Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: an important differential diagnosis in psychosis

MicroRNA dysregulation in glutamate and dopamine pathways of schizophrenia: From molecular pathways to diagnostic and therapeutic approaches

Schizophrenia is a complex psychiatric disorder, and genetic and environmental factors have been implicated in its development. Dysregulated glutamatergic and dopaminergic transmission pathways are involved in schizophrenia development. Besides genetic mutations, epigenetic dysregulation has a considerable role in dysregulating molecular pathways involved in schizophrenia. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNAs that target specific mRNAs and inhibit their translation into proteins. As epigenetic factors, miRNAs regulate many genes involved in glutamate and dopamine signaling pathways; thereby, their dysregulation can contribute to the development of schizophrenia. Secretion of specific miRNAs from damaged cells into body fluids can make them one of the ideal non-invasive biomarkers in the early diagnosis of schizophrenia. Also, understanding the molecular mechanisms of miRNAs in schizophrenia pathogenesis can pave the way for developing novel treatments for patients with schizophrenia. In this study, we reviewed the glutamatergic and dopaminergic pathophysiology and highlighted the role of miRNA dysregulation in schizophrenia development. Besides, we shed light on the significance of circulating miRNAs for schizophrenia diagnosis and the recent findings on the miRNA-based treatment for schizophrenia.

Language impairments in people with autoimmune neurological diseases: A scoping review

INTRODUCTION

Autoimmune neurological diseases (ANDs) are a specific type of autoimmune disease that affect cells within the central and peripheral nervous system. ANDs trigger various physical/neuropsychiatric symptoms. However, language impairments in people with ANDs are not well characterized. Here we aimed to determine the kinds of language impairment that most commonly emerge in 10 ANDs, the characteristics of the patients (demographic, neurological damage), and the assessment methods used.

METHODS

We followed the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR). PubMed and Google Scholar were searched. We used a list of search terms containing 10 types of ANDs (e.g., multiple sclerosis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis) in combination with the terms aphasia, dysphasia, fluency, language, listening, morphology, phonology, pragmatics, reading, semantics, speaking, syntax, writing. The reference lists and citations of the relevant papers were also investigated. The type of AND, patient characteristics, neurological damage and examination technique, language tests administered, and main findings were noted for each study meeting the inclusion criteria.

RESULTS

We found 171 studies meeting our inclusion criteria. These comprised group studies and case studies. Language impairments differed largely among types of ANDs. Neurological findings were mentioned in most of the papers, but specific language tests were rarely used.

CONCLUSIONS

Language symptoms in people with ANDs are commonly reported. These are often not full descriptions or only focus on specific time points in the course of the disease. Future research needs to assess specific language functions in people with ANDs and relate their language impairments to brain damage at different stages of disease evolution.

Anti-NMDA Receptor Encephalitis: Retrospective Analysis of 15 Cases, Literature Review, and Implications for Gynecologists

Background

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor encephalitis is a rare form of autoimmune encephalitis caused by anti-NMDA receptor antibodies. This disease mainly affects women of childbearing age and is commonly associated with ovarian teratoma. However, the relationship between anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis and ovarian teratoma and the role of anti-NMDA receptor antibody in the relationship remain unclear.

Objectives

This study aimed to describe 15 cases of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis (5 with ovarian teratoma), review literature, and reinforce the gynecologist's knowledge of this disorder.

Methods

Clinical data of 15 patients from January 2015 to December 2020 admitted to The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University were collected and analyzed. The diagnosis of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis was based on the presence of anti-NMDA receptor antibodies in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and/or serum. Laparoscopic teratoma removal was performed in patients with ovarian teratoma. All patients had received immunotherapy. In addition, a review of the literature was performed to reinforce the gynecologist's knowledge of this disorder.

Results

A total of 15 patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis were screened, of whom 5 patients were confirmed with ovarian teratoma by pathology. The most common symptoms of anti-NMDAR encephalitis with teratoma are fever (5/5, 100%), seizure (5/5, 100%), mental and behavioral disorders (4/5, 80%), and decreased consciousness (4/5, 80%). Conversely, the most common symptoms of patients without teratoma were neuropsychiatric symptoms, including headache (6/10, 60%) and mental and behavioral disorders (7/10, 70%). All patients underwent immunotherapy, including steroids, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), plasma exchange, and cyclophosphamide, and 4 out of 5 patients with ovarian teratomas underwent surgical treatment. All patients had a good outcome after systemic, surgical, and immunotherapy treatment. No patient who underwent surgical treatment developed a recurrence. Conversely, 2 of 10 patients without teratoma developed an anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis recurrence.

Conclusions

Patients with anti-NMDA encephalitis show severe mental and neurological symptoms. Resection of teratoma is beneficial to the relief or disappearance of symptoms and has a good prognosis. This disorder should be fully recognized by gynecologists, who play an important role in diagnosis and treatment.

Catatonic Schizophrenia Associated With Cerebrospinal GAD65 Autoantibodies: Case Report and Literature Review

Background

GAD65 autoimmunity is reported to be associated with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. However, there has been no evidence that glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (GAD65) autoantibodies in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are associated with akinetic catatonia in schizophrenia patients.

Methods

We report the case of a 28-year-old man who underwent diagnostics including brain MRI, neuropsychological testing, and electroencephalography (EEG) as well as a tumor search via CT of the abdomen and thorax, as well as colonoscopy and gastroscopy. For clinical characterization, his patient files were retrospectively examined.

Results

Our patient presented catatonia that responded somewhat to benzodiazepines in combination with previously taken antipsychotics such as risperidone for prediagnosed paranoid schizophrenia. Diagnostics revealed GAD65 autoantibodies in his serum and CSF. MRI revealed no brain lesion, and the tumor search had no malignancy. We diagnosed catatonic schizophrenia. Furthermore, as he had not fully recovered, he was given immunotherapy entailing two cycles of intravenous immunoglobulins. Subsequent neuropsychological testing due to subjective cognitive complaints after immunotherapy revealed no objective cognitive deficits.

Conclusions

We present the novel finding of an association between GAD65 autoantibodies in the serum and CSF with catatonia in a patient suffering from prediagnosed chronic schizophrenia. Due to the presence of CSF GAD65 antibodies and the catatonia factor in prediagnosed schizophrenia, we suspect that his catatonia has an autoimmune origin. Immunotherapy stabilized the catatonia that had initially responded to lorazepam treatment. Further research should be done to characterize patients' responses to immunotherapy and standard treatment in a large cohort of patients with GAD65 antibody-associated catatonia and schizophrenia.

