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Lokken-Toyli KL, Diaz-Ochoa VE, Camacho L, Stull-Lane AR, Van Hecke AER, Mooney JP, Muñoz AD, Walker GT, Hampel D, Jiang X, Labuda JC, Depew CE, McSorley SJ, Stephensen CB, Tsolis RM. Vitamin A deficiency impairs neutrophil-mediated control of Salmonella via SLC11A1 in mice. Nat Microbiol 2024; 9:727-736. [PMID: 38374245 PMCID: PMC10914596 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-024-01613-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
In sub-Saharan Africa, multidrug-resistant non-typhoidal Salmonella serovars are a common cause of fatal bloodstream infection. Malnutrition is a predisposing factor, but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. Here we show that vitamin A deficiency, one of the most prevalent micronutrient deficits afflicting African children, increases susceptibility to disseminated non-typhoidal Salmonella disease in mice and impairs terminal neutrophil maturation. Immature neutrophils had reduced expression of Slc11a1, a gene that encodes a metal ion transporter generally thought to restrict pathogen growth in macrophages. Adoptive transfer of SLC11A1-proficient neutrophils, but not SLC11A1-deficient neutrophils, reduced systemic Salmonella burden in Slc11a1-/- mice or mice with vitamin A deficiency. Loss of terminal granulopoiesis regulator CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein ϵ (C/EBPϵ) also decreased neutrophil-mediated control of Salmonella, but not that mediated by peritoneal macrophages. Susceptibility to infection increased in Cebpe-/- Slc11a1+/+ mice compared with wild-type controls, in an Slc11a1-expression-dependent manner. These data suggest that SLC11A1 deficiency impairs Salmonella control in part by blunting neutrophil-mediated defence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen L Lokken-Toyli
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Vladimir E Diaz-Ochoa
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Lizbeth Camacho
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Annica R Stull-Lane
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Amber E R Van Hecke
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Jason P Mooney
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Ariel D Muñoz
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Gregory T Walker
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Daniela Hampel
- Western Human Nutrition Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Davis, CA, USA
- Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Xiaowen Jiang
- Western Human Nutrition Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Jasmine C Labuda
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Cell Biology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Claire E Depew
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Cell Biology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Stephen J McSorley
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Cell Biology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Charles B Stephensen
- Western Human Nutrition Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Davis, CA, USA
- Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Renée M Tsolis
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
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2
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Grubwieser P, Brigo N, Seifert M, Grander M, Theurl I, Nairz M, Weiss G, Pfeifhofer-Obermair C. Quantification of Macrophage Cellular Ferrous Iron (Fe 2+) Content Using a Highly Specific Fluorescent Probe in a Plate Reader. Bio Protoc 2024; 14:e4929. [PMID: 38379830 PMCID: PMC10875354 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.4929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are at the center of innate immunity and iron metabolism. In the case of an infection, macrophages adapt their cellular iron metabolism to deprive iron from invading bacteria to combat intracellular bacterial proliferation. A concise evaluation of the cellular iron content upon an infection with bacterial pathogens and diverse cellular stimuli is necessary to identify underlying mechanisms concerning iron homeostasis in macrophages. For the characterization of cellular iron levels during infection, we established an in vitro infection model where the murine macrophage cell line J774A.1 is infected with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S.tm), the mouse counterpart to S. enterica serovar Typhi, under normal and iron-overload conditions using ferric chloride (FeCl3) treatment. To evaluate the effect of infection and iron stimulation on cellular iron levels, the macrophages are stained with FerroOrange. This fluorescent probe specifically detects Fe2+ ions and its fluorescence can be quantified photometrically in a plate reader. Importantly, FerroOrange fluorescence does not increase with chelated iron or other bivalent metal ions. In this protocol, we present a simple and reliable method to quantify cellular Fe2+ levels in cultured macrophages by applying a highly specific fluorescence probe (FerroOrange) in a TECAN Spark microplate reader. Compared to already established techniques, our protocol allows assessing cellular iron levels in innate immune cells without the use of radioactive iron isotopes or extensive sample preparation, exposing the cells to stress. Key features • Easy quantification of Fe2+ in cultured macrophages with a fluorescent probe. • Analysis of iron in living cells without the need for fixation. • Performed on a plate reader capable of 540 nm excitation and 585 nm emission by trained employees for handling biosafety level 2 bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Grubwieser
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical
University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Natascha Brigo
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical
University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Markus Seifert
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical
University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Iron Metabolism and
Anemia Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Manuel Grander
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical
University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Iron Metabolism and
Anemia Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Igor Theurl
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical
University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Manfred Nairz
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical
University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Günter Weiss
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical
University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Iron Metabolism and
Anemia Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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3
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Stefanache A, Lungu II, Butnariu IA, Calin G, Gutu C, Marcu C, Grierosu C, Bogdan Goroftei ER, Duceac LD, Dabija MG, Popa F, Damir D. Understanding How Minerals Contribute to Optimal Immune Function. J Immunol Res 2023; 2023:3355733. [PMID: 37946846 PMCID: PMC10632063 DOI: 10.1155/2023/3355733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Sufficient mineral supply is vital not only for the innate immune system but also for the components of the adaptive immune defense, which encompass defense mechanisms against pathogens and the delicate balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory regulation in the long term. Generally, a well-balanced diet is capable of providing the necessary minerals to support the immune system. Nevertheless, specific vulnerable populations should be cautious about obtaining adequate amounts of minerals such as magnesium, zinc, copper, iron, and selenium. Inadequate levels of these minerals can temporarily impair immune competence and disrupt the long-term regulation of systemic inflammation. Therefore, comprehending the mechanisms and sources of these minerals is crucial. In exceptional circumstances, mineral deficiencies may necessitate supplementation; however, excessive intake of supplements can have adverse effects on the immune system and should be avoided. Consequently, any supplementation should be approved by medical professionals and administered in recommended doses. This review emphasizes the crucial significance of minerals in promoting optimal functioning of the immune system. It investigates the indispensable minerals required for immune system function and the regulation of inflammation. Moreover, it delves into the significance of maintaining an optimized intake of minerals from a nutritional standpoint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alina Stefanache
- “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi 700115, Romania
| | - Ionut-Iulian Lungu
- “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi 700115, Romania
| | | | - Gabriela Calin
- Faculty of Dental Medicine, “Apollonia” University of Iasi, 11 Pacurari Street, Iasi 700511, Romania
| | - Cristian Gutu
- Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University Dunarea de Jos, 47 Domneasca Street, Galati 800008, Romania
| | - Constantin Marcu
- Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University Dunarea de Jos, 47 Domneasca Street, Galati 800008, Romania
| | - Carmen Grierosu
- Faculty of Dental Medicine, “Apollonia” University of Iasi, 11 Pacurari Street, Iasi 700511, Romania
| | | | - Letitia-Doina Duceac
- Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University Dunarea de Jos, 47 Domneasca Street, Galati 800008, Romania
| | | | - Florina Popa
- Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University Dunarea de Jos, 47 Domneasca Street, Galati 800008, Romania
| | - Daniela Damir
- “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi 700115, Romania
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4
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Ullah I, Lang M. Key players in the regulation of iron homeostasis at the host-pathogen interface. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1279826. [PMID: 37942316 PMCID: PMC10627961 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1279826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Iron plays a crucial role in the biochemistry and development of nearly all living organisms. Iron starvation of pathogens during infection is a striking feature utilized by a host to quell infection. In mammals and some other animals, iron is essentially obtained from diet and recycled from erythrocytes. Free iron is cytotoxic and is readily available to invading pathogens. During infection, most pathogens utilize host iron for their survival. Therefore, to ensure limited free iron, the host's natural system denies this metal in a process termed nutritional immunity. In this fierce battle for iron, hosts win over some pathogens, but others have evolved mechanisms to overdrive the host barriers. Production of siderophores, heme iron thievery, and direct binding of transferrin and lactoferrin to bacterial receptors are some of the pathogens' successful strategies which are highlighted in this review. The intricate interplay between hosts and pathogens in iron alteration systems is crucial for understanding host defense mechanisms and pathogen virulence. This review aims to elucidate the current understanding of host and pathogen iron alteration systems and propose future research directions to enhance our knowledge in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inam Ullah
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Minglin Lang
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Life Science, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding, China
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5
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de Oliveira PV, de Santana Lira RL, de Abreu Lima R, Mendes YC, Martins AB, de Melo BDO, Goiano MF, Filho RL, de Farias Nunes FBB, Aliança ASDS, Firmo WDCA, Carvalho RC, Zagminan A, de Sousa EM. Bibliometric Review on New Possibilities of Antimycobacterial Agents: Exploring Siderophore Desferrioxamine's Applications as an Antimicrobial Agent. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:1335. [PMID: 37765143 PMCID: PMC10536058 DOI: 10.3390/ph16091335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacteria cause tuberculosis and other serious diseases. Understanding their mechanisms of resistance to our immune system and exploring novel drugs are critical strategies to combat infections. A bibliometric analysis was performed to identify publication trends and critical research areas in the field of the antimicrobial activity of desferrioxamine. A total of twenty-four publications on the topic, from 2012 to 2023, were retrieved from databases including Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and Embase, using specific keywords. The quality of the publications was assessed using impact and productivity metrics, with an average annual publication rate of 2.1 articles. The United States emerged as the most productive country, with medicine (23.4%, 11 publications) and biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology (21.3%, 10 publications) as the top research fields. The five most cited publications accounted for 672 citations, with a relatively low h-index (11:11). In conclusion, there has been a lack of publications on this topic in the last decade. The United States dominates production and publication in this area, and there appears to be limited exchange of knowledge, ideas, and technology within the field. Therefore, fostering international cooperation through funding is essential to facilitate further research and development of desferrioxamine-related studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia Vieira de Oliveira
- Graduate Program in Microbial Biology, CEUMA University—UNICEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil; (P.V.d.O.); (Y.C.M.); (A.S.d.S.A.); (W.d.C.A.F.); (A.Z.)
| | - Roseane Lustosa de Santana Lira
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Maranhão—UFMA, São Luís 65080-805, Brazil; (R.L.d.S.L.); (R.d.A.L.); (R.C.C.)
| | - Rafael de Abreu Lima
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Maranhão—UFMA, São Luís 65080-805, Brazil; (R.L.d.S.L.); (R.d.A.L.); (R.C.C.)
| | - Yasmim Costa Mendes
- Graduate Program in Microbial Biology, CEUMA University—UNICEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil; (P.V.d.O.); (Y.C.M.); (A.S.d.S.A.); (W.d.C.A.F.); (A.Z.)
| | - Antenor Bezerra Martins
- Graduate Program in Health and Services Management, CEUMA University—UNICEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil;
| | - Bruna de Oliveira de Melo
- Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Biotechnology—BIONORTE Amazonian Network, Federal University of Maranhão—UFMA, São Luís 65080-805, Brazil;
| | | | - Rivaldo Lira Filho
- Graduate Program in Nursing, St. Therese College—CEST, São Luís 65045-180, Brazil;
| | | | - Amanda Silva dos Santos Aliança
- Graduate Program in Microbial Biology, CEUMA University—UNICEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil; (P.V.d.O.); (Y.C.M.); (A.S.d.S.A.); (W.d.C.A.F.); (A.Z.)
