Saliva proteomics updates in biomedicine

Enhancing saliva diagnostics: The impact of amylase depletion on MALDI-ToF MS profiles as applied to COVID-19

Introduction

Human saliva contains a wealth of proteins that can be monitored for disease diagnosis and progression. Saliva, which is easy to collect, has been extensively studied for the diagnosis of numerous systemic and infectious diseases. However, the presence of amylase, the most abundant protein in saliva, can obscure the detection of low-abundance proteins by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-ToF MS), thus reducing its diagnostic utility.

Objectives

In this study, we used a device to deplete salivary amylase from water-gargle samples by affinity adsorption. Following depletion, saliva proteome profiling was performed using MALDI-ToF MS on gargle samples from individuals confirmed to have COVID-19 based on nasopharyngeal (NP) swab reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR).

Results

The depletion of amylase led to increased signal intensities of various peaks and the detection of previously unobserved peaks in the MALDI-ToF MS spectra. The overall specificity and sensitivity after amylase depletion were 100% and 85.17%, respectively, for detecting COVID-19.

Conclusion

This simple, rapid, and inexpensive technique for depleting salivary amylase can reveal spectral diversity in saliva using MALDI-ToF MS, expose low-abundance proteins, and assist in establishing novel biomarkers for diseases.

The Potential Utility of Salivary and Tear Proteomics to Discriminate Sjögren's Disease from Non-Sjögren's Sicca

Sjögren's Disease (SjD) is an autoimmune disorder associated with decreased saliva and/or tear secretions, resulting in patients reporting dryness in the mouth and eyes. Serum autoantibodies directed against the Ro60/SS-A and La/SS-B autoantigens are a distinctive feature of the disease. Analysis of the saliva and tear proteomes represents one promising alternative method of both classifying and monitoring the condition, and research into salivary and tear proteomics in patients with SjD, with and without sicca, has shown its efficacy and practicality in both clinical and research settings. Studies analyzing the saliva proteomics of SjD patients have generally shown an overexpression of proteins involved in T-cell activation, the immune response, β-2 microglobulin, and the recruitment of pro-inflammatory agents. These studies also show a decrease in or downregulation of proteins involved in salivary secretion. Studies analyzing the tear proteomics of patients with SjD have generally indicated an upregulation of proteins involved with TNF-α signaling, B-cell survival, and the recruitment of pro-inflammatory agents. Studies also note the differential expression of tear protein folding as a hallmark of ocular involvement in this condition. These findings help to elucidate the biochemical relationship between the proteomes of saliva/tear fluids and the general pathophysiology of the gland involved with the pathogenesis of this condition, giving further credence to the potential role of salivary and tear proteomics in the future of diagnosis and treatment for patients with SjD.

Ectopic pregnancy: search for biomarker in salivary proteome

Ectopic pregnancy (EP) is associated with high maternal morbidity and mortality. Ultrasonography is the only dependable diagnostic tool for confirming an ectopic pregnancy. In view of inadequate early detection methods, women suffer from a high-life risk due to the severity of EP. Early detection of EP using pathological/molecular markers will possibly improve clinical diagnosis and patient management. Salivary proteins contain potential biomarkers for diagnosing and detecting various physiological and/or pathological conditions. Therefore, the present investigation was designed to explore the salivary proteome with special reference to EP. Gel-based protein separation was performed on saliva, followed by identification of proteins using Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Totally, 326 proteins were identified in the salivary samples, among which 101 were found to be specific for ruptured ectopic pregnancy (EPR). Reactome analysis revealed innate immune system, neutrophil degranulation, cell surface interactions at the vascular wall, and FCERI-mediated NF-kB activation as the major pathways to which the salivary proteins identified during EPR are associated. Glutathione-S-transferase omega-1 (GSTO1) is specific for EPR and has been reported as a candidate biomarker in the serum of EPR patients. Therefore, saliva would be a potential source of diagnostic non-invasive protein biomarker(s) for EP. Intensive investigation on the salivary proteins specific to EP can potentially lead to setting up of a panel of candidate biomarkers and developing a non-invasive protein-based diagnostic kit.