Case Report: Cotard's Syndrome in Anti-N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) Receptor (Anti-NMDAR) Encephalitis

Cotard's syndrome is uncommon psychopathology among patients with psychotic illnesses. Limited cases had been reported regarding the occurrence of this syndrome in anti-NMDAR encephalitis which itself is a relatively new disease that often presents with florid psychotic symptoms. This poses difficulties in differentiating it from a primary psychiatric illness. Late recognition of anti-NMDAR encephalitis can lead to death as it can progress to autonomic instability in its natural course of illness. We report a patient who first presented with psychotic symptoms with initial negative findings from baseline investigations. Further investigation revealed anti NMDAR antibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid. Prompt treatment was initiated and despite early poor response to the first-line treatment with the development of allergic reaction, our patient recovered completely after 1 month of hospitalization. This case report aims to highlight the importance of early detection of anti-NMDAR encephalitis and the possibility of uncommon psychopathology such as Cotard's syndrome occurring in this disease.

Catatonia secondary to anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAr) encephalitis: a review

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAr) encephalitis is a relatively recent autoimmune entity, as it was first described in 2007. Given that it is a condition with neuropsychiatric symptoms, its initial symptom is frequently psychiatric in nature. Hence, psychiatrists are often the first physicians to assess these patients and, as so, must recognize this type of encephalitis as a possible cause. Catatonia may be inaugural or develop throughout the course of the disease. Management of patients with anti-NMDAr encephalitis is based on etiologic treatment with immunotherapy and removal of the associated tumor, if any. However, these catatonic patients may have variable responses to etiologic treatment, sometimes with refractory catatonic symptoms, which attests to the necessary urgency to know how to manage these patients. In the clinical setting, physicians appear to be using guidelines originally created to the management of catatonia due to primary psychiatric conditions. In this literature review, catatonia was historically contextualized and anti-NMDAr encephalitis overall described. Finally, catatonia secondary to this type of encephalitis was discussed.

Immune-mediated encephalitis for the infectious disease specialist

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Autoimmune encephalitis is increasingly recognized and must be distinguished from infectious forms of encephalitis. Moreover, physicians should be aware of infectious triggers of autoimmune encephalitis and of infectious complications associated with treatment.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent epidemiological studies suggest that the incidence of autoimmune encephalitis may rival that of infectious encephalitis. Although distinguishing autoimmune from infectious forms of encephalitis on clinical grounds can be challenging, recently proposed diagnostic criteria can provide some assistance. There has been an explosion in our knowledge of autoimmune encephalitis associated with antibodies to neuronal cell surface antigens, and two of the most common forms, anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis and anti-LGI1 encephalitis, are typically associated with distinctive clinical features. Although tumors have long been known to trigger autoimmune encephalitis, it has been recently recognized that herpes simplex encephalitis may trigger the generation of antineuronal autoantibodies resulting in an autoimmune neurologic relapse. Both first and second-line therapies for autoimmune encephalitis are associated with infectious complications, whereas emerging treatments, including anakinra and tocilizumab, may also result in increased susceptibility to certain infections.

SUMMARY

The diagnosis and management of autoimmune encephalitis is complex, and awareness of diagnostic criteria and modalities, typical clinical syndromes, infectious triggers of disease, and infectious complications of therapies is critical in optimizing care for affected patients.

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate-receptor antibody encephalitis combined with syphilis: A case report

BACKGROUND

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate-receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis is a common type of autoimmune encephalitis characterized by complex clinical signs and variable imaging manifestations. The pathogenesis of the disease is unclear. Syphilis is an infectious disease caused by Treponema pallidum that can invade the nervous and immune systems and cause systemic symptoms. There are few reports of anti-NMDAR encephalitis with syphilis, and the association between them is unknown; both diseases are related to immune system damage. We report a case of anti-NMDAR encephalitis with syphilis.

CASE SUMMARY

A 32-year-old man was admitted to our hospital with complaints of cognitive decline, diplopia, and walking instability during the previous 6 mo. He developed dysarthria, difficulty swallowing, and involuntary shaking of his head, neck, and limbs during the month prior to presentation. Cranial magnetic resonance imaging showed symmetrical abnormal signals in the pons, midbrain, and bilateral basal ganglia, and inflammatory demyelination was considered. The diagnosis of syphilis was confirmed based on the syphilis diagnosis test and the syphilis rapid test. He was given anti-syphilis treatment, but the above symptoms gradually worsened. Anti-NMDAR antibody was positive in cerebrospinal fluid but was negative in serum. Due to the cerebrospinal fluid findings, anti-NMDAR encephalitis was a consideration. According to the patient’s weight, he was treated with intravenous methylprednisolone 1 g QD for 5 d, with the dose gradually decreased for 6 mo, and immunoglobulin 25 g QD for 5 d; his symptoms improved after treatment.

CONCLUSION

This case shows that anti-NMDAR encephalitis may be combined with syphilis, which should be recognized to avoid misdiagnosis and treatment delay.

Catatonia in N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antibody encephalitis: Phenomenological characteristics from a systematic review of case reports

OBJECTIVE

To ascertain the phenomenological characterisation of catatonia in N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antibody encephalitis (NMDAr-AbE).

METHODS

A systematic review of case reports was undertaken in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Case reports of NMDAr-AbE containing sufficient information on the cases' clinical presentation and meeting the study's inclusion criteria were selected. Cases were searched for clinical data in keeping with core catatonic signs by applying the screening instrument of the Bush-Francis Catatonia Rating Scale. When two or more core signs were ascertained catatonia was considered to be present.

RESULTS

2645 records were identified through the database search. Following screening and application of eligibility/inclusion criteria 139 articles were selected reporting on 189 individual subjects. Catatonia was present in 60% of these cases. The most prevalent signs were immobility/stupor (70%), mutism (67%), excitement (50%), posturing/catalepsy (34%), stereotypies (31%), and rigidity (30%). Immobility/stupor and excitement co-occurred in the same patient in 33% of cases.

CONCLUSION

The phenomenological profile of catatonia in this sample of cases of NMDAr-AbE was characterised by a preponderance of signs in the hypokinetic spectrum. However, excitement often co-occurred in these patients suggesting that fluctuations in catatonic semiology may be frequent.