- Graduate Program in Health and Services Management, CEUMA University—UNICEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil;
| | - Wellyson da Cunha Araújo Firmo
- Graduate Program in Microbial Biology, CEUMA University—UNICEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil; (P.V.d.O.); (Y.C.M.); (A.S.d.S.A.); (W.d.C.A.F.); (A.Z.)
- Graduate Program in Health and Services Management, CEUMA University—UNICEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil;
| | - Rafael Cardoso Carvalho
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Maranhão—UFMA, São Luís 65080-805, Brazil; (R.L.d.S.L.); (R.d.A.L.); (R.C.C.)
| | - Adrielle Zagminan
- Graduate Program in Microbial Biology, CEUMA University—UNICEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil; (P.V.d.O.); (Y.C.M.); (A.S.d.S.A.); (W.d.C.A.F.); (A.Z.)
- Graduate Program in Health and Services Management, CEUMA University—UNICEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil;
| | - Eduardo Martins de Sousa
- Graduate Program in Microbial Biology, CEUMA University—UNICEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil; (P.V.d.O.); (Y.C.M.); (A.S.d.S.A.); (W.d.C.A.F.); (A.Z.)
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Maranhão—UFMA, São Luís 65080-805, Brazil; (R.L.d.S.L.); (R.d.A.L.); (R.C.C.)
- Graduate Program in Health and Services Management, CEUMA University—UNICEUMA, São Luís 65075-120, Brazil;
- Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Biotechnology—BIONORTE Amazonian Network, Federal University of Maranhão—UFMA, São Luís 65080-805, Brazil;
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Chatterjee R, Chowdhury AR, Mukherjee D, Chakravortty D. From Eberthella typhi to Salmonella Typhi: The Fascinating Journey of the Virulence and Pathogenicity of Salmonella Typhi. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:25674-25697. [PMID: 37521659 PMCID: PMC10373206 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c02386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi), the invasive typhoidal serovar of Salmonella enterica that causes typhoid fever in humans, is a severe threat to global health. It is one of the major causes of high morbidity and mortality in developing countries. According to recent WHO estimates, approximately 11-21 million typhoid fever illnesses occur annually worldwide, accounting for 0.12-0.16 million deaths. Salmonella infection can spread to healthy individuals by the consumption of contaminated food and water. Typhoid fever in humans sometimes is accompanied by several other critical extraintestinal complications related to the central nervous system, cardiovascular system, pulmonary system, and hepatobiliary system. Salmonella Pathogenicity Island-1 and Salmonella Pathogenicity Island-2 are the two genomic segments containing genes encoding virulent factors that regulate its invasion and systemic pathogenesis. This Review aims to shed light on a comparative analysis of the virulence and pathogenesis of the typhoidal and nontyphoidal serovars of S. enterica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritika Chatterjee
- Department
of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India
| | - Atish Roy Chowdhury
- Department
of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India
| | - Debapriya Mukherjee
- Department
of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India
| | - Dipshikha Chakravortty
- Department
of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India
- Centre
for Biosystems Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India
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7
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Gehrer CM, Hoffmann A, Hilbe R, Grubwieser P, Mitterstiller AM, Talasz H, Fang FC, Meyron-Holtz EG, Atkinson SH, Weiss G, Nairz M. Availability of Ferritin-Bound Iron to Enterobacteriaceae. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:13087. [PMID: 36361875 PMCID: PMC9657528 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232113087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The sequestration of iron in case of infection, termed nutritional immunity, is an established strategy of host defense. However, the interaction between pathogens and the mammalian iron storage protein ferritin is hitherto not completely understood. To better characterize the function of ferritin in Gram-negative infections, we incubated iron-starved cultures of Salmonella Typhimurium and knockout mutant strains defective for major iron uptake pathways or Escherichia coli with horse spleen ferritin or ionic iron as the sole iron source. Additionally, we added bovine superoxide dismutase and protease inhibitors to the growth medium to assess the effect of superoxide and bacterial proteases, respectively, on Salmonella proliferation and reductive iron release. Compared to free ionic iron, ferritin-bound iron was less available to Salmonella, but was still sufficient to significantly enhance the growth of the bacteria. In the absence of various iron acquisition genes, the availability of ferritin iron further decreased. Supplementation with superoxide dismutase significantly reduced the growth of the ΔentC knockout strain with holoferritin as the sole iron source in comparison with ionic ferrous iron. In contrast, this difference was not observed in the wildtype strain, suggesting that superoxide dismutase undermines bacterial iron uptake from ferritin by siderophore-independent mechanisms. Ferritin seems to diminish iron availability for bacteria in comparison to ionic iron, and its iron sequestering effect could possibly be enhanced by host superoxide dismutase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clemens M. Gehrer
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Alexander Hoffmann
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Iron Metabolism and Anemia Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Richard Hilbe
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Philipp Grubwieser
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Anna-Maria Mitterstiller
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Heribert Talasz
- Biocenter, Institute of Medical Biochemistry, Medical Universitiy of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Ferric C. Fang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195-7110, USA
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195-7735, USA
| | - Esther G. Meyron-Holtz
- Laboratory of Molecular Nutrition, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
| | - Sarah H. Atkinson
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Centre for Geographic Medicine Research Coast, KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi 80108, Kenya
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LG, UK
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Günter Weiss
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Iron Metabolism and Anemia Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Manfred Nairz
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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8
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Grubwieser P, Hoffmann A, Hilbe R, Seifert M, Sonnweber T, Böck N, Theurl I, Weiss G, Nairz M. Airway Epithelial Cells Differentially Adapt Their Iron Metabolism to Infection With Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli In Vitro. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:875543. [PMID: 35663465 PMCID: PMC9157649 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.875543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Pneumonia is often elicited by bacteria and can be associated with a severe clinical course, respiratory failure and the need for mechanical ventilation. In the alveolus, type-2-alveolar-epithelial-cells (AECII) contribute to innate immune functions. We hypothesized that AECII actively adapt cellular iron homeostasis to restrict this essential nutrient from invading pathogens - a defense strategy termed 'nutritional immunity', hitherto mainly demonstrated for myeloid cells. Methods We established an in-vitro infection model using the human AECII-like cell line A549. We infected cells with Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) and Escherichia coli (E. coli), two gram-negative bacteria with different modes of infection and frequent causes of hospital-acquired pneumonia. We followed the entry and intracellular growth of these gram-negative bacteria and analyzed differential gene expression and protein levels of key inflammatory and iron metabolism molecules. Results Both, K. pneumoniae and E. coli are able to invade A549 cells, whereas only K. pneumoniae is capable of proliferating intracellularly. After peak bacterial burden, the number of intracellular pathogens declines, suggesting that epithelial cells initiate antimicrobial immune effector pathways to combat bacterial proliferation. The extracellular pathogen E. coli induces an iron retention phenotype in A549 cells, mainly characterized by the downregulation of the pivotal iron exporter ferroportin, the upregulation of the iron importer transferrin-receptor-1 and corresponding induction of the iron storage protein ferritin. In contrast, cells infected with the facultative intracellular bacterium K. pneumoniae exhibit an iron export phenotype indicated by ferroportin upregulation. This differential regulation of iron homeostasis and the pathogen-specific inflammatory reaction is likely mediated by oxidative stress. Conclusion AECII-derived A549 cells show pathogen-specific innate immune functions and adapt their iron handling in response to infection. The differential regulation of iron transporters depends on the preferential intra- or extracellular localization of the pathogen and likely aims at limiting bacterial iron availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Grubwieser
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Alexander Hoffmann
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Iron Metabolism and Anemia Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Richard Hilbe
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Markus Seifert
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Thomas Sonnweber
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Nina Böck
- Biocenter, Institute of Bioinformatics, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Igor Theurl
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Günter Weiss
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Iron Metabolism and Anemia Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Manfred Nairz
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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9
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Hailemariam D, Lam TH, Dervishi E, Zwierzchowski G, Wishart DS, Ametaj BN. Combination of mouse prion protein with detoxified lipopolysaccharide triggers colon genes related to inflammatory, antibacterial, and apoptotic responses. Res Vet Sci 2022; 144:98-107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2022.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Brigo N, Pfeifhofer-Obermair C, Tymoszuk P, Demetz E, Engl S, Barros-Pinkelnig M, Dichtl S, Fischer C, Valente De Souza L, Petzer V, von Raffay L, Hilbe R, Berger S, Seifert M, Schleicher U, Bogdan C, Weiss G. Cytokine-Mediated Regulation of ARG1 in Macrophages and Its Impact on the Control of Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium Infection. Cells 2021; 10:1823. [PMID: 34359992 PMCID: PMC8307077 DOI: 10.3390/cells10071823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Arginase 1 (ARG1) is a cytosolic enzyme that cleaves L-arginine, the substrate of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and thereby impairs the control of various intracellular pathogens. Herein, we investigated the role of ARG1 during infection with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S.tm). To study the impact of ARG1 on Salmonella infections in vitro, bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) from C57BL/6N wild-type, ARG1-deficient Tie2Cre+/-ARG1fl/fl and NRAMPG169 C57BL/6N mice were infected with S.tm. In wild-type BMDM, ARG1 was induced by S.tm and further upregulated by the addition of interleukin (IL)-4, whereas interferon-γ had an inhibitory effect. Deletion of ARG1 did not result in a reduction in bacterial numbers. In vivo, Arg1 mRNA was upregulated in the spleen, but not in the liver of C57BL/6N mice following intraperitoneal S.tm infection. The genetic deletion of ARG1 (Tie2Cre+/-ARG1fl/fl) or its pharmacological inhibition with CB-1158 neither affected the numbers of S.tm in spleen, liver and blood nor the expression of host response genes such as iNOS, IL-6 or tumour necrosis factor (TNF). Furthermore, ARG1 was dispensable for pathogen control irrespective of the presence or absence of the phagolysosomal natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 1 (NRAMP1). Thus, unlike the detrimental function of ARG1 seen during infections with other intraphagosomal microorganisms, ARG1 did not support bacterial survival in systemic salmonellosis, indicating differential roles of arginine metabolism for host immune response and microbe persistence depending on the type of pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natascha Brigo
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Christa Pfeifhofer-Obermair
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Piotr Tymoszuk
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Egon Demetz
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Sabine Engl
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Marina Barros-Pinkelnig
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Stefanie Dichtl
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Christine Fischer
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Lara Valente De Souza
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Iron Metabolism and Anemia Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstrasse 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Verena Petzer
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Laura von Raffay
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Richard Hilbe
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Sylvia Berger
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Markus Seifert
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Iron Metabolism and Anemia Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstrasse 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Ulrike Schleicher
- Mikrobiologisches Institut—Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie, und Hygiene, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Wasserturmstraße 3/5, 91054 Erlangen, Germany; (U.S.); (C.B.)
