Diabetes mellitus in dogs attending UK primary-care practices: frequency, risk factors and survival

Exocrine pancreatic inflammation in canine diabetes mellitus - An active offender?

The purpose of this review is to examine the current scientific literature regarding the interplay between the exocrine and endocrine pancreas, specifically the role of the exocrine pancreas in the pathogenesis of canine diabetes mellitus. β-cell death caused by exocrine pancreatic inflammation is thought to be an under-recognised contributor to diabetes mellitus in dogs, with up to 30 % of canine diabetic patients with concurrent evidence of pancreatitis at post-mortem examination. Current diagnostics for pancreatitis are imprecise, and treatments for both diseases individually have their own limitations: diabetes through daily insulin injections, which has both welfare and financial implications for the stakeholders, and pancreatitis through treatment of clinical signs, such as analgesia and anti-emetics, rather than targeted treatment of the underlying cause. This review will consider the evidence for exocrine pancreatic inflammation making an active contribution to pancreatic β-cell loss and insulin-deficiency diabetes in the dog and explore current and potential future diagnostic and treatment avenues to improve outcomes for these patients.

Clinical manifestations of chronic pancreatitis in English cocker spaniels

BACKGROUND

Chronic pancreatitis (CP) is common in English cocker spaniels (ECS). It is histologically similar to IgG4-related disease (IgG4-RD) in humans and is characterized by duct destruction, interlobular fibrosis, and dense periductular and perivenous lymphocytic aggregates. However, the clinical manifestations of CP in ECS have not been previously described.

OBJECTIVES

Characterize the clinical manifestations of CP in a group of ECS, including similarities and differences to IgG4-RD in humans.

ANIMALS

One-hundred four ECS with CP and 44 client owned control ECS without CP (both healthy and diseased controls).

METHODS

Affected dogs were divided into 2 groups according to the methods used to diagnose CP. Case records were searched for signalment, clinical, and clinicopathological findings, and evidence of keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS), proteinuria, other immune-mediated diseases, and anal sacculitis.

RESULTS

Involvement of other organs was common. Affected ECS presented with a high frequency of KCS (n = 49), proteinuria (n = 47), anal gland disease (n = 36), atopy (n = 21), and other immune-mediated diseases (n = 16). Those with parti-color hair coats, particularly blue roan, had a strong association with CP, suggesting a link between coat color and autoimmune conditions in this breed.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

English cocker spaniels with CP show clinical similarities to humans with IgG4-RD and common involvement of other organs. Clinicians should evaluate affected Cocker Spaniels for proteinuria, keratoconjunctivitis sicca, and other potential immune-mediated diseases.

Progress in experimental models to investigate the in vivo and in vitro antidiabetic activity of drugs

Diabetes mellitus is one of the world's most prevalent and complex metabolic disorders, and it is a rapidly growing global public health issue. It is characterized by hyperglycemia, a condition involving a high blood glucose level brought on by deficiencies in insulin secretion, decreased activity of insulin, or both. Prolonged effects of diabetes include cardiovascular problems, retinopathy, neuropathy, nephropathy, and vascular alterations in both macro- and micro-blood vessels. In vivo and in vitro models have always been important for investigating and characterizing disease pathogenesis, identifying targets, and reviewing novel treatment options and medications. Fully understanding these models is crucial for the researchers so this review summarizes the different experimental in vivo and in vitro model options used to study diabetes and its consequences. The most popular in vivo studies involves the small animal models, such as rodent models, chemically induced diabetogens like streptozotocin and alloxan, and the possibility of deleting or overexpressing a specific gene by knockout and transgenic technologies on these animals. Other models include virally induced models, diet/nutrition induced diabetic animals, surgically induced models or pancreatectomy models, and non-obese models. Large animals or non-rodent models like porcine (pig), canine (dog), nonhuman primate, and Zebrafish models are also outlined. The in vitro models discussed are murine and human beta-cell lines and pancreatic islets, human stem cells, and organoid cultures. The other enzymatic in vitro tests to assess diabetes include assay of amylase inhibition and inhibition of α-glucosidase activity.