Characterisation and outcome of neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis

BACKGROUND

Encephalitis due to anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibodies (ANMDARE) is the most frequent immune-mediated encephalitis. It is distinguished by the subacute onset of neuropsychiatric symptoms.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the characteristic neuropsychiatric symptoms and their outcome in patients diagnosed with ANMDARE.

METHODS

This was a prospective, longitudinal study in patients with a diagnostic suspicion of ANMDARE that presented to the National Institute of Neurology from March 2018 to February 2019. A comparative analysis of two groups (positive N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor [NMDAR] vs. negative NMDAR antibodies in cerebrospinal fluid [CSF]) was done on admission and at discharge. Neuropsychiatric systematic assessments included the Neuropsychiatric Inventory Questionnaire, the Bush Francis Catatonia Rating Scale, the Confusion Assessment Method Severity, the Montreal Cognitive Assessment, and the Overt Agitation Severity Scale.

RESULTS

24 individuals were analysed: 14 had positive NMDAR antibodies, and 10 had negative NMDAR antibodies in CSF. On admission, agitation/aggression, euphoria/exaltation, and disinhibition were more common in patients with positive antibodies. Excited catatonia and delirium were diagnosed more frequently in patients with positive antibodies. At discharge, there was an important decrease in neuropsychiatric symptoms, but substantial cognitive impairment remained. The mean hospitalisation length was 41.71 (SD 39.33) days for patients with definitive ANMDARE (p 0.259).

CONCLUSIONS

Neuropsychiatric symptoms profile in ANMDARE was associated with the early onset of euphoria/exaltation and disinhibition, accompanied by marked psychomotor agitation. When ANMDARE was suspected, the presence of excited-type catatonia and delirium showed a tendency to predict definitive ANMDARE. At discharged, most patients recovered from catatonia, delirium, and psychosis, but marked cognitive symptoms, anxiety, and depression persisted at discharge.

N-Methyl-D-Aspartate(NMDA) Receptor and Voltage-Gated Potassium Channel (VGKC) Antibody-Associated Encephalitides Presenting as First Episode Acute Psychosis

Aim: Acute psychosis is not an uncommon presenting feature in immune-mediated encephalitides. Most patients improve if properly diagnosed and treated expediently with immunotherapy. Our study aimed to describe the frequency, clinical spectrum, and long-term outcomes in patients presenting with acute psychosis who have anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor or anti-voltage-gated potassium channel (VGKC) encephalitis. Method: We recruited patients aged 16-50 years presenting with less than 1 month of psychotic and neurological symptoms including cognitive dysfunction, seizures, abnormal movements, and/or autonomic dysfunction. Results: Between September 2011 and October 2013, 60 patients with first episode acute psychosis were screened; 15 were recruited and included for analyses. Four (26.7%) patients were diagnosed with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis and 1 (6.7%) with anti-VGKC encephalitis. We found that the mean serum white blood cell (WBC) count (12.8 × 109/L ± 4.8 vs. 7.9 × 109/L ± 2.6; p = 0.05) and cerebrospinal fluid WBC count (106 cells/µl ± 101 vs. 8.5 cells/µl ± 18.9; p = 0.05) were higher in positive cases. Certain prodromal features such as fever, headache, confusion, facial dyskinesia, and hypersalivation were also more likely to be present in positive cases. Patients with autoimmune encephalitis also tended to be more unwell, with the majority requiring intensive care, had lower global assessment of functioning scores (30 ± 10 vs. 53.7 ± 21.2, p = 0.09), and were not well enough to complete standard psychiatric and cognitive assessments at presentation. Conclusion: Autoimmune encephalitis is not uncommon in patients with acute psychosis. Elevated WBC counts, certain prodromal features, and a more severe illness at presentation should prompt appropriate evaluation.

Simple Schizophrenia: A Forgotten Diagnosis in Psychiatry

Clustering of symptoms to characterize simple schizophrenia is still debated, and support is needed for the characterization of simple schizophrenia as a syndrome. We conducted a systematic review to identify all cases of simple schizophrenia published until December 2017. We identified 42 cases of simple schizophrenia, 57% of which met all three diagnostic criteria (ICD-10, DSM-4 research criteria, and Black and Boffeli's criteria for simple schizophrenia). The mean age at first contact with clinical services was 30.1 (SD = 11.6) years, with a mean delay of 7.4 (SD = 6.8) years from symptom onset to first presentation. An insidious onset and negative symptoms were characteristic features in all cases. Social withdrawal, alogia, blunted affect, lack of initiative/interest, and functional impairment were found in more than 85% of cases. Our findings contribute to greater awareness and understanding of simple schizophrenia, and have the potential to reawaken interest in this clinically distinct subgroup.

Integrated Lipidomics and Proteomics Point to Early Blood-Based Changes in Childhood Preceding Later Development of Psychotic Experiences: Evidence From the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children

BACKGROUND

The identification of early biomarkers of psychotic experiences (PEs) is of interest because early diagnosis and treatment of those at risk of future disorder is associated with improved outcomes. The current study investigated early lipidomic and coagulation pathway protein signatures of later PEs in subjects from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children cohort.

METHODS

Plasma of 115 children (12 years of age) who were first identified as experiencing PEs at 18 years of age (48 cases and 67 controls) were assessed through integrated and targeted lipidomics and semitargeted proteomics approaches. We assessed the lipids, lysophosphatidylcholines (n = 11) and phosphatidylcholines (n = 61), and the protein members of the coagulation pathway (n = 22) and integrated these data with complement pathway protein data already available on these subjects.

RESULTS

Twelve phosphatidylcholines, four lysophosphatidylcholines, and the coagulation protein plasminogen were altered between the control and PEs groups after correction for multiple comparisons. Lipidomic and proteomic datasets were integrated into a multivariate network displaying a strong relationship between most lipids that were significantly associated with PEs and plasminogen. Finally, an unsupervised clustering approach identified four different clusters, with one of the clusters presenting the highest case-control ratio (p < .01) and associated with a higher concentration of smaller low-density lipoprotein cholesterol particles.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that the lipidome and proteome of subjects who report PEs at 18 years of age are already altered at 12 years of age, indicating that metabolic dysregulation may contribute to an early vulnerability to PEs and suggesting crosstalk between these lysophosphatidylcholines, phosphatidylcholines, and coagulation and complement proteins.