- Medical Immunology Campus Erlangen, FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Christian Bogdan
- Mikrobiologisches Institut—Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie, und Hygiene, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Wasserturmstraße 3/5, 91054 Erlangen, Germany; (U.S.); (C.B.)
- Medical Immunology Campus Erlangen, FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Günter Weiss
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (N.B.); (C.P.-O.); (P.T.); (E.D.); (S.E.); (M.B.-P.); (S.D.); (C.F.); (L.V.D.S.); (V.P.); (L.v.R.); (R.H.); (S.B.); (M.S.)
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Iron Metabolism and Anemia Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstrasse 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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Nutritional immunity: the impact of metals on lung immune cells and the airway microbiome during chronic respiratory disease. Respir Res 2021; 22:133. [PMID: 33926483 PMCID: PMC8082489 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-021-01722-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Nutritional immunity is the sequestration of bioavailable trace metals such as iron, zinc and copper by the host to limit pathogenicity by invading microorganisms. As one of the most conserved activities of the innate immune system, limiting the availability of free trace metals by cells of the immune system serves not only to conceal these vital nutrients from invading bacteria but also operates to tightly regulate host immune cell responses and function. In the setting of chronic lung disease, the regulation of trace metals by the host is often disrupted, leading to the altered availability of these nutrients to commensal and invading opportunistic pathogenic microbes. Similarly, alterations in the uptake, secretion, turnover and redox activity of these vitally important metals has significant repercussions for immune cell function including the response to and resolution of infection. This review will discuss the intricate role of nutritional immunity in host immune cells of the lung and how changes in this fundamental process as a result of chronic lung disease may alter the airway microbiome, disease progression and the response to infection.
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Wahyuni TD, Hatta M, Bukhari A, Santoso A, Massi MN. Increasing Natural Resistance Associated Macrophage Protein 1 serum level after Miana treatment in BALB/c induced Klebsiella pneumoniae experimental research. Ann Med Surg (Lond) 2021; 65:102262. [PMID: 33898034 PMCID: PMC8058902 DOI: 10.1016/j.amsu.2021.102262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Miana (Coleus Scutellariodes [L] Benth) inhibits growth of bacterial pathogen inside macrophage. Objective The aim of this study is to determine the protein level of Natural Resistance Associated Macrophage Protein 1 (NRAMP1), after administration of Miana extracts in BALB/c mice induced Klebsiella pneumoniae. Methods This is an experimental study using animal model with post test-only controlled group design. Twenty healthy adult male BALB/c mice were randomly divided into four groups, negative control group (distilled water), Levofloxacin 100 mg/kg, injection intraperitoneal, first treatment group (Miana leaves extract/MLE 510 mg/kg) and second treatment group (Miana + levofloxacin). MLE were administered via gastric gavage for ten consecutive days. The blood was drawn from each mice on the first day, on the eight day of experiment (2 h after treatment), and at 10 days. The blood sample was examined by ELISA to determine the NRAMP1 protein level. Analysis of the number of lung tissue bacteria used Plate count agar to see the growth of Klebsiella pneumonia. Results NRAMP1 protein level in BALB/c mice after administration of Miana extract was increased significantly in after 10 days treatment (p < 0.0001). The highest increasing in protein levels was found in treatment group (Miana + levofloxacin) with an increase before treatment 3036,07 to 10010,30 pg/ml after treatment p < 0,0001. Conclusion NRAMP1 protein level in BALB/c mice were highest increasing in protein levels after administration of Miana extract and Levofloxacin compared Miana or Levofloxacin only and clinical impact proved a comparable effect on suppressing Klebsiella pneumoniae growth. The institutional protocol number of this study is 1010/UN4.6.4.5.31/PP36/2019. NRAMP1 was increased significantly in after 10 days treatment of Miana (Coleus scutellaroides (L) Benth). NRAMP1 protein level in were highest increasing after administration of Miana and Levofloxacin compared Miana or Levofloxacin only. The administration of Levofloxacin and Miana proved a comparable effect on suppressing Klebsiella pneumoniae growth. Further study needed to explore in the mRNA expression of NRAMP1 gene after administration of Levofloxacin and Miana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Titis Dewi Wahyuni
- Department of Internal Medicine Faculty Medicine Universitas Pelita Harapan, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Mochammad Hatta
- Department of Molecular Biology and Immunology, Faculty Medicine Universitas Hasanuddin Makassar, Indonesia
- Corresponding author. Molecular Biology and Immunology Laboratory for Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia.
| | - Agussalim Bukhari
- Department of Nutrition, Faculty Medicine Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar, Indonesia
| | - Arif Santoso
- Department of Pulmonology and Respiration, Faculty Medicine Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar, Indonesia
| | - Muhammad Nasrum Massi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty Medicine Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar, Indonesia
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Ma PY, Tan JE, Hee EW, Yong DWX, Heng YS, Low WX, Wu XH, Cletus C, Kumar Chellappan D, Aung K, Yong CY, Liew YK. Human Genetic Variation Influences Enteric Fever Progression. Cells 2021; 10:cells10020345. [PMID: 33562108 PMCID: PMC7915608 DOI: 10.3390/cells10020345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In the 21st century, enteric fever is still causing a significant number of mortalities, especially in high-risk regions of the world. Genetic studies involving the genome and transcriptome have revealed a broad set of candidate genetic polymorphisms associated with susceptibility to and the severity of enteric fever. This review attempted to explain and discuss the past and the most recent findings on human genetic variants affecting the progression of Salmonella typhoidal species infection, particularly toll-like receptor (TLR) 4, TLR5, interleukin (IL-) 4, natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 1 (NRAMP1), VAC14, PARK2/PACRG, cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), major-histocompatibility-complex (MHC) class II and class III. These polymorphisms on disease susceptibility or progression in patients could be related to multiple mechanisms in eliminating both intracellular and extracellular Salmonella typhoidal species. Here, we also highlighted the limitations in the studies reported, which led to inconclusive results in association studies. Nevertheless, the knowledge obtained through this review may shed some light on the development of risk prediction tools, novel therapies as well as strategies towards developing a personalised typhoid vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Yee Ma
- School of Postgraduate Studies, International Medical University, Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia;
| | - Jing En Tan
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia; (J.E.T.); (E.W.H.); (D.W.X.Y.); (Y.S.H.); (W.X.L.); (X.H.W.); (C.C.)
| | - Edd Wyn Hee
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia; (J.E.T.); (E.W.H.); (D.W.X.Y.); (Y.S.H.); (W.X.L.); (X.H.W.); (C.C.)
| | - Dylan Wang Xi Yong
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia; (J.E.T.); (E.W.H.); (D.W.X.Y.); (Y.S.H.); (W.X.L.); (X.H.W.); (C.C.)
| | - Yi Shuan Heng
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia; (J.E.T.); (E.W.H.); (D.W.X.Y.); (Y.S.H.); (W.X.L.); (X.H.W.); (C.C.)
| | - Wei Xiang Low
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia; (J.E.T.); (E.W.H.); (D.W.X.Y.); (Y.S.H.); (W.X.L.); (X.H.W.); (C.C.)
| | - Xun Hui Wu
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia; (J.E.T.); (E.W.H.); (D.W.X.Y.); (Y.S.H.); (W.X.L.); (X.H.W.); (C.C.)
| | - Christy Cletus
- School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia; (J.E.T.); (E.W.H.); (D.W.X.Y.); (Y.S.H.); (W.X.L.); (X.H.W.); (C.C.)
| | - Dinesh Kumar Chellappan
- Department of Life Sciences, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia;
| | - Kyan Aung
- Department of Pathology, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia;
| | - Chean Yeah Yong
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia;
| | - Yun Khoon Liew
- Department of Life Sciences, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia;
- Correspondence:
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Iron in immune cell function and host defense. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2020; 115:27-36. [PMID: 33386235 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The control over iron availability is crucial under homeostatic conditions and even more in the case of an infection. This results from diverse properties of iron: first, iron is an important trace element for the host as well as for the pathogen for various cellular and metabolic processes, second, free iron catalyzes Fenton reaction and is therefore producing reactive oxygen species as a part of the host defense machinery, third, iron exhibits important effects on immune cell function and differentiation and fourth almost every immune activation in turn impacts on iron metabolism and spatio-temporal iron distribution. The central importance of iron in the host and microbe interplay and thus for the course of infections led to diverse strategies to restrict iron for invading pathogens. In this review, we focus on how iron restriction to the pathogen is a powerful innate immune defense mechanism of the host called "nutritional immunity". Important proteins in the iron-host-pathogen interplay will be discussed as well as the influence of iron on the efficacy of innate and adaptive immunity. Recently described processes like ferritinophagy and ferroptosis are further covered in respect to their impact on inflammation and infection control and how they impact on our understanding of the interaction of host and pathogen.
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Failure of CD4 T Cell-Deficient Hosts To Control Chronic Nontyphoidal Salmonella Infection Leads to Exacerbated Inflammation, Chronic Anemia, and Altered Myelopoiesis. Infect Immun 2020; 89:IAI.00417-20. [PMID: 33046510 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00417-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunocompromised patients are more susceptible to recurrent nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS) bacteremia. A key manifestation of HIV infection is the loss of CD4 T cells, which are crucial for immunity to Salmonella infection. We characterized the consequences of CD4 T cell depletion in mice where virulent Salmonella establish chronic infection, similar to chronic NTS disease in humans. Salmonella-infected, CD4-depleted 129X1/SvJ mice remained chronically colonized for at least 5 weeks, displaying increased splenomegaly and more severe splenitis than infected mice with CD4 T cells. Mature erythrocytes, immature erythroid cells, and phagocytes accounted for the largest increase in splenic cellularity. Anemia, which is associated with increased mortality in Salmonella-infected humans, was exacerbated by CD4 depletion in infected mice and was accompanied by increased splenic sequestration of erythrocytes and fewer erythropoietic elements in the bone marrow, despite significantly elevated levels of circulating erythropoietin. Splenic sequestration of red blood cells, the appearance of circulating poikilocytes, and elevated proinflammatory cytokines suggest inflammation-induced damage to erythrocytes contributes to anemia and splenic retention of damaged cells in infected animals. Depleting CD4 T cells led to increased myeloid cells in peripheral blood, spleen, and bone marrow, as well as expansion of CD8 T cells, which has been observed in CD4-depleted humans. This work describes a mouse model of Salmonella infection that recapitulates several aspects of human disease and will allow us to investigate the interplay of innate and adaptive immune functions with chronic inflammation, anemia, and susceptibility to Salmonella infection.