Variables associated with owner perceptions of the health of their dog: Further analysis of data from a large international survey

In a recent study (doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0265662), associations were identified between owner-reported dog health status and diet, whereby those fed a vegan diet were perceived to be healthier. However, the study was limited because it did not consider possible confounding from variables not included in the analysis. The aim of the current study was to extend these earlier findings, using different modelling techniques and including multiple variables, to identify the most important predictors of owner perceptions of dog health. From the original dataset, two binary outcome variables were created: the 'any health problem' distinguished dogs that owners perceived to be healthy ("no") from those perceived to have illness of any severity; the 'significant illness' variable distinguished dogs that owners perceived to be either healthy or having mild illness ("no") from those perceived to have significant or serious illness ("yes"). Associations between these health outcomes and both owner-animal metadata and healthcare variables were assessed using logistic regression and machine learning predictive modelling using XGBoost. For the any health problem outcome, best-fit models for both logistic regression (area under curve [AUC] 0.842) and XGBoost (AUC 0.836) contained the variables dog age, veterinary visits and received medication, whilst owner age and breed size category also featured. For the significant illness outcome, received medication, veterinary visits, dog age and were again the most important predictors for both logistic regression (AUC 0.903) and XGBoost (AUC 0.887), whilst breed size category, education and owner age also featured in the latter. Any contribution from the dog vegan diet variable was negligible. The results of the current study extend the previous research using the same dataset and suggest that diet has limited impact on owner-perceived dog health status; instead, dog age, frequency of veterinary visits and receiving medication are most important.

Text mining for disease surveillance in veterinary clinical data: part one, the language of veterinary clinical records and searching for words

The development of natural language processing techniques for deriving useful information from unstructured clinical narratives is a fast-paced and rapidly evolving area of machine learning research. Large volumes of veterinary clinical narratives now exist curated by projects such as the Small Animal Veterinary Surveillance Network (SAVSNET) and VetCompass, and the application of such techniques to these datasets is already (and will continue to) improve our understanding of disease and disease patterns within veterinary medicine. In part one of this two part article series, we discuss the importance of understanding the lexical structure of clinical records and discuss the use of basic tools for filtering records based on key words and more complex rule based pattern matching approaches. We discuss the strengths and weaknesses of these approaches highlighting the on-going potential value in using these "traditional" approaches but ultimately recognizing that these approaches constrain how effectively information retrieval can be automated. This sets the scene for the introduction of machine-learning methodologies and the plethora of opportunities for automation of information extraction these present which is discussed in part two of the series.

[Polyendocrine syndromes in dogs]

The autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome (APS) refers to a combination of autoimmune endocrine disorders. It is rarely described in dogs. The most common combinations are hypoadrenocorticism and hypothyroidism, followed by diabetes mellitus, and less often hypoparathyroidism and orchitis. The diagnosis of the APS is based on the diagnosis of each endocrinopathy, as is the therapy, which involves the substitution of deficient hormones. If a patient was previously stable under treatment and is showing further signs (e.g. polyuria, polydipsia, or weight loss), the development of additional endocrinopathies like hypoadrenocorticism or diabetes mellitus should be considered. The diagnosis of the initially diagnosed endocrinopathy should also be critically questioned. This article summarizes some cases of our own animal hospital and selected cases published in the available literature.