N-Methyl-d-aspartate Receptor Antibody Encephalitis: A Concise Review of the Disorder, Diagnosis, and Management

Anti-NMDA ( N-methyl-d-aspartate) receptor (anti-NMDAR) encephalitis is one of the most common paraneoplastic encephalitides. It occurs in both sexes, across all age ranges, and may occur in the presence or absence of an associated tumor. Its pathogenesis and clinical presentation relate to the presence of IgG1 or IgG3 antibodies targeting the NR1 subunit of the NMDA receptor, leading to a disinhibition of neuronal excitatory pathways. Initial clinical manifestations may be nonspecific, resembling a viral-like illness; however, with disease progression, symptoms can become quite severe, including prominent psychiatric features, cognitive problems, motor dysfunction, and autonomic instability. Anti-NMDAR encephalitis may even result in death in severe untreated cases. Diagnosis can be challenging, given that initial laboratory and radiographic results are typically nonspecific. The majority of patients respond to first or second-line treatments, although therapeutic options remain limited, usually consisting of tumor removal (if there is confirmation of an underlying malignancy) in conjunction with prompt initiation of immunosuppressive medications along with intravenous immunoglobulins and/or plasma exchange. Although the clinical presentation of anti-NMDAR encephalitis overlaps with several other more common neurological and psychiatric disorders, early diagnosis and treatment is essential for a positive prognosis. Here, we concisely review the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and clinical management of this disease.

Autoantibodies and Psychosis

Research into antibody-mediated disease, in response to immune dysfunction or to tumour development, has rapidly expanded in recent years. Antibodies binding to neuroreceptors can cause psychiatric features, including psychosis, in a minority of patients as well as neurological features. The responsiveness of some of these cases to immunotherapy supports the hypothesis that antibody-associated mechanisms play a role in the pathogenesis of psychotic diseases. The purpose of this chapter is to review autoantibodies that are most likely to be relevant for patients with psychotic symptoms. Herein, we describe receptor structure and mechanism of action, clinical and psychiatric features for the growing number of neuronal surface antibodies, including those to the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. The identification of a subgroup of patients with psychiatric features having antibody-mediated disease highlights the importance of considering the diagnosis, particularly in those patients presenting with a first episode of psychosis.

A paradigm shift: relationships in trauma-informed mental health services

Trauma-informed approaches emerged partly in response to research demonstrating that trauma is widespread across society, that it is highly correlated with mental health and that this is a costly public health issue. The fundamental shift in providing support using a trauma-informed approach is to move from thinking ‘What is wrong with you?’ to considering ‘What happened to you?’. This article, authored by trauma survivors and service providers, describes trauma-informed approaches to mental healthcare, why they are needed and how barriers can be overcome so that they can be implemented as an organisational change process. It also describes how past trauma can be understood as the cause of mental distress for many service users, how service users can be retraumatised by ‘trauma-uninformed’ staff and how staff can experience vicariously the service user's trauma and can themselves be traumatised by practices such as restraint and seclusion. Trauma-informed mental healthcare offers opportunities to improve service users' experiences, improve working environments for staff, increase job satisfaction and reduce stress levels by improving the relationships between staff and patients through greater understanding, respect and trust.

Brain-relevant antibodies in first-episode psychosis: a matched case-control study

BACKGROUND

There has been much recent excitement about the possibility that some cases of psychosis may be wholly due to brain-reactive antibodies, with antibodies to N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) and the voltage-gated potassium channel (VGKC)-complex reported in a few patients with first-episode psychosis (FEP).

METHODS

Participants were recruited from psychiatric services in South London, UK, from 2009 to 2011 as part of the Genetics and Psychosis study. We conducted a case-control study to examine NMDAR and VGKC-complex antibody levels and rates of antibody positivity in 96 patients presenting with FEP and 98 controls matched for age and sex. Leucine-rich glioma inactiviated-1 (LGI1) and contactin-associated protein (CASPR) antibodies were also measured. Notably, patients with suspicion of organic disease were excluded.

RESULTS

VGKC-complex antibodies were found in both cases (n = 3) and controls (n = 2). NMDAR antibody positivity was seen in one case and one control. Either LGI1-Abs or CASPR2-Abs were found in three cases and three controls. Neuronal antibody staining, consistent with the above results or indicating potential novel antigens, was overall positive in four patients but also in six controls. Overall, antibody positivity was at low levels only and not higher in cases than in controls.

CONCLUSIONS

This case-control study of the prevalence of antibodies in FEP does not provide evidence to support the hypothesis that FEP is associated with an immune-mediated process in a subgroup of patients. Nevertheless, as other bio-clinical factors may influence the effect of such antibodies in a given individual, and patients with organic neurological disease may be misdiagnosed as FEP, the field requires more research to put these findings in context.

The effect of delayed anti-NMDAR encephalitis recognition on disease outcome

Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis is an acute form of brain inflammation that is potentially lethal but has a high probability for recovery with treatment. Although the clinical picture of anti-NMDAR encephalitis is usually recognizable due to its relatively well-known symptoms, the disorder can sometimes present itself in an unpredictable and atypical way. In this case report, we wish to present the influence of different delay times prior to the establishment of diagnosis. Thus, our first patient was diagnosed with anti-NMDAR encephalitis 4 years after the initial symptoms, the second one after 8 years, and the third one after 13 months. The outcomes of the three presented patients indicate the importance of being aware of many clinical presentations of this disorder, as its early diagnosis greatly affects the outcome and may reduce permanent damage, especially in cognitive functions.

Evaluation and Management of Autoimmune Encephalitis: A Clinical Overview for the Practicing Child Psychiatrist

Medical conditions that present with psychiatric symptoms are becoming increasingly well-recognized in response to the emergence of the field of neuroimmunology. As the availability of testing for novel antineuronal antibodies has increased, so too has the clinical awareness of this diagnostic spectrum. Psychiatrists may have little exposure to this area of expertise, yet may be called on to assist in the diagnosis and treatment of patients with complex neuropsychiatric syndromes secondary to autoimmune encephalitis. This article summarizes the evaluation and management of patients with autoimmune encephalitis and describes emerging patterns in phenotype recognition.

