension and gastrointestinal problems.

OBJECTIVE

To conduct a scoping review of the uses and misuses of OTC analgesics in sub-Saharan Africa, to inform strategies for correct use.

METHOD

Following guidelines for conducting a scoping review, we systematically searched Pubmed, ResearchGate and Google Scholar databases for published articles on OTC analgesic drug use in sub-Saharan Africa, without restrictions on publication year or language. Search terms were 'analgesics', 'non-prescription drugs', 'use or dependence or patterns or misuse or abuse' and 'sub-Saharan Africa'. Articles focusing on prescription drugs were excluded.

RESULTS

Of 1381 articles identified, 35 papers from 13 countries were eligible for inclusion. Most were quantitative cross-sectional studies, two were mixed-methods studies, and one used qualitative methods only. About half (n = 17) the studies recorded prevalence of OTC drug use above 70%, including non-analgesics. Headache and fever were the most common ailments for which OTC drugs were taken. Primary sources of OTC drugs were pharmacy and drug shops, and family, friends and relatives as well as leftover drugs from previous treatment. The main reasons for OTC drug use were challenges in health service access, perception of illness as minor, and knowledge gained from treating a previous illness. Information regarding self-medication came from family, friends and neighbours, pharmacies and reading leaflets either distributed in the community or at institutions of learning. OTC drug use tended to be more commonly reported among females, those with an education lower than secondary level, and participants aged ≥50 years.

CONCLUSION

Self-medicating with OTC drugs including analgesics is prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa. However, literature on reasons for this, and misuse, is limited. Research is needed to educate providers and the public on safe use of OTC drugs.

Current self-medication practices in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: an observational study

Introduction

medication without prescription is a growing public health concern or phenomenon worldwide. This cross-sectional study was designed to study the trends of self-medication among Saudi population.

Methods

a prospective, cross-sectional study including 2004 participants was carried out from different family clinics across the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). The clinicians used a self-designed questionnaire to collect the data, using stringent inclusion criteria and exclusion criteria. The questionnaire recorded participants' demographics and included several closed-ended and open-ended questions with options to choose from. The results were gathered, inserted into an excel spreadsheet and analyzed using SPSS version 23. The analyzed information was presented as frequencies and percentages.

Results

our research showed that 924 respondents (46.1%) found it difficult to reach a hospital. Another 45.2% considered the inefficiency of health centers in providing necessary care as the main reason for self-medication. Other causes of self-medication included a lack of medical insurance, insurance not covering the costs for the drugs, and symptoms of the disease being mild enough for not going to the hospital. Analgesics were the most commonly self-administered drugs (84.58%), followed by antipyretics (71.26%), cough syrups (46.86%), eye drops (35.98%), antibiotics (35.28%), flu medication (32.83%), heartburn medication (23.15%), medicines for joint pain (15.02%), and so on.

Conclusion

the majority of Saudi Arabians engage in self-medication and rely on advice from friends and family most of the time, instead of consulting a health professional.

Management of Primary Dysmenorrhea among University Students in the South of Spain and Family Influence

The present study analyses the management of primary dysmenorrhea by university students in the south of Spain. In this cross-sectional observational study, 224 women participated, using an ad hoc self-report questionnaire about menstrual pain and self-care and including sociodemographic and gynecological variables. Some 76.8% of participants consumed analgesics and the majority self-medicated with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) without consulting a health professional, with a correlation between pain intensity and the number of pills ingested during menstruation (r = 0.151, p < 0.05). The higher proportion of women who found their analgesia effective were those who took medication after being prescribed by a health care provider (60.8%) compared to those who self-medicated (40%; p < 0.01). Only 43.8% employed non-pharmaceutical methods, most commonly antalgic positions, massages and local heat. These choices were not related to the intensity of menstrual pain nor with the severity of the dysmenorrhea, nor did these most common methods prove to be the most effective. However, a higher percentage of women using non-pharmacological methods was identified in women with family members suffering from dysmenorrhea (73.2%) compared to those without (60%; p = 0.040), which may indicate that the choice of remedies is more related to learning self-care in the family context. This study identifies the need for education on self-care and management of menstrual pain.