Association between soluble angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 in saliva and SARS-CoV-2 infection: a cross-sectional study

This study aimed to investigate the association between saliva soluble angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (sACE2) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in children and adults. We selected a convenience sample of adults with post-acute SARS-CoV-2 infection and their household children living in quarantined family households of the metropolitan Barcelona region (Spain) during the spring 2020 pandemic national lockdown. Participants were tested for saliva sACE2 quantification by western blot and nasopharyngeal SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR detection. A total of 161 saliva samples [82 (50.9%) from children; 79 (49.1%) from females] yielded valid western blot and RT-PCR results. Saliva sACE2 was detected in 79 (96.3%) children and 76 (96.2%) convalescent adults. Twenty (24.4%) children and 20 (25.3%) convalescent adults were positive for SARS-CoV-2 in nasopharynx by RT-PCR. SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR-negative children had a significantly higher mean proportional level of saliva sACE2 (0.540 × 10^-3%) than RT-PCR-positive children (0.192 × 10^-3%, p < 0.001) and convalescent adults (0.173 × 10^-3%, p < 0.001). In conclusion, children negative for nasopharyngeal SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR appear to exhibit a higher concentration of saliva sACE2 than SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR-positive children and convalescent adults. Release of adequate levels of sACE2 in saliva could play a protective role against SARS-CoV-2.

Determination of soluble angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 in saliva samples and its association with nicotine

INTRODUCTION

The Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) is the main receptor of the SARS-CoV-2. There is contradictory evidence on how the exposure to nicotine may module the concentration of soluble ACE2 (sACE2). The aim of this study was to assess the association between nicotine and sACE2 concentrations in saliva samples.

METHODS

Pooled analysis performed with data retrieved from two studies (n = 634 and n = 302). Geometric mean (GM) concentrations of sACE2, both total and relative to the total amount of protein in the sample, were compared according to sociodemographic variables and variables associated to nicotine. Multivariable linear regression models were fitted to explore the associations of sACE2 with nicotine adjusting for sex, age and body mass index. Spearman's rank-correlation coefficients were estimated between the concentrations of nicotine and cotinine, and pack-years, the concentration of relative sACE2 and the isoforms of sACE2.

RESULTS

We observed a significant increase of 0.108‰ and 0.087 ng/μl in the relative and absolute salivary sACE2 GM concentrations, respectively, between the lowest and highest nicotine levels. Similar results were observed for cotinine. These associations did not change in the multivariable linear models. There was a low correlation of nicotine and cotinine concentration with the concentration of relative salivary sACE2 (r_s = 0.153 and r_s = 0.132, respectively), pack-years (r_s = 0.222 and r_s = 0.235, respectively) and with the concentration of isoform 40 KDa (r_s = 0.193 and r_s = 0.140, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Salivary nicotine concentration seems to be limitedly associated with the concentration of sACE2.

[Salivary Peptide Profiling Analysis of Patients with Periodontitis and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease]

Objective

To analyze the salivary peptide profiles of patients with periodontitis (PD) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), to identify differentially expressed peptides that are associated with diseases, to explore for biomarkers with potential diagnostic significance, and to probe for new perspectives for the early prevention and treatment of COPD.

Methods

A total of 10 PD patients (the PD group), 10 PD patients with COPD (the PD plus COPD group), and 8 healthy controls (the Control group) were selected for the study. The clinical data and saliva samples of the subjects were collected. Salivary supernatant samples were separated and purified with weak-cation-exchange magnetic bead-based (WCX-MB). With matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS), the biodata of the samples were obtained and differential salivary peptide profiling was conducted to screen for peptides exhibiting inter-group differences. In addition, all the differentially expressed peptides were examined and verified with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

Result

An average of 77 peptide mass peaks were detected among three groups, the peaks intensities differed significantly for 10 peptides between PD patients and PD patients with COPD. Among them, eight peptides (1193.5, 1836.2, 1735.1, 1321.3, 1356.8, 2086.8, 1863.6, and 2230.9) showed increased expression and two peptides (1067.3 and 1124.4) showed decreased expression in the PD plus COPD group, in comparison with the PD group. Among the 10 differential peptides, 1193.5 and 1356.8 were identified as histidine-rich protein-1, submaxillary gland androgen-regulated protein 3B, and salivary acidic proline-rich protein 1/2.

Conclusion

With WCX-MB and MALDI-TOF-MS, we have identified, from the saliva of patients with concomitant PD and COPD, differentially expressed salivary peptides that were associated with diseases. The differentially expressed peptides thus screened out show promises for being used as auxiliary biomarkers for early diagnosis of COPD.