Anti-NMDA-Receptor Encephalitis: From Bench to Clinic

NMDAR encephalitis is a common cause of autoimmune encephalitis, predominantly affecting young adults. Current data supports the idea that autoantibodies targeting NMDARs are responsible for disease pathogenesis. While these autoantibodies occur in the setting of underlying malignancy in approximately half of all patients, initiating factors for the autoimmune response in the remainder of patients are unclear. While there is increasing evidence supporting viral triggers such as herpes simplex encephalitis, this association and the mechanism of action have not yet been fully described. Although the majority of patients achieve good outcomes, those without an underlying tumor consistently show worse outcomes, prolonged recovery, and more frequent relapses. The cloning of patient-specific autoantibodies from affected individuals has raised important questions as to disease pathophysiology and clinical heterogeneity. Further advances in our understanding of this disease and underlying triggers are necessary to develop treatments which improve outcomes in patients presenting in the absence of tumors.

Seroprevalence survey of selective anti-neuronal autoantibodies in patients with first-episode schizophrenia and chronic schizophrenia

Autoimmune encephalopathy caused by autoantibodies against neuronal cell-surface proteins in the brain is a newly discovered disease category associated with psychiatric disorders. Correct diagnosis of this condition relies on the detection of specific autoantibodies in the blood or cerebral spinal fluid in addition to the clinical presentations. The study aimed to understand the seroprevalence of selective anti-neuronal autoantibodies in our patients with schizophrenia. First, we screened for six anti-neuronal autoantibodies in an archived blood sample collected from patients with the first-episode schizophrenia. The six autoantibodies including antibodies against N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors 1 and 2, γ-butyric acid receptor type B1 (GABARB1), leucine-rich glioma inactivated-1 (LGI1) protein, and contactin-associated protein-like 2 (CASPR2) protein. A total of 78 plasma samples (46 males and 32 females) were investigated; however, no positive case was identified. In this second study, we screened anti-NMDA receptor autoantibodies in a blood sample of 234 patients with chronic schizophrenia (133 females and 101 males) including 48 patients defined as treatment resistance. None of this sample was detected as positive. The negative findings in this study suggest that the seroprevalence of autoantibodies against neuronal surface proteins might be low in patients diagnosed with schizophrenia.

Clinical characteristics, treatments, and outcomes of patients with anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis: A systematic review of reported cases

Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis is a recently recognized autoimmune disorder which is responsive to immunotherapy. However, the outcomes of different immunotherapies have not been defined and there have been few studies that carried out a comparison among them. To provide an overview of the clinical characteristics, treatments, and outcomes of anti-NMDAR encephalitis, we systematically reviewed the literature in the PubMed, Medline, Embase, Cochrane Library, BioMedical Literature Database (CBM), China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and Wan-fang databases. Eighty-three studies with a total of 432 patients were included. The median age was 22years. Two hundred ninety-three (68%) patients were female, 87 (21%) of 412 patients had a tumor, including 68 (78%) patients with ovarian teratoma. Pediatric patients had a higher ratio of seizures to psychiatric symptoms as the initial manifestation (p=0.0012), a lower proportion with a tumor (p<0.0001) and CSF pleocytosis (p=0.0163), and a better outcome (p=0.0064) than adults. Patients who died had a higher proportion of CSF pleocytosis than the patients who survived (p=0.0021). There were no significant differences among three first-line immunotherapy used alone (p=0.9172) or among combinations of every two of them (p=0.3059). With regard to the use of corticosteroid and IVIG, there were no significant differences between the outcomes of early combined treatment and sequential treatment (p=0.7277), or between using corticosteroid first and IVIG first (p=0.5422). Our findings suggest that the clinical characteristics and outcomes for pediatric patients were different from adult patients, and no significant differences were found among different immunotherapies.

Prevalence of serum anti-neuronal autoantibodies in patients admitted to acute psychiatric care

BACKGROUND

Autoimmune encephalitis associated with anti-neuronal antibodies may be challenging to distinguish from primary psychiatric disorders. The significance of anti-neuronal antibodies in psychiatric patients without clear evidence of autoimmune encephalitis is unknown. We investigated the serum prevalence of six anti-neuronal autoantibodies in a cohort of unselected patients admitted to acute psychiatric care.

METHOD

Serum was drawn from 925 patients admitted to acute psychiatric in-patient care. Psychiatric diagnoses were set according to International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-10 criteria. Antibody analysis was performed with an indirect immunofluorescence test for N-methyl d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antibodies and five other anti-neuronal autoantibodies of the immunoglobulin (Ig) classes IgA, IgG and IgM isotype.

RESULTS

Anti-neuronal autoantibodies were found in 11.6% of patients: NMDAR antibodies in 7.6%, contactin-associated protein-like 2 (CASPR2) antibodies in 2.5%, glutamic acid decarboxylase-65 (GAD65) antibodies in 1.9%, and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor antibodies in 0.1%. Leucine-rich glioma-inactivated protein-1 (LGI1) and γ-aminobutyric acid B (GABAB) receptor antibodies were not detected. NMDAR antibodies of class IgG were present in five patients only (0.5%). NMDAR antibodies of all Ig classes were equally prevalent in patients with and without psychosis. There were no significant differences in antibody prevalence in the different diagnostic categories, except for a higher odds ratio of being NMDAR antibody positive for patients without a specific psychiatric diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

NMDAR IgG autoantibodies, which are known to be strongly associated with anti-NMDAR encephalitis, were rarely found. CASPR2 and GAD65 antibodies were more frequently encountered in the present study than previously reported. Further research on the clinical significance of anti-neuronal autoantibodies in patients with acute psychiatric symptoms is needed.

Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: An emerging differential diagnosis in the psychiatric community

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor encephalitis is a new diagnosis, as recent as 2007, that develops as a result of autoantibodies to the NMDA receptor. The clinical manifestations of the disorder include complex psychiatric symptoms, seizures, movement disorders, cognitive dysfunction, and autonomic instability. Tumor resection, if present, and immunotherapy are the mainstays of therapy. Treatment should be initiated early and aggressively as it has been associated with better patient outcomes. A significant proportion of patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis initially seek the help of a psychiatrist, highlighting the importance of its recognition within the mental health community. In an effort to promote disease awareness, this article will review a patient case and the pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis.