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Valente de Souza L, Hoffmann A, Weiss G. Impact of bacterial infections on erythropoiesis. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2020; 19:619-633. [PMID: 33092423 DOI: 10.1080/14787210.2021.1841636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The importance of iron is highlighted by the many complex metabolic pathways in which it is involved. A sufficient supply is essential for the effective production of 200 billion erythrocytes daily, a process called erythropoiesis. AREAS COVERED During infection, the human body can withhold iron from pathogens, mechanism termed nutritional immunity. The subsequent disturbances in iron homeostasis not only impact on immune function and infection control, but also negatively affect erythropoiesis. The complex interplay between iron, immunity, erythropoiesis and infection control on the molecular and clinical level are highlighted in this review. Diagnostic algorithms for correct interpretation and diagnosis of the iron status in the setting of infection are presented. Therapeutic concepts are discussed regarding effects on anemia correction, but also toward their role on the course of infection. EXPERT OPINION In the setting of infection, anemia is often neglected and its impact on the course of diseases is incompletely understood. Clinical expertise can be improved in correct diagnosing of anemia and disturbances of iron homeostasis. Systemic studies are needed to evaluate the impact of specific therapeutic interventions on anemia correction on the course of infection, but also on patients' cardiovascular performance and quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Valente de Souza
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University ofI nnsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.,Christian Doppler Laboratory for Iron Metabolism and Anemia Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Alexander Hoffmann
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University ofI nnsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.,Christian Doppler Laboratory for Iron Metabolism and Anemia Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Günter Weiss
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Medical University ofI nnsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.,Christian Doppler Laboratory for Iron Metabolism and Anemia Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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Nairz M, Weiss G. Iron in infection and immunity. Mol Aspects Med 2020; 75:100864. [PMID: 32461004 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2020.100864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2020] [Revised: 04/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Iron is an essential micronutrient for virtually all living cells. In infectious diseases, both invading pathogens and mammalian cells including those of the immune system require iron to sustain their function, metabolism and proliferation. On the one hand, microbial iron uptake is linked to the virulence of most human pathogens. On the other hand, the sequestration of iron from bacteria and other microorganisms is an efficient strategy of host defense in line with the principles of 'nutritional immunity'. In an acute infection, host-driven iron withdrawal inhibits the growth of pathogens. Chronic immune activation due to persistent infection, autoimmune disease or malignancy however, sequesters iron not only from infectious agents, autoreactive lymphocytes and neoplastic cells but also from erythroid progenitors. This is one of the key mechanisms which collectively result in the anemia of chronic inflammation. In this review, we highlight the most important interconnections between iron metabolism and immunity, focusing on host defense against relevant infections and on the clinical consequences of anemia of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred Nairz
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Günter Weiss
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria; Christian Doppler Laboratory for Iron Metabolism and Anemia Research, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria.
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Honeycutt JD, Wenner N, Li Y, Brewer SM, Massis LM, Brubaker SW, Chairatana P, Owen SV, Canals R, Hinton JCD, Monack DM. Genetic variation in the MacAB-TolC efflux pump influences pathogenesis of invasive Salmonella isolates from Africa. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008763. [PMID: 32834002 PMCID: PMC7446830 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The various sub-species of Salmonella enterica cause a range of disease in human hosts. The human-adapted Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi enters the gastrointestinal tract and invades systemic sites to cause enteric (typhoid) fever. In contrast, most non-typhoidal serovars of Salmonella are primarily restricted to gut tissues. Across Africa, invasive non-typhoidal Salmonella (iNTS) have emerged with an ability to spread beyond the gastrointestinal tract and cause systemic bloodstream infections with increased morbidity and mortality. To investigate this evolution in pathogenesis, we compared the genomes of African iNTS isolates with other Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and identified several macA and macB gene variants unique to African iNTS. MacAB forms a tripartite efflux pump with TolC and is implicated in Salmonella pathogenesis. We show that macAB transcription is upregulated during macrophage infection and after antimicrobial peptide exposure, with macAB transcription being supported by the PhoP/Q two-component system. Constitutive expression of macAB improves survival of Salmonella in the presence of the antimicrobial peptide C18G. Furthermore, these macAB variants affect replication in macrophages and influence fitness during colonization of the murine gastrointestinal tract. Importantly, the infection outcome resulting from these macAB variants depends upon both the Salmonella Typhimurium genetic background and the host gene Nramp1, an important determinant of innate resistance to intracellular bacterial infection. The variations we have identified in the MacAB-TolC efflux pump in African iNTS may reflect evolution within human host populations that are compromised in their ability to clear intracellular Salmonella infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared D. Honeycutt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Nicolas Wenner
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Yan Li
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Susan M. Brewer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Liliana M. Massis
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Sky W. Brubaker
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Phoom Chairatana
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Siân V. Owen
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Rocío Canals
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Jay C. D. Hinton
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Denise M. Monack
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
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Cunrath O, Bumann D. Host resistance factor SLC11A1 restrictsSalmonellagrowth through magnesium deprivation. Science 2019; 366:995-999. [DOI: 10.1126/science.aax7898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Revised: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The pleiotropic host resistance factor SLC11A1 (NRAMP1) defends against diverse intracellular pathogens in mammals by yet-unknown mechanisms. We comparedSalmonellainfection of coisogenic mice with differentSLC11A1alleles. SLC11A1 reducedSalmonellareplication and triggered up-regulation of uptake systems for divalent metal cations but no other stress responses. SLC11A1 modestly diminished iron availability and acutely restrictedSalmonellaaccess to magnesium. Growth ofSalmonellacells in the presence of SLC11A1 was highly heterogeneous and inversely correlated with expression of the crucial magnesium transporter genemgtB. We observed superimposable single-cell patterns in mice lacking SLC11A1 when we restrictedSalmonellaaccess to magnesium by impairing its uptake. Together, these findings identify deprivation of the main group metal magnesium as the main resistance mechanism of SLC11A1 againstSalmonella.
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20
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Autophagy Induction by a Small Molecule Inhibits Salmonella Survival in Macrophages and Mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2019:AAC.01536-19. [PMID: 31591121 PMCID: PMC6879225 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01536-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella enterica is a natural bacterial pathogen of humans and animals that causes systemic infection or gastroenteritis. During systemic infection, Salmonella generally resides within professional phagocytes, typically macrophages, whereas gastroenteritis is caused by infection of epithelial cells. We are only beginning to understand which host pathways contribute to Salmonella survival in particular cell types. Salmonella enterica is a natural bacterial pathogen of humans and animals that causes systemic infection or gastroenteritis. During systemic infection, Salmonella generally resides within professional phagocytes, typically macrophages, whereas gastroenteritis is caused by infection of epithelial cells. We are only beginning to understand which host pathways contribute to Salmonella survival in particular cell types. We therefore sought to identify compounds that perturb Salmonella-host interactions using a chemical genetics approach. We found one small molecule, D61, that reduces Salmonella load in cell line and primary macrophages but has no effect on Salmonella growth in epithelial cells or rich medium. We determined that in macrophages, D61 induces LC3II, a marker of the autophagy pathway, and promotes aggregation of LC3II near Salmonella. We found that D61 antibacterial activity depends on the VPS34 complex and on ATG5. D61 also reduced Salmonella load in the spleens and livers of infected mice. Lastly, we demonstrate that D61 antibacterial activity in macrophages is synergistic with the antibiotic chloramphenicol but that this synergy is largely independent of the known autophagy-stimulating activity of chloramphenicol. Thus, a small molecule has antibacterial activity specifically in macrophages and mice based on the promotion of bacterial degradation by autophagy. These observations demonstrate the potential therapeutic utility of stimulating autophagy in cells and animals to curb infection.
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21
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Lu F, Inoue K, Kato J, Minamishima S, Morisaki H. Functions and regulation of lipocalin-2 in gut-origin sepsis: a narrative review. CRITICAL CARE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE CRITICAL CARE FORUM 2019; 23:269. [PMID: 31375129 PMCID: PMC6679544 DOI: 10.1186/s13054-019-2550-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Lipocalin-2 (Lcn2), an innate immune protein, has come to be recognized for its roles in iron homeostasis, infection, and inflammation. In this narrative review, we provide a comprehensive description based on currently available evidence of the clinical implications of Lcn2 and its therapeutic potency in gut-origin sepsis. Lcn2 appears to mitigate gut barrier injury via maintaining homeostasis of the microbiota and exerting antioxidant strategy, as well as by deactivating macrophages and inducing immune cell apoptosis to terminate systemic hyper-inflammation. We propose that development of a therapeutic strategy targeting lipocalin-2 could be highly promising in the management of gut-origin sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanglin Lu
- Keio University Graduate School of Medicine Doctoral Programs, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Anesthesiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanoamchi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Kei Inoue
- Department of Anesthesiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanoamchi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Jungo Kato
- Department of Anesthesiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanoamchi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Shizuka Minamishima
- Department of Anesthesiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanoamchi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Morisaki
- Department of Anesthesiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanoamchi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan.
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22
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23
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Cooperative Metabolic Adaptations in the Host Can Favor Asymptomatic Infection and Select for Attenuated Virulence in an Enteric Pathogen. Cell 2018; 175:146-158.e15. [PMID: 30100182 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Revised: 06/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Pathogen virulence exists on a continuum. The strategies that drive symptomatic or asymptomatic infections remain largely unknown. We took advantage of the concept of lethal dose 50 (LD50) to ask which component of individual non-genetic variation between hosts defines whether they survive or succumb to infection. Using the enteric pathogen Citrobacter, we found no difference in pathogen burdens between healthy and symptomatic populations. Iron metabolism-related genes were induced in asymptomatic hosts compared to symptomatic or naive mice. Dietary iron conferred complete protection without influencing pathogen burdens, even at 1000× the lethal dose of Citrobacter. Dietary iron induced insulin resistance, increasing glucose levels in the intestine that were necessary and sufficient to suppress pathogen virulence. A short course of dietary iron drove the selection of attenuated Citrobacter strains that can transmit and asymptomatically colonize naive hosts, demonstrating that environmental factors and cooperative metabolic strategies can drive conversion of pathogens toward commensalism.
