Direct and indirect estrogen actions on osteoblasts and osteoclasts

Effectiveness of desertliving cistanche in managing hyperlipidemic osteoporosis in ovariectomized rats through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

To aim of this study is to assess the mechanism through which Desertliving Cistanche modulates the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in the treatment of hyperlipidemic osteoporosis in ovariectomized rats.

METHODS

We randomly assigned specific-pathogen-free (SPF) rats into five groups (n = 10 per group). The normal control group received a standard diet, while the model group, atorvastatin group, diethylstilbestrol group, and treatment group were fed a high-fat diet. Four weeks later, bilateral ovariectomies were conducted, followed by drug interventions. After six weeks of treatment, relevant indicators were compared and analyzed.

RESULTS

Compared to the normal control group, rats in the model group exhibited blurred trabecular morphology, disorganized osteocytes, significantly elevated levels of bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (BALP), bone Gla-protein (BGP), total cholesterol (TC), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL). Also, the model group revealed significantly reduced levels of ultimate load, fracture load, estradiol (E2), bone mineral density (BMD), osteoprotegerin (OPG), and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and protein kinase B (Akt) in femoral tissue. The atorvastatin group presented with higher TC and TNF-α levels compared to the normal control group. Conversely, the treatment group demonstrated enhanced trabecular morphology, denser structure, smaller bone marrow cavities, and reduced BALP, BGP, TC, TNF-α, and RANKL levels. Furthermore, the treatment group exhibited higher levels of E2, BMD, OPG, and PI3K and Akt in bone tissue compared to the model group. The treatment group also had lower TC and TNF-α levels than the atorvastatin group. Biomechanical analysis indicated that after administration of Desertliving Cistanche, the treatment group had reduced body mass, increased ultimate and fracture load of the femur, denser bone structure, smaller bone marrow cavities, and altered periosteal arrangement compared to the model group.

CONCLUSION

Our study revealed that Desertliving Cistanche demonstrated significant efficacy in preventing and treating postmenopausal hyperlipidemic osteoporosis in rats.

Exploring the Interplay between Bone Marrow Stem Cells and Obesity

Obesity, a complex disorder with rising global prevalence, is a chronic, inflammatory, and multifactorial disease and it is characterized by excessive adipose tissue accumulation and associated comorbidities. Adipose tissue (AT) is an extremely diverse organ. The composition, structure, and functionality of AT are significantly influenced by characteristics specific to everyone, in addition to the variability connected to various tissue types and its location-related heterogeneity. Recent investigation has shed light on the intricate relationship between bone marrow stem cells and obesity, revealing potential mechanisms that contribute to the development and consequences of this condition. Mesenchymal stem cells within the bone marrow, known for their multipotent differentiation capabilities, play a pivotal role in adipogenesis, the process of fat cell formation. In the context of obesity, alterations in the bone marrow microenvironment may influence the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells towards adipocytes, impacting overall fat storage and metabolic balance. Moreover, bone marrow's role as a crucial component of the immune system adds another layer of complexity to the obesity-bone marrow interplay. This narrative review summarizes the current research findings on the connection between bone marrow stem cells and obesity, highlighting the multifaceted roles of bone marrow in adipogenesis and inflammation.

New Emerging Aspect of Herbal Extracts for the Treatment of Osteoporosis: Overview

As the global population ages, osteoporosis is becoming a more common silent disease. Osteoporosis is characterized by decreased bone quality and strength, which increases the risk of fragility fractures in the elderly. According to estimates, 50% of women eventually suffer from an osteoporotic fracture. Due to increasing disability, more frequent hospital hospitalizations, and most critically, fragility fractures have been linked to a reduced quality of life. Osteoporotic fractures have been linked to an increased mortality risk; and must be considered in awareness as a serious health concern. There are anti-osteoporotic medications available that improve bone quality. Considering the availability of various treatment options, still there are a lot of underserved needs in the treatment of fractures and osteoporosis. For example, the application of natural products and herbal resources for fracture healing, because of the androgen-like and antioxidant characteristics of the plants, they can play a crucial for accelerating the repair of bone fractures. In this article, we'll discuss the herbal remedies that are essential for treating osteoporosis (bone disease).