Autoimmune encephalitis in psychiatric institutions: current perspectives

Autoimmune encephalitis is a rare and newly described group of diseases involving autoantibodies directed against synaptic and neuronal cell surface antigens. It comprises a wide range of neuropsychiatric symptoms. Sensitive and specific diagnostic tests such as cell-based assay are primordial for the detection of neuronal cell surface antibodies in patients' cerebrospinal fluid or serum and determine the treatment and follow-up of the patients. As neurological symptoms are fairly well described in the literature, this review focuses on the nature of psychiatric symptoms occurring at the onset or during the course of the diseases. In order to help the diagnosis, the main neurological symptoms of the most representative synaptic and neuronal cell surface autoantibodies were detailed. Finally, the exploration of these autoantibodies for almost a decade allowed us to present an overview of autoimmune encephalitis incidence in psychiatric disease and the general guidelines for the management of psychiatric manifestations. For the majority of autoimmune encephalitis, the prognosis depends on the rapidity of the detection, identification, and the management of the disease. Because the presence of pronounced psychiatric symptoms drives patients to psychiatric institutions and can hinder the diagnosis, the aim of this work is to provide clues to help earlier detection by physicians and thus provide better medical care to patients.

Psychotic symptoms in anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor encephalitis: A case report and challenges

Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor encephalitis, only recently first described, is an increasingly well-recognized inflammatory encephalitis that is seen in children and adults. An 11-year old girl admitted to the psychiatry ward with a presentation of acute psychosis was diagnosed with NMDA receptor encephalitis following neurology referral and was treated accordingly. This case highlights psychiatric manifestations in encephalitis and the need for the psychiatrist to have high index of suspicion when atypical symptoms (e.g., dyskinesia, seizure, fever etc.) present in acutely psychotic patients.

Diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for management of autoimmune encephalopathies

INTRODUCTION

The understanding of the etio-pathogenesis of autoimmune encephalopathy syndromes has grown significantly in recent years. These are potentially reversible conditions, with variable clinical presentation and potential dramatic response to immunotherapy.

AREAS COVERED

In this article we review various diagnostic techniques and therapeutic options for management of autoimmune encephalopathy. We also review medication adverse effects and monitoring strategies. Expert commentary: Early diagnosis and immunomodulatory treatment remains the cornerstone of management, to halt the underlying neuro-inflammatory process and prevent permanent neuronal injury. The availability of serological testing and various imaging modalities has further improved detection of these immune-mediated neurological disorders. Understanding the mechanisms and potential adverse effects of immunomodulatory therapies will help physicians to choose the most favorable therapeutic strategy for each patient.

Anti N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis: a game-changer?

INTRODUCTION

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis is an inflammatory disorder of the brain that has garnered significant interest within the medical and lay communities. There is a need for formal guidelines to assist physicians in identifying patients who should undergo testing for NMDAR encephalitis, recognizing the high potential for this potentially treatable disease to mimic more common disorders, and consequently remain undiagnosed.

AREAS COVERED

This review highlights the impact of the discovery of NMDAR encephalitis on the fields of neurology and psychiatry, and discusses the steps that are necessary to improve recognition and treatment of NMDAR encephalitis. Expert commentary: While much progress has been made in our understanding of NMDAR encephalitis, much work remains to be done to delineate the underlying disease mechanisms and their relevance to brain function.

NMDA Receptor Internalization by Autoantibodies: A Reversible Mechanism Underlying Psychosis?

Since the early 1990s it has been postulated that hypofunction of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in brain networks supporting perception and cognition underlies schizophrenic psychosis. Recently, NMDA receptor hypofunction was described in patients with psychotic manifestations who exhibited autoantibodies binding the GluN1 subunit of the receptor, and who improved when the level of these antibodies was lowered by immunomodulation. In this disorder, NMDA receptor antibodies decrease the availability of NMDA receptors by internalizing them. In this opinion article, we review this mechanism as well as data supporting or refuting the possibility that this disorder or similar autoimmune disorders affecting synaptic proteins, which are therefore treatable with immunomodulation, could account for some cases of idiopathic psychosis. We also suggest methodological approaches to clarify this issue.

Functional coma

Functional coma - here defined as a prolonged motionless dissociative attack with absent or reduced response to external stimuli - is a relatively rare presentation. In this chapter we examine a wide range of terms used to describe states of unresponsiveness in which psychologic factors are relevant to etiology, such as depressive stupor, catatonia, nonepileptic "pseudostatus," and factitious disorders, and discuss the place of functional or psychogenic coma among these. Historically, diagnosis of functional coma has sometimes been reached after prolonged investigation and exclusion of other diagnoses. However, as is the case with other functional disorders, diagnosis should preferably be made on the basis of positive findings that provide evidence of inconsistency between an apparent comatose state and normal waking nervous system functioning. In our review of physical signs, we find some evidence for the presence of firm resistance to eye opening as reasonably sensitive and specific for functional coma, as well as the eye gaze sign, in which patients tend to look to the ground when turned on to one side. Noxious stimuli such as Harvey's sign (application of high-frequency vibrating tuning fork to the nasal mucosa) can also be helpful, although patients with this disorder are often remarkably unresponsive to usually painful stimuli, particularly as more commonly applied using sternal or nail bed pressure. The use of repeated painful stimuli is therefore not recommended. We also discuss the role of general anesthesia and other physiologic triggers to functional coma.

Phencyclidine Disrupts the Auditory Steady State Response in Rats

The Auditory Steady-State Response (ASSR) in the electroencephalogram (EEG) is usually reduced in schizophrenia (SZ), particularly to 40 Hz stimulation. The gamma frequency ASSR deficit has been attributed to N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) hypofunction. We tested whether the NMDAR antagonist, phencyclidine (PCP), produced similar ASSR deficits in rats. EEG was recorded from awake rats via intracranial electrodes overlaying the auditory cortex and at the vertex of the skull. ASSRs to click trains were recorded at 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 55 Hz and measured by ASSR Mean Power (MP) and Phase Locking Factor (PLF). In Experiment 1, the effect of different subcutaneous doses of PCP (1.0, 2.5 and 4.0 mg/kg) on the ASSR in 12 rats was assessed. In Experiment 2, ASSRs were compared in PCP treated rats and control rats at baseline, after acute injection (5 mg/kg), following two weeks of subchronic, continuous administration (5 mg/kg/day), and one week after drug cessation. Acute administration of PCP increased PLF and MP at frequencies of stimulation below 50 Hz, and decreased responses at higher frequencies at the auditory cortex site. Acute administration had a less pronounced effect at the vertex site, with a reduction of either PLF or MP observed at frequencies above 20 Hz. Acute effects increased in magnitude with higher doses of PCP. Consistent effects were not observed after subchronic PCP administration. These data indicate that acute administration of PCP, a NMDAR antagonist, produces an increase in ASSR synchrony and power at low frequencies of stimulation and a reduction of high frequency (> 40 Hz) ASSR activity in rats. Subchronic, continuous administration of PCP, on the other hand, has little impact on ASSRs. Thus, while ASSRs are highly sensitive to NMDAR antagonists, their translational utility as a cross-species biomarker for NMDAR hypofunction in SZ and other disorders may be dependent on dose and schedule.