Socioeconomic Inequality in Self-Medication in Iran: Cross-Sectional Analyses at the National and Subnational Levels

Background

Self-medication (SM) is a public health concern globally. This study aimed to measure socioeconomic inequality in SM and identify its main determinants among Iranian households.

Methods

A total of 38,859 households from the 2018 Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) were included in the study. Data on SM, household size, age, gender and education status of the head of household, monthly household’s expenditures (as a proxy for socioeconomic status), health insurance coverage and living areas and provinces were obtained for the survey. The concentration curve and the normalized concentration index (C_n) were used to quantify the magnitude of socioeconomic inequality in SM among Iranian households. The C_n was decomposed to identify the main determinants of socioeconomic inequality in SM in Iran.

Results

The results indicated that 18.2% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 17.7% to 18.5%) of households in Iran had SM practice in the past month. The results suggested a higher concentration of SM among the rich households (C_n= 0.0466; 95% CI= 0.0321 to 0.0612) in Iran. The concentration of SM among high SES households was also found in urban (0.0311; 95% CI=0.0112 to 0.0510) and rural (= 0.0513; 95% CI=0.0301 to 0.0726) areas. SM was concentrated among the rich households in Tehran, Qom, Esfahan, Ardebil, Golestan, and Sistan and Baluchestan provinces. In contrast, a higher concentration of SM was found among the poor households in Semnan, North Khorasan, Kerman, Bushehr, and South Khorasan provinces. The decomposition revealed SES of household, itself, as the main contributing factor to the concentration of SM among the wealthy households.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that SM is more concentrated among socioeconomically advantaged households in Iran. Thus, effective evidence-based interventions should be implemented to improve awareness about SM and its negative consequences. Further studies are required to investigate the consequences of SM practice among people.

Nursing students' perceived consequences of self-medication: a qualitative study

Background

Self-medication associates with many problems and complications, and is considered as a global health issue. Regarding a lack of information about perception of nursing students, as a part of healthcare workers, in this issue, the current study was aimed to explore the perceived consequences of self-medication from the perspective of nursing students.

Methods

This qualitative study was conducted using semi-structured individual face-to-face interviews. Purposeful sampling method was used for selection of participants. Twelve nursing students in the age range of 21–36 years were enrolled. Five participants were male and seven were female, seven master’s degree and five were undergraduate of bachelor degree. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews and analyzed as content analyses.

Results

Two categories and seven sub-categories were emerged from the data analysis. The main categories included; positive consequences and negative consequences, and subcategories included; time saving, cost savings, disease treatment, harming the health system, drug resistance, physical complications and death.

Conclusion

The participants believed that self-medication has some positive and negative consequences in viewpoints of nursing students. Regarding, Self-medication that potentially has dangerous consequences, it is suggested the students will be educated and warned about the adverse effects of self-medication, and the nursing teachers should try to rectify students’ misconceptions about self-medication.

Self-Medication Practice and Associated Factors Among Health Professionals at the University of Gondar Comprehensive Specialized Hospital: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background

Self-medication is the use of medication to treat self-diagnosed disorders or symptoms. In the current time, there has been an increasing tendency in self-medication in pharmacies and retail outlets in our country Ethiopia and alarmingly high in healthcare professionals. In spite of the adverse impacts, there were scarcity of data on self-medication practice among health professionals in Ethiopia. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the practice of self-medication and its determinant factors among health professionals at the University of Gondar Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia.

Methods

A Cross-sectional study design was employed using a simple random sampling technique to recruit the study participants. We used self-administered questionnaires to collect the data. Epi Info 7 and SPSS 20 were used for data entry and statistical analysis, respectively. Frequencies and mean with standard deviation were computed. Measure of association between self-medication and independent factors was determined using logistic regression. Variables with a p<0.05 were declared as determinant factors of self-medication practice.