D-Pinitol Ameliorated Osteoporosis via Elevating D-chiro-Inositol Level in Ovariectomized Mice

A natural sugar alcohol, D-pinitol, has been reported to be a potential compound for osteoporosis treatment via inhibiting osteoclastgenesis. However, research on the effects of pinitol on osteoporosis in vivo is still limited. The present study investigated the protective effects of pinitol on ovariectomized mice and attempted to elucidate this mechanism in vivo. Four-week-old female ovariectomized ICR mice were employed as a postmenopausal osteoporosis model and treated with pinitol or estradiol (E2) for 7 wk. Thereafter, serum calcium content, phosphorus content, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAcP) and bone-specific alkaline phosphatase activity (BALP) were measured. Bilateral femurs were isolated, and bone marrow protein was collected through centrifuge. Dry femurs were weighed, while femur length, cellular bones, and bone mineral content were measured. D-chiro-Inositol (DCI) and myo-inositol (MI) content in serum and bone marrow was measured by GC-MS. At the end of experiment, the serum BALP and TRAcP activities of the OVX mice were suppressed significantly by treatment with either pinitol or E2. Femur weight, cellular bone rate, Ca and P content were improved by pinitol or E2. The DCI content of the serum of OVX decreased significantly, although it recovered to some extent after pinitol treatment. Pinitol significantly increased the ratio of DCI to MI in serum or bone marrow protein in the observed OVX mice. Besides, pinitol had no significant effects on osteoblast viability and differentiation. The present results showed that continuous pinitol intake exerts potent anti-osteoporosis activity via elevating DCI content in serum and bone marrow in OVX mice.

Expression of Sex Hormone Receptors in Canine Osteosarcoma

Sex steroids regulate bone metabolism directly and indirectly through receptors on bone. Estrogen receptors (ER-∝, ER-β), progesterone receptor (PR), and androgen receptor (AR), have been previously identified on human osteosarcoma (OSA) cells, and are considered to influence tumor growth, but their expression and role in canine OSA is unknown. The aim of this study was to characterize sex hormone receptor expression levels in naturally occurring OSA tissue and in three canine OSA cell lines. The expression of ER-α, ER-β, PR, and AR was investigated using RT-PCR. PR expression levels were also quantified in OSA cells cultured under hypoxic conditions or in the presence of estradiol. The effects of progesterone on cell proliferation were quantified. Results demonstrated varying expression levels of these receptors in five OSA subtypes. OSA cell lines demonstrated high gene expression levels of PR and low gene expression levels of ER-α and ER-β and no gene expression of AR. PR expression was increased in OSA cells cultured under hypoxic conditions in a HIF-∝ independent manner. Interestingly, one cell line expressed very high levels of PR, expression of which decreased in response to estradiol. In addition, progesterone decreased OSA cell proliferation in this particular cell line. Further investigation of the role of sex steroids, particularly PR and its ligands, in regulation of canine OSA is recommended.

Menstrual Cycle Related Fluctuations in Circulating Markers of Bone Metabolism at Rest and in Response to Running in Eumenorrheic Females

This study examined potential fluctuations in bone metabolic markers across the menstrual cycle both at rest and after a 30-min bout of continuous running at 80% of V̇O_2max. Resting and post-exercise (0, 30, 90 min) sclerostin, parathyroid hormone (PTH), carboxy-terminal cross-linking telopeptide of type I collagen (β-CTXI), and procollagen type 1 N propeptide (PINP) were assessed in 10 eumenorrheic women (age: 21 ± 3 y, BMI: 23.2 ± 3.0 kg^.m²) during the mid- to late-follicular (FP: day 8.0 ± 1.4) and mid-luteal (LP: day 22.0 ± 2.5) phases of the menstrual cycle. Ovulation was determined using ovulation kits and daily measurement of oral body temperature upon awakening. Menstrual cycle phase was subsequently confirmed by measurement of plasma estradiol and progesterone. On average, resting estradiol concentrations increased from 46.3 ± 8.9 pg·mL^-1 in the FP to 67.3 ± 23.4 pg·mL^-1 in the LP (p = 0.015), and resting progesterone increased from 4.12 ± 2.36 ng·mL^-1 in the FP to 11.86 ± 4.49 ng·mL^-1 in the LP (p < 0.001). At rest, there were no differences between menstrual cycle phases in sclerostin (FP: 260.1 ± 135.0 pg·mL^-1; LP: 303.5 ± 99.9 pg·mL^-1; p = 0.765), PTH (FP: 0.96 ± 0.64 pmol·L^-1; LP: 0.79 ± 0.44 pmol·L^-1; p = 0.568), β-CTXI (FP: 243.1 ± 158.0 ng·L^-1; LP: 202.4 ± 92.3 ng·L^-1; p = 0.198), and PINP (FP: 53.6 ± 8.9 μg·L^-1; LP: 66.2 ± 20.2 μg·L^-1; p = 0.093). Main effects for time (p < 0.05) were shown in sclerostin, PTH, β-CTXI and PINP, without phase or interaction effects. Sclerostin increased from pre- to immediately post-exercise (45%; p = 0.007), and so did PTH (43%; p = 0.011), both returning to resting concentrations 30 min post-exercise. β-CTXI decreased from pre- to post-exercise (20%; p = 0.027) and was still below its pre-exercise concentrations at 90 min post-exercise (17%; p = 0.013). PINP increased immediately post-exercise (29%; p < 0.001), returning to resting concentrations at 30 min post-exercise. These results demonstrate no effect of menstrual cycle phase on resting bone marker concentrations or on the bone metabolic marker response to intense exercise.