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24
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Nairz M, Dichtl S, Schroll A, Haschka D, Tymoszuk P, Theurl I, Weiss G. Iron and innate antimicrobial immunity-Depriving the pathogen, defending the host. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2018; 48:118-133. [PMID: 29773170 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2018.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The acute-phase response is triggered by the presence of infectious agents and danger signals which indicate hazards for the integrity of the mammalian body. One central feature of this response is the sequestration of iron into storage compartments including macrophages. This limits the availability of this essential nutrient for circulating pathogens, a host defence strategy known as 'nutritional immunity'. Iron metabolism and the immune response are intimately linked. In infections, the availability of iron affects both the efficacy of antimicrobial immune pathways and pathogen proliferation. However, host strategies to withhold iron from microbes vary according to the localization of pathogens: Infections with extracellular bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus, Klebsiella or Yersinia stimulate the expression of the iron-regulatory hormone hepcidin which targets the cellular iron-exporter ferroportin-1 causing its internalization and blockade of iron egress from absorptive enterocytes in the duodenum and iron-recycling macrophages. This mechanism disrupts both routes of iron delivery to the circulation, contributes to iron sequestration in the mononuclear phagocyte system and mediates the hypoferraemia of the acute phase response subsequently resulting in the development of anaemia of inflammation. When intracellular microbes are present, other strategies of microbial iron withdrawal are needed. For instance, in macrophages harbouring intracellular pathogens such as Chlamydia, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Listeria monocytogenes or Salmonella Typhimurium, ferroportin-1-mediated iron export is turned on for the removal of iron from infected cells. This also leads to reduced iron availability for intra-macrophage pathogens which inhibits their growth and in parallel strengthens anti-microbial effector pathways of macrophages including the formation of inducible nitric oxide synthase and tumour necrosis factor. Iron plays a key role in infectious diseases both as modulator of the innate immune response and as nutrient for microbes. We need to gain a more comprehensive understanding of how the body can differentially respond to infection by extra- or intracellular pathogens. This knowledge may allow us to modulate mammalian iron homeostasis pharmaceutically and to target iron-acquisition systems of pathogens, thus enabling us to treat infections with novel strategies that act independent of established antimicrobials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred Nairz
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - Stefanie Dichtl
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Andrea Schroll
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - David Haschka
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Piotr Tymoszuk
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Igor Theurl
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Günter Weiss
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
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25
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Dar MA, Ahmed R, Urwat U, Ahmad SM, Dar PA, Kushoo ZA, Dar TA, Mumtaz PT, Bhat SA, Amin U, Shabir N, Bhat HF, Shah RA, Ganai NA, Heidari M. Expression kinetics of natural resistance associated macrophage protein (NRAMP) genes in Salmonella Typhimurium-infected chicken. BMC Vet Res 2018; 14:180. [PMID: 29884179 PMCID: PMC5994117 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-018-1510-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (Salmonella Typhimurium) is a zoonotic pathogen responsible for severe intestinal pathology in young chickens. Natural resistance-associated macrophage protein (NRAMP) family has been shown to be associated with resistance to intracellular pathogens, including Salmonella Typhimurium. The role of NRAMP proteins in macrophage defence against microbial infection has been ascribed to changes in the metal-ion concentrations inside the bacteria-containing phagosomes. The present study was conducted to investigate tissue-specific (liver, spleen and caecum) expression kinetics of NRAMP gene family (NRAMP1 and NRAMP2) in broilers from day 0 to day 15 after Salmonella Typhimurium challenge concomitant to clinical, blood biochemical and immunological parameters survey. Results Clinical symptoms appeared 4 days post-infection (dpi) in infected birds. Symptoms like progressive weakness, anorexia, diarrhoea and lowering of the head were seen in infected birds one-week post-infection. On postmortem examination, liver showed congestion, haemorrhage and necrotic foci on the surface, while as the spleen, lungs and intestines revealed congestion and haemorrhages. Histopathological alterations were principally found in liver comprising of necrosis, reticular endothelial hyperplasia along with mononuclear cell and heterophilic infiltration. Red Blood Cell (RBC) count, Haemoglobin (Hb) and Packed Cell Volume (PCV) decreased significantly (P < 0.05) in blood while heterophil counts increased up to 7 days post-infection. Serum glucose, aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT) enzymes concentrations increased significantly throughout the study. A gradual increase of specific humoral IgG response confirmed Salmonella infection. Meanwhile, expression of NRAMP1 and NRAMP2 genes was differentially regulated after infection in tissues such as liver, spleen and caecum known to be the target of Salmonella Typhimurium replication in the chicken. Conclusion Thus the specific roles of NRAMP1 and NRAMP2 genes in Salmonella Typhimurium induced disease may be supposed from their differential expression according to tissues and timing after per os infection. However, these roles remain to be analyzed related to the severity of the disease which can be estimated by blood biochemistry and immunological parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mashooq Ahmad Dar
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, Sher-e- Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology - Kashmir, Srinagar, India.,Depatment of Biochemistry, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India
| | - Raashid Ahmed
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, Sher-e- Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology - Kashmir, Srinagar, India
| | - Uneeb Urwat
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, Sher-e- Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology - Kashmir, Srinagar, India
| | - Syed Mudasir Ahmad
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, Sher-e- Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology - Kashmir, Srinagar, India.
| | - Pervaiz Ahmad Dar
- Division of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, SKUAST-K, Srinagar, India
| | - Zahid Amin Kushoo
- Division of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, SKUAST-K, Srinagar, India
| | - Tanveer Ali Dar
- Depatment of Biochemistry, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India
| | - Peerzada Tajamul Mumtaz
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, Sher-e- Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology - Kashmir, Srinagar, India
| | - Shakil Ahmad Bhat
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, Sher-e- Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology - Kashmir, Srinagar, India
| | - Umar Amin
- Division of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, SKUAST-K, Srinagar, India
| | - Nadeem Shabir
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, Sher-e- Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology - Kashmir, Srinagar, India
| | - Hina Fayaz Bhat
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, Sher-e- Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology - Kashmir, Srinagar, India
| | - Riaz Ahmad Shah
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, Sher-e- Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology - Kashmir, Srinagar, India
| | - Nazir Ahmad Ganai
- Division of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Shuhama, SKUAST-K, Srinagar, India
| | - Mohammad Heidari
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Avian Disease and Oncology Laboratory, 4279 E. Mount Hope Rd., East Lansing, MI, 48823, USA
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26
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Reens AL, Crooks AL, Su CC, Nagy TA, Reens DL, Podoll JD, Edwards ME, Yu EW, Detweiler CS. A cell-based infection assay identifies efflux pump modulators that reduce bacterial intracellular load. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007115. [PMID: 29879224 PMCID: PMC6007937 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial efflux pumps transport small molecules from the cytoplasm or periplasm outside the cell. Efflux pump activity is typically increased in multi-drug resistant (MDR) pathogens; chemicals that inhibit efflux pumps may have potential for antibiotic development. Using an in-cell screen, we identified three efflux pump modulators (EPMs) from a drug diversity library. The screening platform uses macrophages infected with the human Gram-negative pathogen Salmonella enterica (Salmonella) to identify small molecules that prevent bacterial replication or survival within the host environment. A secondary screen for hit compounds that increase the accumulation of an efflux pump substrate, Hoechst 33342, identified three small molecules with activity comparable to the known efflux pump inhibitor PAβN (Phe-Arg β-naphthylamide). The three putative EPMs demonstrated significant antibacterial activity against Salmonella within primary and cell culture macrophages and within a human epithelial cell line. Unlike traditional antibiotics, the three compounds did not inhibit bacterial growth in standard microbiological media. The three compounds prevented energy-dependent efflux pump activity in Salmonella and bound the AcrB subunit of the AcrAB-TolC efflux system with KDs in the micromolar range. Moreover, the EPMs display antibacterial synergy with antimicrobial peptides, a class of host innate immune defense molecules present in body fluids and cells. The EPMs also had synergistic activity with antibiotics exported by AcrAB-TolC in broth and in macrophages and inhibited efflux pump activity in MDR Gram-negative ESKAPE clinical isolates. Thus, an in-cell screening approach identified EPMs that synergize with innate immunity to kill bacteria and have potential for development as adjuvants to antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail L. Reens
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, & Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States of America
| | - Amy L. Crooks
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, & Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States of America
| | - Chih-Chia Su
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve, Cleveland OH, United States of America
| | - Toni A. Nagy
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, & Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States of America
| | - David L. Reens
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States of America
- JILA, National Institutes of Standards and Technology and University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States of America
| | - Jessica D. Podoll
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, & Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States of America
| | - Madeline E. Edwards
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, & Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States of America
| | - Edward W. Yu
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve, Cleveland OH, United States of America
| | - Corrella S. Detweiler
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, & Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States of America
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27
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Muangsombut V, Withatanung P, Srinon V, Chantratita N, Stevens MP, Blackwell JM, Korbsrisate S. Burkholderia pseudomallei Evades Nramp1 (Slc11a1)- and NADPH Oxidase-Mediated Killing in Macrophages and Exhibits Nramp1-Dependent Virulence Gene Expression. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:350. [PMID: 28848712 PMCID: PMC5550678 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial survival in macrophages can be affected by the natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 1 (Nramp1; also known as solute carrier family 11 member a1 or Slc11a1) which localizes to phagosome membranes and transports divalent cations, including iron. Little is known about the role of Nramp1 in Burkholderia infection, in particular whether this differs for pathogenic species like Burkholderia pseudomallei causing melioidosis or non-pathogenic species like Burkholderia thailandensis. Here we show that transfected macrophages stably expressing wild-type Nramp1 (Nramp1+) control the net replication of B. thailandensis, but not B. pseudomallei. Control of B. thailandensis was associated with increased cytokine responses, and could be abrogated by blocking NADPH oxidase-mediated production of reactive oxygen species but not by blocking generation of reactive nitrogen species. The inability of Nramp1+ macrophages to control B. pseudomallei was associated with rapid escape of bacteria from phagosomes, as indicated by decreased co-localization with LAMP1 compared to B. thailandensis. A B. pseudomallei bipB mutant impaired in escape from phagosomes was controlled to a greater extent than the parent strain in Nramp1+ macrophages, but was also attenuated in Nramp1− cells. Consistent with reduced escape from phagosomes, B. thailandensis formed fewer multinucleated giant cells in Nramp1+ macrophages at later time points compared to B. pseudomallei. B. pseudomallei exhibited elevated transcription of virulence-associated genes of Type VI Secretion System cluster 1 (T6SS-1), the Bsa Type III Secretion System (T3SS-3) and the bimA gene required for actin-based motility in Nramp1+ macrophages. Nramp1+ macrophages were found to contain decreased iron levels that may impact on expression of such genes. Our data show that B. pseudomallei is able to evade Nramp1- and NADPH oxidase-mediated killing in macrophages and that expression of virulence-associated genes by pathogenic B pseudomallei is enhanced in macrophages expressing wild-type compared to non-functional Nramp1. B. thailandensis has been proposed as surrogate for B. pseudomallei in the study of melioidosis however our study highlights important differences in the interaction of these bacteria with macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veerachat Muangsombut
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand
| | - Patoo Withatanung
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand
| | - Varintip Srinon
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand.,Microbiology Laboratory, Veterinary Diagnostic Center, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol UniversityNakhon Pathom, Thailand
| | - Narisara Chantratita
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand
| | - Mark P Stevens
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of EdinburghMidlothian, United Kingdom
| | - Jenefer M Blackwell
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western AustraliaSubiaco, WA, Australia.,Department of Pathology, University of CambridgeCambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Sunee Korbsrisate
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand
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28