The neurology-psychiatry divide: a thought experiment

Diseases of the brain are generally classified as either neurological or psychiatric. However, these two groups of illnesses cannot be readily separated on the basis of pathophysiology or symptomatology. It is difficult to rationally explain to someone with no prior frame of reference why we have the split between neurological and psychiatric illness. This demonstrates that the division is untenable, which has implications for training in both psychiatry and neurology.

Proteomic and genomic evidence implicates the postsynaptic density in schizophrenia

The postsynaptic density (PSD) contains a complex set of proteins of known relevance to neuropsychiatric disorders, and schizophrenia specifically. We enriched for this anatomical structure, in the anterior cingulate cortex, of 20 schizophrenia samples and 20 controls from the Stanley Medical Research Institute, and used unbiased shotgun proteomics incorporating label-free quantitation to identify differentially expressed proteins. Quantitative investigation of the PSD revealed more than 700 protein identifications and 143 differentially expressed proteins. Prominent among these were altered expression of proteins involved in clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) (Dynamin-1, adaptor protein 2) and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-interacting proteins such as CYFIP2, SYNPO, SHANK3, ESYT and MAPK3 (all P<0.0015). Pathway analysis of the differentially expressed proteins implicated the cellular processes of endocytosis, long-term potentiation and calcium signaling. Both single-gene and gene-set enrichment analyses in genome-wide association data from the largest schizophrenia sample to date of 13,689 cases and 18,226 controls show significant association of HIST1H1E and MAPK3, and enrichment of our PSD proteome. Taken together, our data provide robust evidence implicating PSD-associated proteins and genes in schizophrenia, and suggest that within the PSD, NMDA-interacting and endocytosis-related proteins contribute to disease pathophysiology.

Anti-NMDA-receptor encephalitis presenting with catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome in patients with intellectual disability and autism

We report anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor encephalitis in two patients with autism and intellectual disability presenting with neuropsychiatric symptoms of catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Case reports such as these help raise awareness of this clinical issue. By paving the way for earlier diagnoses they ultimately maximise the potential for curative treatments and prevention of long-term complications.

Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis: review of clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment

Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor encephalitis is a form of encephalitis occurring primarily in women and associated with antibodies against NR1 or NR2 subunits of the NMDA receptor. As a potentially treatable differential for symptoms and signs seen in neurology and psychiatric clinics, clinicians practising across the lifespan should be aware of this form of encephalitis. Common clinical features include auditory and visual hallucinations, delusions, behavioural change (frequently with agitation), impaired consciousness, motor disturbance (ranging from dyskinesia to catatonia), seizures, and autonomic dysfunction. We present a review of the literature on the disorder, including its clinical presentation, differential diagnosis, epidemiology, treatment and prognosis.

Managing severe behavioral symptoms of a patient with anti-NMDAR encephalitis: case report and findings in current literature

OBJECTIVE

Psychiatric symptoms emerge in the early stages of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (anti-NMDAR) encephalitis, and patients often seek treatment in psychiatric departments before visiting any other general medical services. Numerous articles about anti-NMDAR encephalitis have been published in the scientific community worldwide, but few emphasize the role of psychiatry in symptom management.

CASE DESCRIPTION

We describe the case of a patient with anti- -NMDAR encephalitis seen in our service and discuss the management of behavioral symptoms based on current scientific literature. High doses of atypical antipsychotics and benzodiazepines were used to control agitation, and trazodone was administered to treat insomnia.

COMMENTS

Consultation-liaison psychiatry may help the healthcare team adjust the management of neuropsychiatric complications that might affect inpatients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis.

Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: psychiatric presentation and diagnostic challenges from psychosomatic medicine perspective

We describe two cases of confirmed anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis; one patient initially presented with a clinical picture that resembled delirium and later appeared to present with a conversion reaction and the second patient presented with a first psychotic break followed by the clinical picture of neuroleptic malignant syndrome with catatonia. Neither patient had a previous history of psychiatric illness or recreational drug use. These cases illustrate the diagnostic and treatment challenges associated with this neuropsychiatric condition and underscore the role of psychosomatic medicine psychiatrists in diagnosing anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis.

Three phenotypes of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibody encephalitis in children: prevalence of symptoms and prognosis

BACKGROUND

Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antibody encephalitis is becoming an increasingly recognized cause of encephalopathy in individuals previously presumed to have viral encephalitis. Various manifestations of this disease include altered mental status, behavioral changes, seizures, and movement disorders. We have noted three distinct subtypes of this disease which appear to have differential responses to immunotherapies and differences in prognosis.

METHODS AND PATIENTS

We report eight patients observed at our children's hospital from 2009 through 2013 who appear to clearly fall into one of our three clinical categories. To find comparable articles reflecting this classification, we then performed a MEDLINE search of all articles involving the subject heading "anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis" or just the keyword phrase "NMDA encephalitis," and we found 162 articles to review. Twenty-two articles were eliminated due to basic science, and we were able to review 105 of the remaining articles, most of which were case reports or case series, although a few were larger reviews. For the sake of our review, we defined type 1 or "classic" anti-NMDA receptor antibody encephalitis as having a duration of <60 days and being characterized predominantly by a catatonic or stuporous state, type 2 or psychiatric-predominant anti-NMDA receptor antibody encephalitis as having no noteworthy catatonic or stuporous state in addition to the presence of predominantly behavioral and psychiatric symptoms, and type 3 or catatonia-predominant anti-NMDA receptor antibody encephalitis as having a duration of ≥60 days in a predominantly catatonic or stuporous state.