Salivary biomarkers as key to monitor personalized oral healthcare and precision dentistry: A scoping review

Personalized Oral Healthcare has recently become the new trend word in medicine and dentistry. In this context, saliva diagnostics using various biomarkers seem to be the gateway to personalized dental diagnostics and therapy. But the terminology is not (yet) uniformly defined, furthermore it is unclear to what extent which salivary markers play a relevant role in the therapeutic decision making. In this Scoping Review, an electronic search was conducted in PubMed and Web of Science databases using medical subject headings (MESH terms) “saliva”, “biomarker”, “personality/persons”, and “dentistry”. Only human studies were included, in which repeated salivary measurements were performed to analyze monitoring effects with at least ten patients per group. PRISMA-ScR and Tricco guidelines were followed: (i) to examine what salivary biomarkers have been explored in terms of personalized oral healthcare and precision dentistry, (ii) to investigate the clinical relevance for oral health and its correlation to systemic health, and (iii) to summarize an outlook for future developments based on these results. Out of 899 studies, a total of 57 were included for data extraction in this Scoping Review, mainly focusing on periodontal therapy and patient monitoring. Salivary biomarkers have shown the potential to change the field of dentistry in all dental disciplines as a key for personalized workflows. The increasing interest in dental research is obvious, demonstrated by the growing number of publications in recent years. At this time, however, the predominant discipline is periodontology, which allows biomarker-based monitoring of the disease prevention and progression. The studies included showed heterogeneous methods using manifolds biomarkers. Therefore, no uniformly accepted concept can be presented today. Further clinical research with well-defined outcomes including standardized procedures is necessary.

Mass spectrometry-based tear proteomics for noninvasive biomarker discovery

The lacrimal film has attracted increasing interest in the last decades as a potential source of biomarkers of physiopathological states, due to its accessibility, moderate complexity, and responsiveness to ocular and systemic diseases. High-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) has led to effective approaches to tear proteomics, despite the intrinsic limitations in sample amounts. This review focuses on the recent progress in strategy and technology, with an emphasis on the potential for personalized medicine. After an introduction on lacrimal-film composition, examples of applications to biomarker discovery are discussed, comparing approaches based on pooled-sample and single-tear analysis. Then, the most critical steps of the experimental pipeline, that is, tear collection, sample fractionation, and LC-MS implementation, are discussed with reference to proteome-coverage optimization. Advantages and challenges of the alternative procedures are highlighted. Despite the still limited number of studies, tear quantitative proteomics, including single-tear investigation, could offer unique contributions to the identification of low-invasiveness, sustained-accessibility biomarkers, and to the development of personalized approaches to therapy and diagnosis.

The New Era of Salivaomics in Dentistry: Frontiers and Facts in the Early Diagnosis and Prevention of Oral Diseases and Cancer

Nowadays, with the development of new and highly sensitive, blood is not the only medium of choice for the diagnosis of several diseases and pathological conditions. Saliva is now considered a safe and non-invasive sample to study oral and systemic diseases, showing great diagnostic potential. According to several recent studies, saliva has emerged as an emerging biofluid for the early diagnosis of several diseases, indicated as a mirror of oral and systemic health and a valuable source of clinically relevant information. Indeed, several studies have observed that saliva is useful for detecting and diagnosing malignant tumours, human immunodeficiency virus, heart disease, and autoimmune diseases. The growing realisation that saliva is an inexhaustible source of information has led to the coining of the term ‘Salivaomics’, which includes five “omics” in connection with the main constituents of saliva: genome and epigenome, transcriptomics, metabolomics, lipidomics, proteomics and microbiota. All those may be changed by disease state, so they offer significant advantages in the early diagnosis and prognosis of oral diseases. The aim of the present review isto update and highlight the new frontiers of salivaomics in diagnosing and managing oral disorders, such as periodontitis, premalignant disorders, and oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC).