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Brenz Y, Ohnezeit D, Winther-Larsen HC, Hagedorn M. Nramp1 and NrampB Contribute to Resistance against Francisella in Dictyostelium. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:282. [PMID: 28680861 PMCID: PMC5478718 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The Francisella genus comprises highly pathogenic bacteria that can cause fatal disease in their vertebrate and invertebrate hosts including humans. In general, Francisella growth depends on iron availability, hence, iron homeostasis must be tightly regulated during Francisella infection. We used the system of the professional phagocyte Dictyostelium and the fish pathogen F. noatunensis subsp. noatunensis (F.n.n.) to investigate the role of the host cell iron transporters Nramp (natural resistance associated macrophage proteins) during Francisella infection. Like its mammalian ortholog, Dictyostelium Nramp1 transports iron from the phagosome into the cytosol, whereas the paralog NrampB is located on the contractile vacuole and controls, together with Nramp1, the cellular iron homeostasis. In Dictyostelium, Nramp1 localized to the F.n.n.-phagosome but disappeared from the compartment dependent on the presence of IglC, an established Francisella virulence factor. In the absence of Nramp transporters the bacteria translocated more efficiently from the phagosome into the host cell cytosol, its replicative niche. Increased escape rates coincided with increased proteolytic activity in bead-containing phagosomes indicating a role of the Nramp transporters for phagosomal maturation. In the nramp mutants, a higher bacterial load was observed in the replicative phase compared to wild-type host cells. Upon bacterial access to the cytosol of wt cells, mRNA levels of bacterial iron uptake factors were transiently upregulated. Decreased iron levels in the nramp mutants were compensated by a prolonged upregulation of the iron scavenging system. These results show that Nramps contribute to host cell immunity against Francisella infection by influencing the translocation efficiency from the phagosome to the cytosol but not by restricting access to nutritional iron in the cytosol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannick Brenz
- Department of Parasitology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical MedicineHamburg, Germany
| | - Denise Ohnezeit
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Hygiene and Virology, University Medical Center Hamburg-EppendorfHamburg, Germany
| | - Hanne C Winther-Larsen
- Centre for Integrative Microbial Evolution and Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, University of OsloOslo, Norway
| | - Monica Hagedorn
- Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs UniversityBremen, Germany
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29
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Martins AC, Almeida JI, Lima IS, Kapitão AS, Gozzelino R. Iron Metabolism and the Inflammatory Response. IUBMB Life 2017; 69:442-450. [PMID: 28474474 DOI: 10.1002/iub.1635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Iron (Fe) is essential to almost all organisms, as required by cells to satisfy metabolic needs and accomplish specialized functions. Its ability to exchange electrons between different substrates, however, renders it potentially toxic. Fine tune-mechanisms are necessary to maintain Fe homeostasis and, as such, to prevent its participation into the Fenton reaction and generation of oxidative stress. These are particularly important in the context of inflammation/infection, where restricting Fe availability to invading pathogens is one, if not, the main host defense strategy against microbial growth. The ability of Fe to modulate several aspects of the immune response is associated with a number of "costs" and "benefits", some of which have been described in this review. © 2017 IUBMB Life, 69(6):442-450, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana C Martins
- Chronic Diseases Research Center (CEDOC)/NOVA Medical School, NOVA University of Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Joana I Almeida
- Chronic Diseases Research Center (CEDOC)/NOVA Medical School, NOVA University of Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Illyane S Lima
- Chronic Diseases Research Center (CEDOC)/NOVA Medical School, NOVA University of Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Antonino S Kapitão
- Chronic Diseases Research Center (CEDOC)/NOVA Medical School, NOVA University of Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Raffaella Gozzelino
- Chronic Diseases Research Center (CEDOC)/NOVA Medical School, NOVA University of Lisbon, Portugal
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30
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Bauler TJ, Starr T, Nagy TA, Sridhar S, Scott D, Winkler CW, Steele-Mortimer O, Detweiler CS, Peterson KE. Salmonella Meningitis Associated with Monocyte Infiltration in Mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2016; 187:187-199. [PMID: 27955815 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Revised: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
In the current study, we examined the ability of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium to infect the central nervous system and cause meningitis following the natural route of infection in mice. C57BL/6J mice are extremely susceptible to systemic infection by Salmonella Typhimurium because of loss-of-function mutations in Nramp1 (SLC11A1), a phagosomal membrane protein that controls iron export from vacuoles and inhibits Salmonella growth in macrophages. Therefore, we assessed the ability of Salmonella to disseminate to the central nervous system (CNS) after oral infection in C57BL/6J mice expressing either wild-type (resistant) or mutant (susceptible) alleles of Nramp1. In both strains, oral infection resulted in focal meningitis and ventriculitis with recruitment of inflammatory monocytes to the CNS. In susceptible Nramp1-/- mice, there was a direct correlation between bacteremia and the number of bacteria in the brain, which was not observed in resistant Nramp1+/+ mice. A small percentage of Nramp1+/+ mice developed severe ataxia, which was associated with high bacterial loads in the CNS as well as clear histopathology of necrotizing vasculitis and hemorrhage in the brain. Thus, Nramp1 is not essential for Salmonella entry into the CNS or neuroinflammation, but may influence the mechanisms of CNS entry as well as the severity of meningitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J Bauler
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana
| | - Tregei Starr
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana
| | - Toni A Nagy
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado
| | - Sushmita Sridhar
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana
| | - Dana Scott
- Rocky Mountain Veterinary Branch, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana
| | - Clayton W Winkler
- Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana
| | - Olivia Steele-Mortimer
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana
| | - Corrella S Detweiler
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado
| | - Karin E Peterson
- Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana.
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Abstract
Transition metals are required trace elements for all forms of life. Due to their unique inorganic and redox properties, transition metals serve as cofactors for enzymes and other proteins. In bacterial pathogenesis, the vertebrate host represents a rich source of nutrient metals, and bacteria have evolved diverse metal acquisition strategies. Host metal homeostasis changes dramatically in response to bacterial infections, including production of metal sequestering proteins and the bombardment of bacteria with toxic levels of metals. In response, bacteria have evolved systems to subvert metal sequestration and toxicity. The coevolution of hosts and their bacterial pathogens in the battle for metals has uncovered emerging paradigms in social microbiology, rapid evolution, host specificity, and metal homeostasis across domains. This review focuses on recent advances and open questions in our understanding of the complex role of transition metals at the host-pathogen interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren D Palmer
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37212;
| | - Eric P Skaar
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37212;
- Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, US Department of Veterans Affairs, Nashville, Tennessee 37212
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Singh N, Gedda MR, Tiwari N, Singh SP, Bajpai S, Singh RK. Solute carrier protein family 11 member 1 (Slc11a1) activation efficiently inhibits Leishmania donovani survival in host macrophages. J Parasit Dis 2016; 41:671-677. [PMID: 28848257 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-016-0864-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Accepted: 11/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Visceral leishmaniasis (kala-azar), a life threatening disease caused by L. donovani, is a latent threat to more than 147 million people living in disease endemic South East Asia region of the Indian subcontinent. The therapeutic option to control leishmanial infections are very limited, and at present comprise only two drugs, an antifungal amphotericin B and an antitumor miltefosine, which are also highly vulnerable for parasitic resistance. Therefore, identification and development of alternate control measures is an exigent requirement to control leishmanial infections. In this study, we report that functionally induced expression of solute carrier protein family 11 member 1 (Slc11a1), a transmembrane divalent cationic transporter recruited on the surface of phagolysosomes after phagocytosis of parasites, effectively inhibits Leishmania donovani growth in host macrophages. Further, the increased Slc11a1 functionality also resulted in increased production of NOx, TNF-α and IL-12 by activated macrophages. The findings of this study signify the importance of interplay between Slc11a1 expression and macrophages activation that can be effectively used to control of Leishmania growth and survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005 India.,Departement of Biochemistry, HNB University, Srinagar, Uttrakhand 246174 India
| | - Mallikarjuna Rao Gedda
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005 India
| | - Neeraj Tiwari
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005 India
| | - Suya P Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005 India
| | - Surabhi Bajpai
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005 India.,Department of Bioscience and Biotechnolgy, Banasthali University, Banasthali, Tonk, Rajasthan 304022 India
| | - Rakesh K Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005 India
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Mitterstiller AM, Haschka D, Dichtl S, Nairz M, Demetz E, Talasz H, Soares MP, Einwallner E, Esterbauer H, Fang FC, Geley S, Weiss G. Heme oxygenase 1 controls early innate immune response of macrophages to Salmonella Typhimurium infection. Cell Microbiol 2016; 18:1374-89. [PMID: 26866925 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Revised: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are central for the immune control of intracellular microbes. Heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1, hmox) is the first and rate limiting enzyme in the breakdown of heme originating from degraded senescent erythrocytes and heme-proteins, yielding equal amounts of iron, carbon monoxide and biliverdin. HO-1 is strongly up-regulated in macrophages in response to inflammatory signals, including bacterial endotoxin. In view of the essential role of iron for the growth and proliferation of intracellular bacteria along with known effects of the metal on innate immune function, we examined whether HO-1 plays a role in the control of infection with the intracellular bacterium Salmonella Typhimurium. We studied the course of infection in stably-transfected murine macrophages (RAW264.7) bearing a tetracycline-inducible plasmid producing hmox shRNA and in primary HO-1 knockout macrophages. While uptake of bacteria into macrophages was not affected, a significantly reduced survival of intracellular Salmonella was observed upon hmox knockdown or pharmacological hmox inhibition, which was independent of Nramp1 functionality. This could be traced to limitation of iron availability for intramacrophage bacteria along with enhanced stimulation of innate immune effector pathways, including the formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and increased TNF-α expression. Mechanistically, these latter effects result from intracellular iron limitation with subsequent activation of NF-κB and further inos, tnfa and p47phox transcription along with reduced formation of the anti-inflammatory and radical scavenging molecules, CO and biliverdin as a consequence of HO-1 silencing. Taken together our data provide novel evidence that the infection-driven induction of HO-1 exerts detrimental effects in the early control of Salmonella infection, whereas hmox inhibition can favourably modulate anti-bacterial immune effector pathways of macrophages and promote bacterial elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Maria Mitterstiller
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - David Haschka
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Stefanie Dichtl
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Manfred Nairz
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Egon Demetz
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Heribert Talasz
- Division of Clinical Biochemistry, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Elisa Einwallner
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Harald Esterbauer
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ferric C Fang
- University of Washington School of Medicine, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Seattle, WA, 98195-7735, USA
| | - Stephan Geley
- Division of Molecular Pathophysiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Guenter Weiss
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
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Flannagan RS, Heit B, Heinrichs DE. Antimicrobial Mechanisms of Macrophages and the Immune Evasion Strategies of Staphylococcus aureus. Pathogens 2015; 4:826-68. [PMID: 26633519 PMCID: PMC4693167 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens4040826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Revised: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Habitually professional phagocytes, including macrophages, eradicate microbial invaders from the human body without overt signs of infection. Despite this, there exist select bacteria that are professional pathogens, causing significant morbidity and mortality across the globe and Staphylococcus aureus is no exception. S. aureus is a highly successful pathogen that can infect virtually every tissue that comprises the human body causing a broad spectrum of diseases. The profound pathogenic capacity of S. aureus can be attributed, in part, to its ability to elaborate a profusion of bacterial effectors that circumvent host immunity. Macrophages are important professional phagocytes that contribute to both the innate and adaptive immune response, however from in vitro and in vivo studies, it is evident that they fail to eradicate S. aureus. This review provides an overview of the antimicrobial mechanisms employed by macrophages to combat bacteria and describes the immune evasion strategies and some representative effectors that enable S. aureus to evade macrophage-mediated killing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald S Flannagan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, the University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada.
| | - Bryan Heit
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, the University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada.