Targeting chronic inflammation as a potential adjuvant therapy for osteoporosis

Systemic, chronic, low-grade inflammation (SCLGI) underlies the pathogenesis of various widespread diseases. It is often associated with bone loss, thus connecting chronic inflammation to the pathogenesis of osteoporosis. In postmenopausal women, osteoporosis is accompanied by SCLGI development, likely owing to estrogen deficiency. We propose that SCGLI persistence in osteoporosis results from failed inflammation resolution, which is mainly mediated by specialized, pro-resolving mediators (SPMs). In corroboration, SPMs demonstrate encouraging therapeutic effects in various preclinical models of inflammatory disorders, including bone pathology. Since numerous data implicate gut dysbiosis in osteoporosis-associated chronic inflammation, restoring balanced microbiota by supplementing probiotics and prebiotics could contribute to the efficient resolution of SCGLI. In the present review, we provide evidence for this hypothesis and argue that efficient SCGLI resolution may serve as a novel approach for treating osteoporosis, complementary to traditional anti-osteoporotic medications.

The pathophysiology of osteoporosis in obesity and type 2 diabetes in aging women and men: The mechanisms and roles of increased bone marrow adiposity

Osteoporosis is defined as a systemic skeletal disease characterized by decreased bone mass and micro-architectural deterioration leading to increased fracture risk. Osteoporosis incidence increases with age in both post-menopausal women and aging men. Among other important contributing factors to bone fragility observed in osteoporosis, that also affect the elderly population, are metabolic disturbances observed in obesity and Type 2 Diabetes (T2D). These metabolic complications are associated with impaired bone homeostasis and a higher fracture risk. Expansion of the Bone Marrow Adipose Tissue (BMAT), at the expense of decreased bone formation, is thought to be one of the key pathogenic mechanisms underlying osteoporosis and bone fragility in obesity and T2D. Our review provides a summary of mechanisms behind increased Bone Marrow Adiposity (BMA) during aging and highlights the pre-clinical and clinical studies connecting obesity and T2D, to BMA and bone fragility in aging osteoporotic women and men.

Oxytocin and Bone: Review and Perspectives

Recent data demonstrate the anabolic effect of oxytocin on bone. Bone cells express oxytocin receptors. Oxytocin promotes osteoblasts differentiation and function, leading to an increased bone formation with no effect on bone resorption and an improvement of bone microarchitecture. Oxytocin is synthetized by osteoblasts, and this synthesis is stimulated by estrogen. Animal studies demonstrate a direct action of oxytocin on bone, as the systemic administration of oxytocin prevents and reverses the bone loss induced by estrogen deficiency. Although oxytocin is involved in bone formation in both sexes during development, oxytocin treatment has no effect on male osteoporosis, underlining the importance of estrogen that amplifies its local autocrine and paracrine secretion. There are few human data showing a decrease in the oxytocin serum level in anorexia nervosa independently of estrogen and in amenorrheic women associated with impaired bone microarchitecture; in post-menopausal women a higher oxytocin serum level is associated with higher bone density, but not in osteoporotic men. Oxytocin displays many effects that may be beneficial in the management of osteoporosis, cardiovascular diseases, cognitive disorders, breast cancer, diabetes and body fat gain, all age-related diseases affecting elderly women, opening exciting therapeutic perspectives, although the issue is to find a single route, dosage and schedule able to reach all these targets.