Saliva changes in composition associated to COVID-19: a preliminary study

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV 2), is usually associated with a wide variety of clinical presentations from asymptomatic to severe cases. The use of saliva as a diagnostic and monitoring fluid has gained importance since it can be used to investigate the immune response and to direct quantification of antibodies against COVID-19. Additionally, the use of proteomics in saliva has allowed to increase  our understanding of the underlying pathophysiology of diseases, bringing new perspectives on diagnostics, monitoring, and treatment. In this work, we compared the salivary proteome of 10 patients with COVID-19, (five patients with mild and five patients with severe COVID-19) and ten control healthy patients. Through the application of proteomics, we have identified 30 proteins whose abundance levels differed between the COVID-19 groups and the control group. Two of these proteins (TGM3 and carbonic anhydrase-CA6) were validated by the measurement of gGT and TEA respectively, in 98 additional saliva samples separated into two groups: (1) COVID-19 group, integrated by 66 patients who tested positive for COVID-19 (2) control group, composed of 32 healthy individuals who did not show any sign of disease for at least four weeks and were negative for COVID-19 in RT-PCR. In the proteomic study there were observed upregulations in CAZA1, ACTN4, and ANXA4, which are proteins related to the protective response against the virus disturbance, and the upregulation of TGM3, that is correlated to the oxidative damage in pulmonary tissue. We also showed the downregulation in cystatins and CA6 that can be involved in the sensory response to stimulus and possibly related to the presence of anosmia and dysgeusia during the COVID-19. Additionally, the presence of FGB in patients with severe COVID-19 but not in mild COVID-19 patients could indicate a higher viral aggregation and activation in these cases. In conclusion, the salivary proteome in patients with COVID-19 showed changes in proteins related to the protective response to viral infection, and the altered sensory taste perception that occur during the disease. Moreover, gGT and TEA could be potential biomarkers of respiratory complications that can occurs during COVID 19 although further larger studies should be made to corroborate this.

Novel biohybrid spongy scaffolds for fabrication of suturable intraoral graft substitutes

Despite the fact that classic autograft is the gold standard material for periodontal plastic surgery, it has some drawbacks, including the need for a second surgical site and the scarcity of palatal donor tissue. However, only a few research works on the manufacturing of bioengineered intraoral connective tissue grafts have been conducted. In this work, porous bovine serum albumin methacryloyl/gelatin methacryloyl (BG) biohybrid scaffolds were developed for super-elasticity, shape recovery, suturability for persistent stability, sufficient scaffolding function, and convenient manipulating characteristics to fabricate an intraoral graft substitute with superb stability to resist frequent dynamic forces caused by functional movement (speaking, masticating, and swallowing). Furthermore, in a 3D cell culture assay, BG scaffolds demonstrated excellent cell adhesion and proliferation of L929 cells. In addition, the BG scaffolds were able to release Ibuprofen in a controlled manner for postoperative recovery. The use of a low-cost, optimized cryogelation technique for functional biomacromolecules offers up new possibilities to develop promising scaffolds for dental clinical settings.

Proteomics of Human Biological Fluids for Biomarker Discoveries: Technical Advances and Recent Applications

INTRODUCTION

Biological fluids are routine samples for diagnostic testing and monitoring. Blood samples are typically measured because of their moderate collection invasiveness and high information content on health and disease. Several body fluids, such as cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), are also studied and suited to specific pathologies. Over the last two decades proteomics has quested to identify protein biomarkers but with limited success. Recent technologies and refined pipelines have accelerated the profiling of human biological fluids.

AREAS COVERED

We review proteomic technologies for the identification of biomarkers. Those are based on antibodies/aptamers arrays or mass spectrometry (MS), but new ones are emerging. Advances in scalability and throughput have allowed to better design studies and cope with the limited sample size that had until now prevailed due to technological constraints. With these enablers, plasma/serum, CSF, saliva, tears, urine, and milk proteomes have been further profiled; we provide a non-exhaustive picture of some recent highlights (mainly covering literature from last five years in the Scopus database) using MS-based proteomics.

EXPERT OPINION

While proteomics has been in the shadow of genomics for years, proteomic tools and methodologies have reached a certain maturity. They are better suited to discover innovative and robust biofluid biomarkers.

Integrated Proteomics Based on 2D Gel Electrophoresis and Mass Spectrometry with Validations: Identification of a Biomarker Compendium for Oral Submucous Fibrosis—An Indian Study