Association between Hyperglycemia and Canine Serum Pancreatic Lipase Immunoreactivity Concentration in Diabetic Dogs

It has been reported that hypertriglyceridemia can partially mediate between diabetes mellitus (DM) and pancreatitis in dogs, implying that another mediator, such as chronic hyperglycemia, might exist. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the relationship between hyperglycemia and serum canine pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity (cPLI) concentration in diabetic dogs. This retrospective cohort study included 26 client-owned diabetic dogs, divided according to their serum fructosamine levels (<500 μmol/L = well-controlled DM group; ≥500 μmol/L = untreated or poorly controlled DM group). Five of the 26 DM dogs (19.2%) had serum cPLI concentrations consistent with pancreatitis, among which two showed ultrasonographic evidence of pancreatitis without clinical signs. The serum cPLI concentrations (median [interquartile range]) were significantly higher in the untreated or poorly controlled group (520 μg/L [179.76-1000 μg/L]) than in the well-controlled group (77 μg/L [32.22-244.6 μg/L], P = 0.0147). The serum fructosamine concentration was positively correlated with the serum cPLI concentration (r = 0.4816; P = 0.0127). Multivariate analysis revealed serum triglyceride and fructosamine concentrations were associated with the serum cPLI concentration. In conclusion, this study suggests that chronic hyperglycemia may induce pancreatic inflammation in diabetic dogs; however, the clinical significance of increased cPLI concentration is unknown.

Characterization of the Gut Microbiome in Healthy Dogs and Dogs with Diabetes Mellitus

With a close pathogenetic resemblance to human diabetes, canine Diabetes Mellitus, a chronic metabolic disease featuring abnormally high blood sugar levels, is increasing in prevalence worldwide. Unlike humans, canine glycemic control requires life-long insulin injections and dietary control in most cases, thereby jeopardizing diabetic dogs' quality of life and increasing the difficulty of disease control. While many research studies have focused on elucidating the relationship between the canine gut microbiome and diseases, there is currently no research on the subject of diabetes mellitus in dogs. We hypothesized that the gut microbiome of canines with diabetes mellitus is different from that of healthy controls. Thus, we performed targeted 16S rRNA sequencing and comprehensive bioinformatic analysis to compare the gut microbiome profiles of 16 diabetic dogs with those of 32 healthy dogs. Clostridioides difficile, Phocaeicola plebeius, Lacrimispora indolis, and Butyricicoccus pullicaecorum were found to be enriched in diabetic dogs. A distinct shift towards carbohydrate degradation metabolic pathways was found to be differentially abundant in the diabetic subjects. Alteration of the co-occurrence network was also evident in the diabetic group. In conclusion, our study suggests that the gut microbial landscape differs in diabetic canines at the genera, species, functional, and network levels. These findings have significant implications for disease management, and thus warrant further research.

Assessment of glucocorticoid and antibiotic exposure as risk factors for diabetes mellitus in selected dog breeds attending UK primary-care clinics

BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is an important endocrine disorder in dogs. This study explored prior exposure to glucocorticoids or antibiotic treatment as risk factors for developing DM in dogs attending primary-care VetCompass clinics in the UK.

METHODS

A breed frequency matched case-control study nested in a cohort of dogs (n = 480,469) aged 3 years or over was used to explore associations between glucocorticoid and antibiotic exposure and the odds of developing DM.

RESULTS

A total of 565 cases and 2179 controls were included. Dogs with DM had over four times the odds of exposure to glucocorticoids within 6 weeks prior to diagnosis (odds ratio [OR] 4.07, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.41-6.89, p < 0.001) compared to controls within 6 weeks prior to a randomly selected quasi-date of diagnosis. Dogs that had only one unique documented antibiotic course had a decreased odds of developing DM (OR 0.65, 95% CI 0.46-0.91, p = 0.012) compared to dogs that had no documented courses of antibiotics.

LIMITATIONS

This study only included selected breeds, so the results may not be generalisable to all dog breeds.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to glucocorticoids is associated with a substantial increase in the risk of developing DM for the dog breeds included in this analysis.

Cushing Syndrome and Other Causes of Insulin Resistance in Dogs

The most common causes of insulin resistance in diabetic dogs are Cushing syndrome, diestrus, and obesity. Cushing-associated effects include insulin resistance, excessive postprandial hyperglycemia, perceived short duration of insulin action, and/or substantial within-day and/or day-to-day glycemic variability. Successful strategies to manage excessive glycemic variability include basal insulin monotherapy and combined basal-bolus insulin treatment. Ovariohysterectomy and insulin treatment can achieve diabetic remission in about 10% of cases of diestrus diabetes. Different causes of insulin resistance have an additive effect on insulin requirements and the risk of progression to clinical diabetes in dogs.