- Centre for Human Immunology, the University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada.
| | - David E Heinrichs
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, the University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada.
- Centre for Human Immunology, the University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada.
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Soares MP, Weiss G. The Iron age of host-microbe interactions. EMBO Rep 2015; 16:1482-500. [PMID: 26474900 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201540558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 09/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbes exert a major impact on human health and disease by either promoting or disrupting homeostasis, in the latter instance leading to the development of infectious diseases. Such disparate outcomes are driven by the ever-evolving genetic diversity of microbes and the countervailing host responses that minimize their pathogenic impact. Host defense strategies that limit microbial pathogenicity include resistance mechanisms that exert a negative impact on microbes, and disease tolerance mechanisms that sustain host homeostasis without interfering directly with microbes. While genetically distinct, these host defense strategies are functionally integrated, via mechanisms that remain incompletely defined. Here, we explore the general principles via which host adaptive responses regulating iron (Fe) metabolism impact on resistance and disease tolerance to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Günter Weiss
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
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36
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Gilchrist JJ, MacLennan CA, Hill AVS. Genetic susceptibility to invasive Salmonella disease. Nat Rev Immunol 2015; 15:452-63. [PMID: 26109132 DOI: 10.1038/nri3858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Invasive Salmonella disease, in the form of enteric fever and invasive non-typhoidal Salmonella (iNTS) disease, causes substantial morbidity and mortality in children and adults in the developing world. The study of genetic variations in humans and mice that influence susceptibility of the host to Salmonella infection provides important insights into immunity to Salmonella. In this Review, we discuss data that have helped to elucidate the host genetic determinants of human enteric fever and iNTS disease, alongside data from the mouse model of Salmonella infection. Considered together, these studies provide a detailed picture of the immunobiology of human invasive Salmonella disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- James J Gilchrist
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Roosevelt Drive, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Calman A MacLennan
- 1] Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK. [2] Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Adrian V S Hill
- 1] Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Roosevelt Drive, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK. [2] Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
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37
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Gammella E, Buratti P, Cairo G, Recalcati S. Macrophages: central regulators of iron balance. Metallomics 2015; 6:1336-45. [PMID: 24905850 DOI: 10.1039/c4mt00104d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are important to immune function and also actively participate in iron homeostasis. The involvement of splenic and liver macrophages in the processing of effete erythrocytes and the subsequent return of iron to the circulation is well established, and the molecular details of iron recycling have been characterized recently. Another important aspect regarding iron handling by macrophages is their capacity to act as immune cells, which involves the inflammatory response, as well as other pathological conditions in which macrophages are central. This review discusses the latest advances in macrophage iron trafficking and the pathophysiological consequences of altered iron homeostasis in these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Gammella
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, Via Mangiagalli 31, 20133 Milano, Italy.
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Increased ferroportin-1 expression and rapid splenic iron loss occur with anemia caused by Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium infection in mice. Infect Immun 2015; 83:2290-9. [PMID: 25824831 DOI: 10.1128/iai.02863-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The Gram-negative intracellular bacterium Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium causes persistent systemic inflammatory disease in immunocompetent mice. Following oral inoculation with S. Typhimurium, mice develop a hematopathological syndrome akin to typhoid fever with splenomegaly, microcytic anemia, extramedullary erythropoiesis, and increased hemophagocytic macrophages in the bone marrow, liver, and spleen. Additionally, there is marked loss of iron from the spleen, an unanticipated result, given the iron sequestration reported in anemia of inflammatory disease. To establish why tissue iron does not accumulate, we evaluated multiple measures of pathology for 4 weeks following oral infection in mice. We demonstrate a quantitative decrease in splenic iron following infection despite increased numbers of splenic phagocytes. Infected mice have increased duodenal expression of the iron exporter ferroportin-1, consistent with increased uptake of dietary iron. Liver and splenic macrophages also express high levels of ferroportin-1. These observations indicate that splenic and hepatic macrophages export iron during S. Typhimurium infection, in contrast to macrophage iron sequestration observed in anemia of inflammatory disease. Tissue macrophage export of iron occurs concurrent with high serum concentrations of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and interleukin 12 (IL-12). In individual mice, high concentrations of both proinflammatory (tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α]) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines in serum correlate with increased tissue bacterial loads throughout 4 weeks of infection. These in vivo observations are consistent with previous cell culture studies and suggest that the relocation of iron from tissue macrophages during infection may contribute to anemia and also to host survival of acute S. Typhimurium infection.
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Abstract
Macrophages and neutrophils play a decisive role in host responses to intracellular bacteria including the agent of tuberculosis (TB), Mycobacterium tuberculosis as they represent the forefront of innate immune defense against bacterial invaders. At the same time, these phagocytes are also primary targets of intracellular bacteria to be abused as host cells. Their efficacy to contain and eliminate intracellular M. tuberculosis decides whether a patient initially becomes infected or not. However, when the infection becomes chronic or even latent (as in the case of TB) despite development of specific immune activation, phagocytes have also important effector functions. Macrophages have evolved a myriad of defense strategies to combat infection with intracellular bacteria such as M. tuberculosis. These include induction of toxic anti-microbial effectors such as nitric oxide and reactive oxygen intermediates, the stimulation of microbe intoxication mechanisms via acidification or metal accumulation in the phagolysosome, the restriction of the microbe's access to essential nutrients such as iron, fatty acids, or amino acids, the production of anti-microbial peptides and cytokines, along with induction of autophagy and efferocytosis to eliminate the pathogen. On the other hand, M. tuberculosis, as a prime example of a well-adapted facultative intracellular bacterium, has learned during evolution to counter-balance the host's immune defense strategies to secure survival or multiplication within this otherwise hostile environment. This review provides an overview of innate immune defense of macrophages directed against intracellular bacteria with a focus on M. tuberculosis. Gaining more insights and knowledge into this complex network of host-pathogen interaction will identify novel target sites of intervention to successfully clear infection at a time of rapidly emerging multi-resistance of M. tuberculosis against conventional antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Günter Weiss
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Infectious Disease, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of InnsbruckInnsbruck, Austria
| | - Ulrich E Schaible
- Cellular Microbiology, Priority Area Infections, Research Center BorstelBorstel, Germany
- Department of Immunology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical MedicineLondon, UK
- German Centre of Infection Research, TTU-TBBorstel, Germany
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40
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Diverse functional roles of lipocalin-2 in the central nervous system. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015; 49:135-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2014] [Revised: 11/28/2014] [Accepted: 12/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Nairz M, Schroll A, Demetz E, Tancevski I, Theurl I, Weiss G. 'Ride on the ferrous wheel'--the cycle of iron in macrophages in health and disease. Immunobiology 2014; 220:280-94. [PMID: 25240631 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2014.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Revised: 08/20/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Iron homeostasis and macrophage biology are closely interconnected. On the one hand, iron exerts multiple effects on macrophage polarization and functionality. On the other hand, macrophages are central for mammalian iron homeostasis. The phagocytosis of senescent erythrocytes and their degradation by macrophages enable efficient recycling of iron and the maintenance of systemic iron balance. Macrophages express multiple molecules and proteins for the acquisition and utilization of iron and many of these pathways are affected by inflammatory signals. Of note, iron availability within macrophages has significant effects on immune effector functions and metabolic pathways within these cells. This review summarizes the physiological and pathophysiological aspects of macrophage iron metabolism and highlights its relevant consequences on immune function and in common diseases such as infection and atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred Nairz
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - Andrea Schroll
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Egon Demetz
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Ivan Tancevski
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Igor Theurl
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Günter Weiss
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria.
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Jung M, Mertens C, Brüne B. Macrophage iron homeostasis and polarization in the context of cancer. Immunobiology 2014; 220:295-304. [PMID: 25260218 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2014.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Revised: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are central in regulating iron homeostasis, which is tightly linked to their versatile role during innate immunity. They sequester iron by phagocytosis of senescent erythrocytes and represent a major source of available iron in the body. Macrophage iron homeostasis is coupled to the functional heterogeneity and plasticity of these cells, with their extreme roles during inflammation, immune modulation, and resolution of inflammation. It is now appreciated that the macrophage polarization process dictates expression profiles of genes involved in iron metabolism. Therefore, macrophages have evolved a multitude of mechanisms to sequester, transport, store, and release iron. A new, enigmatic protein entering the iron scene and affecting the macrophage phenotype is lipocalin-2. Iron sequestration in macrophages depletes the microenvironment, thereby limiting extracellular pathogen or tumor growth, while fostering inflammation. In contrast, iron release from macrophages contributes to bystander cell proliferation, which is important for tissue regeneration and repair. This dichotomy is also reflected by the dual role of lipocalin-2 in macrophages. Unfortunately, the iron release macrophage phenotype is also a characteristic of tumor-associated macrophages and stimulates tumor cell survival and growth. Iron sequestration versus its release is now appreciated to be associated with the macrophage polarization program and can be used to explain a number of biological functions attributed to distinct macrophage phenotypes. Here we discuss macrophage iron homeostasis with a special focus on lipocalin-2 related to the formation and function of tumor-associated macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Jung
- Institute of Biochemistry I/ZAFES, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Christina Mertens
- Institute of Biochemistry I/ZAFES, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Bernhard Brüne
- Institute of Biochemistry I/ZAFES, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany.
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43
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Highlight on advances in nontuberculous mycobacterial disease in North America. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:919474. [PMID: 25574470 PMCID: PMC4177089 DOI: 10.1155/2014/919474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2014] [Accepted: 08/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are ubiquitous in the environment and exist as an important cause of pulmonary infections in humans. Pulmonary involvement is the most common disease manifestation of NTM and the incidence of NTM is growing in North America. Susceptibility to NTM infection is incompletely understood; therefore preventative tools are not well defined. Treatment of pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) infection is difficult and entails multiple antibiotics and an extended treatment course. Also, there is a considerable variation in treatment management that should be considered before initiating treatment. We highlight the new findings in the epidemiology diagnosis and treatment of mycobacterial infections. We debate new advances regarding NTM infection in cystic fibrosis patients and solid organ transplant recipients. Finally, we introduce a new epidemiologic model for NTM disease based on virulence-exposure-host factors.