Oral Submucous Fibrosis (OSMF) is a chronic debilitating disease more frequently found in the South East Asian population. This disease poses a public health priority, as it is grouped under oral potentially malignant disorders, with malignant transformation rates of around 7 to 13%. Hence, early identification of high-risk OSMF patients is of the utmost importance to prevent malignant transformation. Proteomic expression profiling is a promising method for identifying differentially expressed proteins for disease prognosis and risk stratification in OSMF. In this study, overexpressed proteins in OSMF, OSMF transformed into oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) and normal tissues were evaluated by proteomic analysis using two-dimensional electrophoresis (2DE) and mass spectrometry, which revealed 23 upregulated proteins. Validation was done using immunohistochemistry for three secretory proteins, namely 14-3-3ε (n = 130), carbonic anhydrase 1 (CA 1) (n = 125) and heat shock protein 70 (HSP 70) (n = 117), which showed significant overexpression in OSMF, OSCC compared to normal. The present study is the first of its kind in India to the best of our knowledge, assessing the altered expression of proteins in OSMF and OSMF which has undergone malignant transformation, obtaining a better knowledge of the molecular pathways involved in the disease progression. The current study shows that the biomarkers studied can be potentially useful for risk stratification of OSMF to OSCC serving as novel targets for therapeutic intervention. Clinical validation of the targets can further pave way for precision medicine to improve the quality of life in OSMF patients.

[Proteomic saliva assay in patients with COVID-19]

THE AIM OF THE STUDY

Was to perform proteomic saliva assay in order to reveal mechanisms of the oral pathology caused by COVID-19.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Proteomic analysis was performed to compare saliva proteins profile in healthy individuals (10 samples) and patients with COVID-19 (30 samples).

RESULTS

The obtained results of the saliva samples study in patients with COVID-19 indicate activation in the oral tissues the pathways of the cell renewal, apoptosis, DNA exchange processes and chromatin remodelling; there are also marked signs of immune response reactivation and immunostimulation.

CONCLUSION

Of all the proteins presented, the saliva of patients with COVID-19 33 proteins have an intersection with GO-annotated proteins of inflammation and epithelial cornification.

Clinical Proteomics of Biofluids in Haematological Malignancies

Since the emergence of high-throughput proteomic techniques and advances in clinical technologies, there has been a steady rise in the number of cancer-associated diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive biomarkers being identified and translated into clinical use. The characterisation of biofluids has become a core objective for many proteomic researchers in order to detect disease-associated protein biomarkers in a minimally invasive manner. The proteomes of biofluids, including serum, saliva, cerebrospinal fluid, and urine, are highly dynamic with protein abundance fluctuating depending on the physiological and/or pathophysiological context. Improvements in mass-spectrometric technologies have facilitated the in-depth characterisation of biofluid proteomes which are now considered hosts of a wide array of clinically relevant biomarkers. Promising efforts are being made in the field of biomarker diagnostics for haematologic malignancies. Several serum and urine-based biomarkers such as free light chains, β-microglobulin, and lactate dehydrogenase are quantified as part of the clinical assessment of haematological malignancies. However, novel, minimally invasive proteomic markers are required to aid diagnosis and prognosis and to monitor therapeutic response and minimal residual disease. This review focuses on biofluids as a promising source of proteomic biomarkers in haematologic malignancies and a key component of future diagnostic, prognostic, and disease-monitoring applications.

SP, N. M, Barik AK, Pai KM, Unnikrishnan VK, George SD, Kartha VB, Chidangil S. Photonics of human saliva: potential optical methods for the screening of abnormal health conditions and infections

Human saliva can be treated as a pool of biological markers able to reflect on the state of personal health. Recent years have witnessed an increase in the use of optical devices for the analysis of body fluids. Several groups have carried out studies investigating the potential of saliva as a non-invasive and reliable clinical specimen for use in medical diagnostics. This brief review aims to highlight the optical technologies, mainly surface plasmon resonance (SPR), Raman, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, which are being used for the probing of saliva for diverse biomedical applications. Advances in bio photonics offer the promise of unambiguous, objective and fast detection of abnormal health conditions and viral infections (such as COVID-19) from the analysis of saliva.

Periodontal Wound Healing and Tissue Regeneration: A Narrative Review

Periodontal disease is a major public health issue, and various periodontal therapies have been performed to regenerate periodontal tissues. The periodontium is a complex structure composed of specialized tissues that support the teeth, and most periodontal surgeries are invasive procedures, including a resection of the gingiva or the alveolar bone. The periodontal wound healing process is slightly different from cutaneous wound healing and is similar to fetal healing, being almost scar-free. The aim of this review article is to provide an overview of periodontal wound healing and discuss various surgical and pharmaceutical approaches to achieve stable wound healing and improve the treatment outcomes. In addition, detrimental and limiting factors that induce a compromised prognosis are discussed, along with the perspective and future direction for successful periodontal tissue regeneration.