Etiology and Pathophysiology of Diabetes Mellitus in Dogs

Canine diabetes results from a wide spectrum of clinical pathophysiological processes that cause a similar set of clinical signs. Various causes of insulin deficiency and beta cell loss, insulin resistance, or both characterize the disease, with genetics and environment playing a role. Understanding the genetic and molecular causes of beta cell loss will provide future opportunities for precision medicine, both from a therapeutic and preventative perspective. This review presents current knowledge of the etiology and pathophysiology of canine diabetes, including the importance of disease classification. Examples of potential targets for future precision medicine-based approaches to therapy are discussed.

The Canine Pancreatic Extracellular Matrix in Diabetes Mellitus and Pancreatitis: Its Essential Role and Therapeutic Perspective

Diabetes mellitus and pancreatitis are common pancreatic diseases in dogs, affecting the endocrine and exocrine portions of the organ. Dogs have a significant role in the history of research related to genetic diseases, being considered potential models for the study of human diseases. This review discusses the importance of using the extracellular matrix of the canine pancreas as a model for the study of diabetes mellitus and pancreatitis, in addition to focusing on the importance of using extracellular matrix in new regenerative techniques, such as decellularization and recellularization. Unlike humans, rabbits, mice, and pigs, there are no reports in the literature characterizing the healthy pancreatic extracellular matrix in dogs, in addition to the absence of studies related to matrix components that are involved in triggering diabetes melittus and pancreatitis. The extracellular matrix plays the role of physical support for the cells and allows the regulation of various cellular processes. In this context, it has already been demonstrated that physiologic and pathologic pancreatic changes lead to ECM remodeling, highlighting the importance of an in-depth study of the changes associated with pancreatic diseases.

Ultra-long-acting recombinant insulin for the treatment of diabetes mellitus in dogs

BACKGROUND

For the treatment of diabetes mellitus (DM) in dogs, novel insulins with decreased injection frequency while maintaining safety and efficacy are desirable. Insulin fused with immunoglobulin-fragment-crystallizable (Fc) has an ultra-long plasma half-life because it recycles through cells, protected from proteolysis.

HYPOTHESIS

Glycemic control can be achieved in diabetic dogs with a recombinant fusion protein of a synthetic insulin and canine Fc (AKS-218d) administered subcutaneously once-weekly.

ANIMALS

Five client-owned dogs with naturally occurring DM.

METHODS

Prospective clinical trial in dogs with DM that were recruited from the UC Davis Veterinary Teaching Hospital and local veterinary clinics. Dogs previously controlled using intermediate-acting insulin q12h were transitioned to once-weekly injections of a preliminary construct identified as AKS-218d. The dose of AKS-218d was titrated weekly for 8 weeks based on clinical response and continuous interstitial glucose monitoring. Clinical signs, body weight, serum fructosamine concentrations, and mean interstitial glucose concentrations (IG) over the preceding week were compared between baseline (before AKS-218d) and during the last week of treatment. Data were compared using nonparametric paired tests.

RESULTS

Once-weekly AKS-218d, compared to baseline twice-daily insulin therapy, resulted in no significant changes in clinical signs, median (range) body weight (+0.4 kg [-0.5-1.1]; P = .6), fructosamine concentration (-75 mmol/L [-215 to +126]; P = .4), or mean IG (+81 mg/dL [-282 to +144]; P = .8). No adverse reactions were reported.

CONCLUSION

Control of clinical signs, body weight, and maintenance of glycemia was achieved with this once-weekly novel insulin construct in 4 of 5 dogs.