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44
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Nagy TA, Moreland SM, Detweiler CS. Salmonella acquires ferrous iron from haemophagocytic macrophages. Mol Microbiol 2014; 93:1314-26. [PMID: 25081030 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Bacteria harbour both ferrous and ferric iron transporters. We now report that infection of macrophages and mice with a Salmonella enterica Typhimurium strain containing an inactivated feoB-encoded ferrous iron transporter results in increased bacterial replication, compared to infection with wild type. Inactivation of other cation transporters, SitABCD or MntH, did not increase bacterial replication. The feoB mutant strain does not have an intrinsically faster growth rate. Instead, increased replication correlated with increased expression in macrophages of the fepB-encoded bacterial ferric iron transporter and also required siderophores, which capture ferric iron. Co-infection of mice with wild type and a feoB mutant strain yielded a different outcome: FeoB is clearly required for tissue colonization. In co-infected primary mouse macrophages, FeoB is required for S. Typhimurium replication if the macrophages were IFNγ treated and contain phagocytosed erythrocytes, a model for haemophagocytosis. Haemophagocytes are macrophages that have engulfed erythrocytes and/or leucocytes and can harbour Salmonella in mice. These observations suggest that Salmonella acquires ferrous iron from haemophagocytic macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toni A Nagy
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
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45
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Frawley ER, Fang FC. The ins and outs of bacterial iron metabolism. Mol Microbiol 2014; 93:609-16. [PMID: 25040830 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/03/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Iron is a critical nutrient for the growth and survival of most bacterial species. Accordingly, much attention has been paid to the mechanisms by which host organisms sequester iron from invading bacteria and how bacteria acquire iron from their environment. However, under oxidative stress conditions such as those encountered within phagocytic cells during the host immune response, iron is released from proteins and can act as a catalyst for Fenton chemistry to produce cytotoxic reactive oxygen species. The transitory efflux of free intracellular iron may be beneficial to bacteria under such conditions. The recent discovery of putative iron efflux transporters in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium is discussed in the context of cellular iron homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine R Frawley
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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Nairz M, Haschka D, Demetz E, Weiss G. Iron at the interface of immunity and infection. Front Pharmacol 2014; 5:152. [PMID: 25076907 PMCID: PMC4100575 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2014.00152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2014] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Both, mammalian cells and microbes have an essential need for iron, which is required for many metabolic processes and for microbial pathogenicity. In addition, cross-regulatory interactions between iron homeostasis and immune function are evident. Cytokines and the acute phase protein hepcidin affect iron homeostasis leading to the retention of the metal within macrophages and hypoferremia. This is considered to result from a defense mechanism of the body to limit the availability of iron for extracellular pathogens while on the other hand the reduction of circulating iron results in the development of anemia of inflammation. Opposite, iron and the erythropoiesis inducing hormone erythropoietin affect innate immune responses by influencing interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) mediated (iron) or NF-kB inducible (erythropoietin) immune effector pathways in macrophages. Thus, macrophages loaded with iron lose their ability to kill intracellular pathogens via IFN-γ mediated effector pathways such as nitric oxide (NO) formation. Accordingly, macrophages invaded by the intracellular bacterium Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium increase the expression of the iron export protein ferroportin thereby reducing the availability of iron for intramacrophage bacteria while on the other side strengthening anti-microbial macrophage effector pathways via increased formation of NO or TNF-α. In addition, certain innate resistance genes such as natural resistance associated macrophage protein function (Nramp1) or lipocalin-2 exert part of their antimicrobial activity by controlling host and/or microbial iron homeostasis. Consequently, pharmacological or dietary modification of cellular iron trafficking enhances host resistance to intracellular pathogens but may increase susceptibility to microbes in the extracellular compartment and vice versa. Thus, the control over iron homeostasis is a central battlefield in host–pathogen interplay influencing the course of an infectious disease in favor of either the mammalian host or the pathogenic invader.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred Nairz
- Department of Internal Medicine VI-Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck Innsbruck, Austria
| | - David Haschka
- Department of Internal Medicine VI-Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Egon Demetz
- Department of Internal Medicine VI-Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Günter Weiss
- Department of Internal Medicine VI-Infectious Diseases, Immunology, Rheumatology, Pneumology, Medical University of Innsbruck Innsbruck, Austria
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Inflammation and immunity can be associated with varying degrees of heme release from hemoproteins, eventually leading to cellular and tissue iron (Fe) overload, oxidative stress, and tissue damage. Presumably, these deleterious effects contribute to the pathogenesis of systemic infections. RECENT ADVANCES Heme release from hemoglobin sensitizes parenchyma cells to undergo programmed cell death in response to proinflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor. This cytotoxic effect is driven by a mechanism involving intracellular accumulation of free radicals, which sustain the activation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling transduction pathway. While heme catabolism by heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) prevents programmed cell death, this cytoprotective effect requires the co-expression of ferritin H (heart/heavy) chain (FTH), which controls the pro-oxidant effect of labile Fe released from the protoporphyrin IX ring of heme. This antioxidant effect of FTH restrains JNK activation, whereas JNK activation inhibits FTH expression, a cross talk that controls metabolic adaptation to cellular Fe overload associated with systemic infections. CRITICAL ISSUES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS Identification and characterization of the mechanisms via which FTH provides metabolic adaptation to tissue Fe overload should provide valuable information to our current understanding of the pathogenesis of systemic infections as well as other immune-mediated inflammatory diseases.
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Kim DK, Jeong JH, Lee JM, Kim KS, Park SH, Kim YD, Koh M, Shin M, Jung YS, Kim HS, Lee TH, Oh BC, Kim JI, Park HT, Jeong WI, Lee CH, Park SB, Min JJ, Jung SI, Choi SY, Choy HE, Choi HS. Inverse agonist of estrogen-related receptor γ controls Salmonella typhimurium infection by modulating host iron homeostasis. Nat Med 2014; 20:419-24. [PMID: 24658075 DOI: 10.1038/nm.3483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
In response to microbial infection, expression of the defensin-like peptide hepcidin (encoded by Hamp) is induced in hepatocytes to decrease iron release from macrophages. To elucidate the mechanism by which Salmonella enterica var. Typhimurium (S. typhimurium), an intramacrophage bacterium, alters host iron metabolism for its own survival, we examined the role of nuclear receptor family members belonging to the NR3B subfamily in mouse hepatocytes. Here, we report that estrogen-related receptor γ (ERRγ, encoded by Esrrg) modulates the intramacrophage proliferation of S. typhimurium by altering host iron homeostasis, and we demonstrate an antimicrobial effect of an ERRγ inverse agonist. Hepatic ERRγ expression was induced by S. typhimurium-stimulated interleukin-6 signaling, resulting in an induction of hepcidin and eventual hypoferremia in mice. Conversely, ablation of ERRγ mRNA expression in liver attenuated the S. typhimurium-mediated induction of hepcidin and normalized the hypoferremia caused by S. typhimurium infection. An inverse agonist of ERRγ ameliorated S. typhimurium-mediated hypoferremia through reduction of ERRγ-mediated hepcidin mRNA expression and exerted a potent antimicrobial effect on the S. typhimurium infection, thereby improving host survival. Taken together, these findings suggest an alternative approach to control multidrug-resistant intracellular bacteria by modulating host iron homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Don-Kyu Kim
- 1] National Creative Research Initiatives Center for Nuclear Receptor Signals and Hormone Research Center, School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea. [2]
| | - Jae-Ho Jeong
- 1] Department of Microbiology, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea. [2] Department of Molecular Medicine(BK21plus), Chonnam National University Graduate School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea. [3]
| | - Ji-Min Lee
- National Creative Research Initiatives Center for Nuclear Receptor Signals and Hormone Research Center, School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang Soo Kim
- 1] Department of Microbiology, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea. [2] Department of Molecular Medicine(BK21plus), Chonnam National University Graduate School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Hwan Park
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Deuk Kim
- National Creative Research Initiatives Center for Nuclear Receptor Signals and Hormone Research Center, School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Minseob Koh
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Minsang Shin
- National Creative Research Initiatives Center for Nuclear Receptor Signals and Hormone Research Center, School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon Seok Jung
- National Creative Research Initiatives Center for Nuclear Receptor Signals and Hormone Research Center, School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung-Seok Kim
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Hoon Lee
- 1] Department of Molecular Medicine(BK21plus), Chonnam National University Graduate School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea. [2] Department of Oral Biochemistry, Dental Science Research Institute, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Byung-Chul Oh
- Lee Gil Ya Cancer and Diabetes Institute, Gachon University Graduate School of Medicine, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Il Kim
- 1] School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, Republic of Korea. [2] AnyGen, Jeonnam NanoBioResearch Center, Jangseong-gun, Republic of Korea
| | - Hwan Tae Park
- Department of Physiology, Mitochondria Hub Regulation Center, College of Medicine, Dong-A University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Won-Il Jeong
- Graduate School of Medical Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Chul-Ho Lee
- Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Bum Park
- 1] Department of Chemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea. [2] Department of Biophysics and Chemical Biology, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Joon Min
- 1] Department of Molecular Medicine(BK21plus), Chonnam National University Graduate School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea. [2] Department of Nuclear Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Sook-In Jung
- 1] Department of Molecular Medicine(BK21plus), Chonnam National University Graduate School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea. [2] Department of Infectious Diseases, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Seok-Yong Choi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyon E Choy
- 1] Department of Microbiology, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea. [2] Department of Molecular Medicine(BK21plus), Chonnam National University Graduate School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Hueng-Sik Choi
- National Creative Research Initiatives Center for Nuclear Receptor Signals and Hormone Research Center, School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
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Abstract
In this issue of Cell Host & Microbe, Deriu et al. present a mechanistic explanation underlying the benefits of certain probiotic bacteria. Intestinal bacteria compete for the essential nutrient iron, leading to replacement of pathogenic Salmonella by the probiotic Escherichia coli Nissle, which is better equipped with iron acquisition systems, and resolution of infectious colitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guenter Weiss
- Department of Internal Medicine VI, Innsbruck Medical University, Anichstraße 35, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria.
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Diaz-Ochoa VE, Jellbauer S, Klaus S, Raffatellu M. Transition metal ions at the crossroads of mucosal immunity and microbial pathogenesis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2014; 4:2. [PMID: 24478990 PMCID: PMC3900919 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2014.00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2013] [Accepted: 01/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Transition metal ions are essential micronutrients for all living organisms. In mammals, these ions are often protein-bound and sequestered within cells, limiting their availability to microbes. Moreover, in response to infection, mammalian hosts further reduce the availability of metal nutrients by activating epithelial cells and recruiting neutrophils, both of which release metal-binding proteins with antimicrobial function. Microorganisms, in turn, have evolved sophisticated systems to overcome these limitations and acquire the metal ions essential for their growth. Here we review some of the mechanisms employed by the host and by pathogenic microorganisms to compete for transition metal ions, with a discussion of how evading “nutritional immunity” benefits pathogens. Furthermore, we provide new insights on the mechanisms of host-microbe competition for metal ions in the mucosa, particularly in the inflamed gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir E Diaz-Ochoa
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Irvine Irvine, CA, USA ; Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Stefan Jellbauer
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Irvine Irvine, CA, USA ; Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Suzi Klaus
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Irvine Irvine, CA, USA ; Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Manuela Raffatellu
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Irvine Irvine, CA, USA ; Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine Irvine, CA, USA
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