Longitudinal saliva omics responses to immune perturbation: a case study

Saliva omics has immense potential for non-invasive diagnostics, including monitoring very young or elderly populations, or individuals in remote locations. In this study, multiple saliva omics from an individual were monitored over three periods (100 timepoints) involving: (1) hourly sampling over 24 h without intervention, (2) hourly sampling over 24 h including immune system activation using the standard 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine, (3) daily sampling for 33 days profiling the post-vaccination response. At each timepoint total saliva transcriptome and proteome, and small RNA from salivary extracellular vesicles were profiled, including mRNA, miRNA, piRNA and bacterial RNA. The two 24-h periods were used in a paired analysis to remove daily variation and reveal vaccination responses. Over 18,000 omics longitudinal series had statistically significant temporal trends compared to a healthy baseline. Various immune response and regulation pathways were activated following vaccination, including interferon and cytokine signaling, and MHC antigen presentation. Immune response timeframes were concordant with innate and adaptive immunity development, and coincided with vaccination and reported fever. Overall, mRNA results appeared more specific and sensitive (timewise) to vaccination compared to other omics. The results suggest saliva omics can be consistently assessed for non-invasive personalized monitoring and immune response diagnostics.

A shotgun proteomic approach reveals novel potential salivary protein biomarkers for asthma

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine if there is an association between the salivary protein profile and disease control in asthma.

METHODS

Thirty asthmatic patients (17 adults and 13 children) participated in this study. Saliva samples were collected from healthy subjects, controlled and uncontrolled asthmatics. Individual samples from each group were combined to form a pooled sample, from which proteomic analysis was performed using gel-based quantitative proteomics.

RESULTS

Fourteen out of thirty asthmatics were classified to be controlled asthma. Most of asthmatics received inhaled corticosteroids as the controller medications. SDS-PAGE showed predominant bands at high molecular weight in asthmatic saliva compared to that of the controls. Shotgun proteomic analyses indicated that 193 salivary proteins were expressed in both controlled and uncontrolled asthmatics. They were predicted to associate with proteins involved in pathogenesis of asthma including IL-5, IL-6, MCP-1, VEGF, and periostin and asthma medicines (Cromolyn, Nedocromil, and Theophylline). Nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NME1-NME2) only expressed in controlled asthmatics whereas polycystic kidney and hepatic disease 1 (PKHD1)/fibrocystin, zinc finger protein 263 (ZNF263), uncharacterized LOC101060047 (ENSG00000268865), desmoglein 2 (DSG2) and S100 calcium binding protein A2 (S100A2) were only found in uncontrolled asthma. Therefore, the six proteins were associated with disease control in children and adults with asthma.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that NME1-NME2, PKHD1, ZNF 263, uncharacterized LOC101060047, DSG 2 and S100 A2 in saliva are associated with disease control in asthma.

Unravelling the Potential of Salivary Volatile Metabolites in Oral Diseases. A Review

Fostered by the advances in the instrumental and analytical fields, in recent years the analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) has emerged as a new frontier in medical diagnostics. VOCs analysis is a non-invasive, rapid and inexpensive strategy with promising potential in clinical diagnostic procedures. Since cellular metabolism is altered by diseases, the resulting metabolic effects on VOCs may serve as biomarkers for any given pathophysiologic condition. Human VOCs are released from biomatrices such as saliva, urine, skin emanations and exhaled breath and are derived from many metabolic pathways. In this review, the potential of VOCs present in saliva will be explored as a monitoring tool for several oral diseases, including gingivitis and periodontal disease, dental caries, and oral cancer. Moreover, the analytical state-of-the-art for salivary volatomics, e.g., the most common extraction techniques along with the current challenges and future perspectives will be addressed unequivocally.

Use of Saliva for Diagnosis and Monitoring the SARS-CoV-2: A General Perspective

In this report, updated information and future perspectives about the use of saliva as a sample for laboratory analysis of the Covid-19 are highlighted. Saliva can be used for the direct detection of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, the quantification of the specific immunoglobulins produced against it, and for the evaluation of the non-specific, innate immune response of the patient. Moreover, a deeper knowledge of potential changes in the saliva proteome in this disease may allow the identification of new diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, or even help our understanding of the mechanisms associated with the disease. With the development of appropriate sample collection and processing methods and the use of adequate assays, saliva can provide useful clinical information about the disease and could be potentially included in guidelines for sample collection for the diagnosis, disease management, and control of Covid-19.