Results

Four hundred and twelve health professionals were involved in the study with a mean age of 29.9 years (±5.43, range=20–60). In this study, self-medication practice was 54.6% (95% CI: 49.8–59.4). Health professionals who had worked less than 3 years after last graduation (AOR=1.67, 95% CI (1.02, 2.76)), those with 44–55 working hours per week (AOR=2.44, 95% CI: 1.07,5.57), and who knew over-the-counter classification of drugs (AOR=1.75, 95% CI: 1.03,2.99) had significantly higher self-medication practice.

Conclusion

Self-medication practice was remarkably high in the current study which is a major public health problem. The findings suggest a cooperative implementation of pharmaceutical regulations particularly focusing on those health professionals with high working hours per week.

Exploring University Students’ Attitudes towards Primary Care: Evidence from a Cross-Sectional Study

The general practitioner (GP) has a significant role in primary care, being more than a gatekeeper to health services access. In Italy, if a citizen moves for studies for at least 3 months, he/she can choose temporarily another GP in the new city (the so-called “Healthcare Domicile” (HD)). The aims were to estimate the university students’ knowledge about the HD, evaluate the frequency of the transition to another GP, and assess the university students’ attitudes towards the primary care services. In 2018, a cross-sectional pilot study was performed in study rooms among students attending the University of Turin Participation was voluntary, anonymous, and without compensation. A 25-item questionnaire collected information about the sociodemographic characteristics, health services use, health conditions and medications, HD knowledge, and HD use. The outcomes were having the GP far away, knowing HD, and not moving the GP even if aware of HD. Chi-square test, Mann–Whitney U-test, and logistic regression analyses were performed. The significance level was p≤0.05. Participants were 388 and those who knew HD were 45.36%. Among those who moved to Turin (44.85%), 77.67% knew HD but did not move the GP anyway. The 72.68% used medications without prescription (the most taken: nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and antibiotics). Age, nationality, and degree course type could be predictors for outcomes considered. HD knowledge was associated with a different use of healthcare resources. The data of the present paper suggest that further studies are required to better understand the framework connected with the university students’ access to primary healthcare. Our results highlighted the need to implement campaigns targeted to university students to spread information about the HD and a more appropriate use of the healthcare services and medications.

Self-medication Pattern and Prevalence Among Iranian Medical Sciences Students

BACKGROUND

Self-medication could be risky behavior and has negative effects. While Over the Counter (OTC) drugs are available at drugstores, the behavior has become prevalent among the general population.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed at surveying self-medication behavior among medical sciences students of Shiraz, Iran.

METHODS

A sample of 396 students from medical, paramedical, and health sciences disciplines were included in this cross-sectional study. They were asked to fill a questionnaire about their demographics and socioeconomic status, medication usage and self-medication in the last six months, information about the correct use of medication, and information about negative results of selfmedication. Data were analyzed using chi-square, t-test and logistic regression model using R statistical software.

RESULTS

Almost 72% of participants reported self-medication in the past sixth months. The main reasons included trust in their own diagnosis (59.9%), mildness of the disease (56.6%), and having previous experience about the disease (56%). Cough or cold (84.5%), headache (66.3%), and body pain (60.2%) were the most frequent diseases that led to self-medication. The majority of the participants (77.7%) reported they select their medicine on their own decision. Furthermore, self-medication was highly related to having medicine stock at home (OR=2.692), having less information about negative results of self-medication (OR=0.835), and more non-syllabus study time (OR=1.041).

CONCLUSION

Although, medical science students have information about the treatment of illnesses, they should be more informed about negative results and side-effects of self-medication. They should also share their knowledge with society to decrease self-medication.

Self-medication in pain management: The state of the art of pharmacists' role for optimal Over-The-Counter analgesic use

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Self-medication is associated with an important utilization of Over-The-Counter (OTC) analgesics. The medical outcome resulting from therapeutic options bypassing the physician prescription is a major issue. In that context, pharmacists are expected to play a crucial role. The main objective of this review was to analyse the state-of-the art of pharmacists' role in pain management self-medication.