RESULTS

We note that the poorest responders, even to aggressive immunotherapies, are the patients with catatonia-persistent type anti-NMDA receptor antibody encephalitis, which has, as its hallmark, prolonged periods of severe encephalopathy. Patients with predominantly psychiatric symptoms, which we call the psychiatric-predominant anti-NMDA receptor antibody encephalitis, have had excellent responses to plasma exchange or other immunotherapies and appear to have the least residual deficits at follow-up. Patients with fairly equal representations of periods of altered mental status, behavioral problems, and movement disorders appear to have an intermediate prognosis and likely require early aggressive immunotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

In our series, we discuss representative examples of these clinical subtypes and their associated outcomes, and we suggest that tracking these subtypes in future cases of anti-NMDA receptor antibody encephalitis might lead to better understanding and better risk stratification with regard to immunotherapy decisions.

Anti-NMDAR encephalitis, a mimicker of acute infectious encephalitis and a review of the literature

Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis has become an increasingly recognized etiology of acute psychosis in young patients. The diverse constellation of symptoms allows for misdiagnosis as an infectious, psychological, or toxicological entity resulting in delays in treatment with increasing morbidity. We describe a case of anti-NMDAR encephalitis that was a particular challenge to diagnose. Practitioners should maintain a high index of suspicion for anti-NMDAR and related neuroautoimmune syndromes, especially in young patients that present with acute mental status decline or dyskinesia.

Anti-NMDAR autoimmune encephalitis

The N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) is involved in normal physiological and pathological states in the brain. Anti-NMDAR encephalitis is characterized by memory deficits, seizures, confusion, and psychological disturbances in males and females of all ages. This type of encephalitis is often associated with ovarian teratoma in young women, but children are less likely to have tumors. Anti-NMDAR encephalitis is a neuroimmune syndrome in patients with autoantibodies recognizing extracellular epitopes of NMDAR, and the autoantibodies attenuate NMDAR function through the internalization of NMDAR. Following the initial symptoms of inflammation, the patients show the various symptoms such as memory loss, confusion, emotional disturbances, psychosis, dyskinesis, decrease in speech intelligibility, and seizures. About half of these patients improved with immunotherapy including high-dose intravenous corticosteroids and intravenous immunoglobulins is administrated to these patients, but the patients who had no improvement with these therapy require further treatments with rituximab or cyclophosphamide. It is necessary to detect anti-NMDAR antibodies at early stages, because the prognosis of these patients may be improved by early treatment. Recovery is slow, and the patients may have some disturbances in their motor function and cognition. The pathologic mechanism underlying the development of anti-NMDAR encephalitis has been elucidated gradually, but the optimal treatment has not yet been clarified. Further studies are required to clarify in detail the mechanism underlying anti-NMDA encephalitis and to develop effective treatments.

Management of psychiatric symptoms in anti-NMDAR encephalitis: a case series, literature review and future directions

Anti-NMDA receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis, formally recognized in 2007, has been increasingly identified as a significant cause of autoimmune and paraneoplastic encephalitis. Approximately 80% of the patients are females. The characteristic syndrome evolves in several stages, with approximately 70% of the patients presenting with a prodromal phase of fever, malaise, headache, upper respiratory tract symptoms, nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. Next, typically within two weeks, patients develop psychiatric symptoms including insomnia, delusions, hyperreligiosity, paranoia, hallucinations, apathy and depression. Catatonic symptoms, seizures, abnormal movements, autonomic instability, memory deficits may also develop during the course of the disease. Presence of antibodies against the GluN1 subunit of the NMDAR in the CSF and serum confirm the diagnosis of NMDAR encephalitis, which also should prompt a thorough search for an underlying tumor. Age, gender, and ethnicity may all play a role, as black females older than 18 years of age have an increased likelihood of an underlying tumor. Treatment is focused on tumor resection and first-line immunotherapy [corticosteroids, plasma exchange, and intravenous immunoglobulin]. In non-responders, second- line immunotherapy [rituximab or cyclophosphamide or combined] is required. More than 75% of the patients recover completely or have mild sequelae, while the remaining patients end up demonstrating persistent severe disability or death. There is a paucity of literature on the management of psychiatric symptoms in this population. Given the neuropsychiatric symptoms in the relatively early phase of the illness, approximately 77 % of the patients are first evaluated by a psychiatrist. Earlier recognition of this illness is of paramount importance as prompt diagnosis and treatment can potentially improve prognosis. We describe two patients diagnosed with NMDAR encephalitis presenting with two different psychiatric manifestations. The first patient presented with psychotic mania and catatonic symptoms, while the second suffered from depression with psychotic and catatonic features refractory to psychotropic medications. We review of the use of psychotropic medications and ECT to address insomnia, agitation, psychosis, mood dysregulation and catatonia in NMDAR encephalitis.

Is prevention a realistic goal for schizophrenia?

Over the past 2 decades, increased efforts have focused on identifying those at genetic or clinical risk for psychosis and promoting interventions that may alter the onset or trajectory of schizophrenia. We review studies published between 2010-2013 that: (1) investigate at-risk states for psychosis in larger epidemiological studies; (2) identify causes of certain clinical presentations of the schizophrenia phenotype and (3) investigate focused and multidisciplinary approaches to treat early clinical symptoms. The article places these recent studies within the context of prior research and the concept of potential measures to prevent or ameliorate the onset of psychosis.

Paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis with prominent neuropsychiatric apathy

The spectrum of paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes has increased with the description of encephalitis associated with antibodies against cell surface and synaptic proteins. Subacute cognitive impairment, movement disorders, late onset epilepsy and neuropsychiatric syndromes were recently linked to paraneoplastic encephalitis. Despite that, probably some syndromes and antibodies are yet to be reported. Herein we reported the clinical and neuroimaging pictures of a patient with late onset medial temporal lobe epilepsy, subtle cognitive impairment, psychosis and severe apathy diagnosed with antibody-negative paraneoplastic encephalitis due to colonic adenocarcinoma. The apathy markedly improved after removal of the tumor, without concomitant immunotherapy (steroids, intravenous immunoglobulins, immunosuppressants, plasmapheresis, etc.). Our report highlights the importance of a full clinical and neurologic investigation in cases of atypical neuropsychiatric presentations, particularly in the elderly and with the concomitance of epilepsy and cognitive decline. Even chronic presentations must be considered. Neuroimaging is an important tool to demonstrate structural and functional brain dysfunction in these cases. Colonic adenocarcinoma should be searched for in cases in which a typical tumor related to paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes is not found.