Lipid metabolism is dysregulated in a mouse model of diabetes

Much evidence for diabetes mellitus being associated with dysregulated lipid metabolism has been accrued from studies using blood plasma. However, the systemic dysregulation these results point to is not understood. This study used Lipid Traffic Analysis on data from a mouse model of diabetes to test the hypothesis that the systemic control of lipid metabolism differed in a model of diabetes. This provided eidence for changes in the systemic control of both triglyceride and phospholipid metabolism that were not attributable to dietary intake. This supports the conclusion that diabetes is a systemic condition associated with dysregulated lipid metabolism through several pathways.

Breed distributions for diabetes mellitus and hypothyroidism in Norwegian dogs

BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus (DM) and hypothyroidism are common canine endocrinopathies. Both canine DM and primary hypothyroidism are assumed to originate from autoimmune destruction of the respective endocrine glands and have been associated with the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) gene region. This study aims to investigate breed distributions for DM and hypothyroidism in the Norwegian canine population by calculating odds ratios (OR) from two different comparator groups.

METHODS

Results from canine serum samples submitted from 2001 to 2018 to the Veterinary Clinical Pathology Laboratory (VCPL) at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences for analysis of fructosamine and thyroid hormones in serum were used as cases in a retrospective bivariate analysis of canine breeds. The ORs were calculated as a measure of risk for the included breeds, where all the submitted blood samples to the VCPL and dogs registered in the Norwegian Kennel Club (NKK), the national organization for dog owners, were used as two comparator groups.

RESULTS

Significant differences in disease prevalence between breeds were discovered using both comparator groups. Australian terrier, Swedish lapphund, Samoyed, and Schipperke were at highest risk for DM. German Shepherd, Golden retriever, German pointing dog, and Collie presented as the breeds with lowest risk for DM. For hypothyroidism, Schnauzer, Eurasier, Dunker, and English setter were at highest risk for developing the disease. The breeds at lowest risk of developing hypothyroidism were Rottweiler, Dachshund, German shepherd, and Border collie. The results from the different comparator groups gave different ORs and ranks, but the breeds with highest and lowest odds showed the same susceptibility using both comparators.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings support that there are breeds more and less prone to develop DM and hypothyroidism. A strong genetic predisposition involved in the aetiology of these two diseases is therefore likely. Interestingly, there also appeared to be an inverse relationship of odds for the two diseases for some of the breeds since some breeds that had a high OR for DM or hypothyroidism had a lower OR for the other disease. This indicates that there may be different risk alleles/haplotypes for the two diseases. The possible aetiological relationship between canine DM and hypothyroidism should be further investigated.

Quantification of tear glucose levels and their correlation with blood glucose levels in dogs

Background

No previous studies have quantified tear glucose (TG) levels in dogs or compared changes in TG and blood glucose (BG) concentrations.

Objective

To quantify TG concentration and evaluate its correlation with BG level in dogs.

Methods

Twenty repetitive tests were performed in alternate eyes of four dogs, with a minimum washout period of 1 week. Tears and blood were collected at 30‐min intervals with successive glucose injections (1 g/kg) every 30 min. Cross‐correlations of BG and TG levels were assessed. The delay and association between TG and corresponding BG levels were analysed for each dog; samples were collected at 5‐min intervals. The tears were collected using microcapillary tubes. Collected tears and blood were analysed for glucose concentration using a colorimetric assay and commercially available glucometer, respectively.

Results

The average baseline BG and TG levels were 4.76 ± 0.58 and 0.39 ± 0.04 mmol/L, respectively. Even with highly fluctuating BG levels, a significant cross‐correlation coefficient (r = 0.86, p < 0.05) was observed between changes of BG and TG levels. The delay time between BG and TG levels was 10 min. On average, BG levels were 16.34 times higher than TG levels. There was strong correlation between BG and TG levels (r_s = 0.80, p < 0.01). Significant differences in TG concentrations between normoglycaemia, mild hyperglycaemia, and severe hyperglycaemia were found (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Canine TG concentrations have not been quantified previously. Our findings suggest preliminary data for future research on TG levels in dogs and show TG measurement could be used to screen for diabetes mellitus in dogs.