DATABASES AND DATA TREATMENT

An expert multidisciplinary group dedicated to self-medication in pain was established. Selection of publications was performed from PubMedand EMBASE databases which was based on the use of "pain" and/or "self-medication" and/or "self-care" and/or "analgesics" and/or "painkillers" keywords, restricted to the past 10 years.

RESULTS

A total of 480 papers were identified, 49 of which papers were considered relevant and finally kept for final discussion, on OTC pain management and pharmacist's role. Literature analysis demonstrates that OTC analgesics are generally safe when appropriately used. Risks associated with misuse or inappropriateness depend on patients' vulnerability (elderly, pregnancy) or behaviour. Social cognitive theory-based intervention and multimedia applications improve self-medication but do not replace health care professional advice Pharmacists' interventions may improve the benefits and safety of OTC analgesic medication, with a better management of pain.

CONCLUSIONS

Considering the heterogeneity of patients' knowledge and behaviour reported worldwide, inappropriate use of OTC pain medication should not be underestimated. Community pharmacists are ideally placed to guide self-medication or recommend a medical advice when needed. Embedding pharmacists in primary care pain management is essential and pharmacist-led medication coupled with an appropriate training of pharmacy staffs should be encouraged.

SIGNIFICANCE

Analgesics are widely used without prescription, all over the world. They represent the largest market of OTC drugs, with an overall benefit/risk ratio favourable when appropriately used. Because of potential individual risks associated to the ailment or to the patient's behaviour, pharmacists' interventions have proven to optimize analgesic self-medication, provided that pharmacy staffs are both available and more specifically trained. In the future, in pain management, especially self-medication, pharmacists should play an increasing role and should be included in educational programmes and pain management guidelines.

Self medication practice and associated factors among students of Asmara College of Health Sciences, Eritrea: a cross sectional study

Background

Self-medication is a common practice globally and the resulting irrational drug use is raising concerns. Up-to-date there is no systematic study conducted on self medication practice among students or the general community in Eritrea. The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of self-medication practice and its influencing factors among students of Asmara College of Health Science.

Methods

A cross sectional study was conducted from 21st May -15th June 2018. Data on self medication practice and its associated factors was collected using a self-administered questionnaire. Data analysis was done using SPSS − 23 and explained with descriptive and inferential statistics.

Results

A total of 313 students responded to the questionnaire with a response rate of 93.6%. The overall prevalence of self-medication practice was 79.2%. Headache and fever were reported as the most common complaint related to self-medication practice. Among the reasons for self medication practice, prior experience was the most frequently reported. Analgesics, antipyretic and antibacterial were the leading class of medicine used in self-medication practice while adverse drug reactions were reported by 9.2% of respondents. In this study, sex, income, and school of study were found to be the independent predictors for self-medication practice.

Conclusion

National guideline on medicine access should be developed and strong measures should be implemented to halt the selling of medications without a proper prescription. In addition, students should be educated on the consequences of self-medication practices.

Experiences of self-medication among people: a qualitative meta-synthesis

BACKGROUND

Self-medication is one of the major health-related problems in the world, which causes many problems for people and health systems. No comprehensive qualitative meta-synthesis has been done to understand the perceptions and experiences of self-medication among people.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to analyze, re-interpret, and synthesize the existing qualitative studies on perceptions and experiences of self-medication among people around the world.

METHODS

In this meta-synthesis, all published qualitative studies in PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL, and Web of Science databases were searched in May 2018. A total of 543 articles were screened in the primary stage and finally five articles that met the inclusion criteria were included in the meta-synthesis. The included studies were analyzed using Noblit & Hare approach.

RESULTS

Initially, 115 codes were identified. In the second stage, the codes were merged based on similarity and shared meanings. Finally, after checking by two authors, the following five themes were emerged: cost-effectiveness, affectivity, inefficiency of the healthcare system, previous experiences, and oversimplification.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this first meta-synthesis provided a comprehensive understanding of the perceptions and experiences of self-medication around the world. The findings showed that the experiences of self-medication could be classified into personal, social, organizational, and cultural categories. These findings could help policymakers address these perceptions and experiences in effective health planning.