Differences in the composition and predicted functions of the intestinal microbiome of obese and normal weight adult dogs

Obesity is a multifactorial nutritional disorder highly prevalent in dogs, observed in developed and developing countries. It is estimated that over 40% of the canine population suffers from obesity, which manifests in an increased risk of chronic osteoarticular, metabolic, and cardiovascular diseases. The intestinal microbiome of obese animals shows increases in the abundance of certain members capable of extracting energy from complex polysaccharides. The objective of this study was to compare the composition and predicted function of the intestinal microbiome of Chilean obese and normal weight adult dogs. Twenty clinically healthy dogs were classified according to their body condition score (BCS) as obese (n = 10) or normal weight (n = 10). DNA was extracted from stool samples, followed by next-generation sequencing of the 16S rRNA V3-V4 region and bioinformatics analysis targeting microbiome composition and function. Significant differences were observed between these groups at the phylum level, with anincrease in Firmicutes and a decrease in Bacteroidetes in obese dogs. Microbiome compositions of these animals correlated with their BCS, and obese dogs showed enrichment in pathways related to transport, chemotaxis, and flagellar assembly. These results highlight the differences in the gut microbiome between normal weight and obese dogs and prompt further research to improve animal health by modulating the gut microbiome.

Frequency and risk factors for naturally occurring Cushing's syndrome in dogs attending UK primary-care practices

Objectives

To estimate the frequency and risk factors for Cushing's syndrome in dogs under UK primary veterinary care.

Materials and Methods

Dogs with Cushing's syndrome were identified by searching electronic patient records of primary‐care veterinary practices. Pre‐existing and incident cases of Cushing's syndrome during 2016 were included to estimate the 1‐year period prevalence. Incident cases were used to estimate the annual incidence and to identify demographic risk factors for the diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome in dogs, through multivariable logistic regression.

Results

Analysis included 970 pre‐existing and 557 incident cases of Cushing's syndrome from a population of 905,544 dogs. The estimated 1‐year period prevalence for Cushing's syndrome in dogs under veterinary care was 0.17% (95% confidence interval 0.16 to 0.18) and incidence was 0.06% (95% confidence interval 0.05 to 0.07). In multivariable logistic regression modelling, the Bichon frise (odds ratio=6.17, 95% confidence interval 4.22 to 9.00), Border terrier (5.40, 95% confidence interval 3.66 to 7.97) and Miniature schnauzer (3.05, 95% confidence interval 1.67 to 5.57) had the highest odds of Cushing's syndrome. The Golden retriever (0.24, 95% confidence interval 0.06 to 0.98) and Labrador retriever (0.30, 95% confidence interval 0.17 to 0.54) were the most protected breeds. Increasing age, bodyweight greater than the breed‐sex mean and being insured also showed increased odds of Cushing's syndrome.

Clinical Significance

As Cushing's syndrome is predominately diagnosed and managed in primary‐care practice, this study provides valuable new information of its epidemiology in this setting. Demographics reported are supportive of previous work and additional novel associations identified, such as the Border terrier, could enhance the index of suspicion for veterinarians.

Serum trypsin-like immunoreactivity in dogs with diabetes mellitus

Background

Concurrent exocrine pancreatic dysfunction and decreased pancreatic organ size are common findings in various stages of human type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM). Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is incompletely described in diabetic dogs.

Objective

To compare canine trypsin‐like immunoreactivity (cTLI) of diabetic dogs with that of healthy controls. A secondary aim was to evaluate the correlation between duration of DM and cTLI.

Animals

Thirty client‐owned diabetic dogs and thirty client‐owned control dogs.

Methods

Cross‐sectional study. Diabetic and healthy control dogs were included if they had no clinical evidence of pancreatitis and if serum samples obtained after food was withheld were available. Serum cTLI was measured at a reference laboratory and compared between groups. Canine pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity (cPLI) was analyzed concurrently as an indicator of pancreatitis.

Results

The median cTLI concentration in all diabetic dogs (36.4 μg/L [range, 7.0‐288 μg/L]) did not differ from control dogs (28.7 μg/L [range, 12.8‐58.6 μg/L]) (P = .07; difference −7.8 μg/L [95% Confidence Interval (CI), −23.5 to 0.6 μg/L]). There was still no difference in cTLI between groups after exclusion of dogs with cPLI consistent with pancreatitis (n = 8 diabetic dogs). There was no correlation between cTLI and DM duration in all diabetic dogs (r = −0.07, [95% CI, −0.43 to 0.3], P = .7).

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

There was no evidence of EPI as evaluated using cTLI in this cohort of diabetic dogs, but concurrent increases in cPLI suggest cTLI might not be the optimal indicator of exocrine pancreatic dysfunction in dogs with DM.

Non-neoplastic anal sac disorders in UK dogs: Epidemiology and management aspects of a research-neglected syndrome

BACKGROUND

Non-neoplastic anal sac disorders (ASD) are frequent presentations for dogs in primary-care practice but evidence-based information on disease occurrence and risk is sparse. This study estimates prevalence, breed associations and other risk factors as well as reporting on clinical management.

METHODS

A cohort study of dogs attending VetCompass practices between 1 January 2013 and 31 December 2013. Risk factor analysis used multivariable logistic regression methods.

RESULTS

Of 104,212 dogs attending 110 UK practices, the 1-year period prevalence of ASD was 4.40% (95% CI: 4.22-4.57). Compared to crossbreds, six breeds showed increased odds of ASD (Cavalier King Charles spaniel, King Charles spaniel, Cockapoo, Shih-tzu, Bichon Frise and Cocker spaniel), and six breeds showed reduced odds (Labrador Retriever, Border collie, Staffordshire Bull Terrier, Lurcher, German Shepherd Dog and Boxer). Brachycephalic types had 2.6 times the odds for ASD compared to dolichocephalic types. Medication prescribed for ASD included antimicrobials (n = 480, 20.24%) and analgesics (n = 284, 11.97%). Anal sacculectomy was performed in under 1% of cases.

CONCLUSIONS

High prevalence, strong breed predispositions and evidence of severity suggested from the antimicrobial and analgesic therapies combined with current substantial knowledge gaps identify ASD as a key research-neglected syndrome in dogs.

Genetics of canine diabetes mellitus part 1: Phenotypes of disease

This two-part article discusses the mechanisms by which genetic variation can influence the risk of complex diseases, with a focus on canine diabetes mellitus. In Part 1, presented here, the importance of accurate methods for classifying different types of diabetes will be discussed, since this underpins the selection of cases and controls for genetic studies. Part 2 will focus on our current understanding of the genes involved in diabetes risk, and the way in which new genome sequencing technologies are poised to reveal new diabetes genes in veterinary species.

The Serum and Saliva Proteome of Dogs with Diabetes Mellitus

This study aims to evaluate the changes in salivary and serum proteomes that occur in canine diabetes mellitus type-1 (DM) through a high-throughput quantitative proteomic analysis. The proteomes of 10 paired serum and saliva samples from healthy controls (HC group, n = 5) and dogs with untreated DM (DM group, n = 5) were analyzed using Tandem Mass Tags (TMT)-based proteomic approach. Additionally, 24 serum samples from healthy controls and untreated DM were used to validate haptoglobin in serum. The TMT analysis quantified 767 and 389 proteins in saliva and serum, respectively. Of those, 16 unique proteins in serum and 26 in saliva were differently represented between DM and HC groups. The verification of haptoglobin in serum was in concordance with the proteomic data. Our results pointed out changes in both saliva and serum proteomes that reflect different physiopathological changes in dogs with DM. Although some of the proteins identified here, such as malate dehydrogenase or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, were previously related with DM in dogs, most of the proteins modulated in serum and saliva are described in canine DM for the first time and could be a source of potential biomarkers of the disease. Additionally, the molecular function, biological process, pathways and protein class of the differential proteins were revealed, which could improve the understanding of the disease's pathological mechanisms.