Biased and allosteric modulation of bone cell-expressing G protein-coupled receptors as a novel approach to osteoporosis therapy

On the cellular level, osteoporosis (OP) is a result of imbalanced bone remodeling, in which osteoclastic bone resorption outcompetes osteoblastic bone formation. Currently available OP medications include both antiresorptive and bone-forming drugs. However, their long-term use in OP patients, mainly in postmenopausal women, is accompanied by severe side effects. Notably, the fundamental coupling between bone resorption and formation processes underlies the existence of an undesirable secondary outcome that bone anabolic or anti-resorptive drugs also reduce bone formation. This drawback requires the development of anti-OP drugs capable of selectively stimulating osteoblastogenesis and concomitantly reducing osteoclastogenesis. We propose that the application of small synthetic biased and allosteric modulators of bone cell receptors, which belong to the G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) family, could be the key to resolving the undesired anti-OP drug selectivity. This approach is based on the capacity of these GPCR modulators, unlike the natural ligands, to trigger signaling pathways that promote beneficial effects on bone remodeling while blocking potentially deleterious effects. Under the settings of OP, an optimal anti-OP drug should provide fine-tuned regulation of downstream effects, for example, intermittent cyclic AMP (cAMP) elevation, preservation of Ca²⁺ balance, stimulation of osteoprotegerin (OPG) and estrogen production, suppression of sclerostin secretion, and/or preserved/enhanced canonical β-catenin/Wnt signaling pathway. As such, selective modulation of GPCRs involved in bone remodeling presents a promising approach in OP treatment. This review focuses on the evidence for the validity of our hypothesis.

Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter and osteoporotic fracture: A case-control study in Taiwan

Few studies have explored the relationship between long-term exposure to particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of ≤2.5 μm (PM_2.5) and osteoporotic fracture, particularly in high PM_2.5 level areas. The aim of this study was to assess the association between long-term exposure to PM_2.5 and osteoporotic fracture. We performed a matched case-control study of 16,175 participants obtained from a hospital registry during 2005-2014 in Taiwan. A major osteoporotic fracture was defined as a fracture of the spine, hip, proximal humerus, and forearm. We applied satellite-based spatiotemporal models with 1-km resolution to individually calculate the 1-year average PM_2.5 concentration before the index date which was defined as the first visit date for the osteoporotic fracture. Logistic regression models with and without potential confounding factors were used to estimate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) between PM_2.5 and osteoporotic fracture, whereas a restricted cubic spline model was used to estimate the dose-response relationship. The sample's median age was 44.7 years (interquartile range: 30.7, 63.1 years). We observed that long-term PM_2.5 exposure was associated with osteoporotic fracture, the OR was 1.12 (95% CI: 1.03, 1.22) per 10-μg/m³ increase in PM_2.5 in women. In the dose-response association, the OR of osteoporotic fracture was significantly increased for PM_2.5 exposures more than 41 μg/m³. We did not find a significant association between PM_2.5 (per 10-μg/m³ increase) and osteoporotic fracture among overall population (adjusted OR, 1.02 [95% CI, 0.97 to 1.08]) and men (adjusted OR, 0.94 [95% CI, 0.86 to 1.02]). The results of the stratified analysis showed that women were more sensitive to the adverse impact of PM2.5 that were men, and evidence was obtained of sex-based effect modification (P for interaction = 0.002). Our findings suggest that long-term exposure to PM_2.5 is associated with osteoporotic fracture, particularly among women.

Estrogen effects on orthodontic tooth movement and orthodontically-induced root resorption

Estrogen is an essential regulator of the bone tissue. The remodeling of the alveolar bone and periodontal ligament is the basis of orthodontic tooth movement (OTM). There is a negative coregulation between physiological estrogen levels and the rate of OTM. As a possible inhibitory factor of OTM, estrogen suppresses bone resorption by inhibiting osteoclastic differentiation and restraining osteoclast lifespan though multiple pathways and cytokines, leading to the suppression of the initiation step of bone remodeling. On the other hand, estrogen stimulates osteoblastic differentiation and function. Estrogen receptor-α (ERα) involves in the osteogenic responses to mechanical stimulation, and the ERα expression is regulated positively by the levels of circulatory estrogen. Orthodontically induced root resorption (OIRR) is a common side-effect of orthodontic treatment. Estrogen may have some inhibitory effects on OIRR, but more studies are needed to get an effective conclusion.

Impact of calcium, vitamin D, vitamin K, oestrogen, isoflavone and exercise on bone mineral density for osteoporosis prevention in postmenopausal women: a network meta-analysis

The aim of this network meta-analysis is to compare bone mineral density (BMD) changes among different osteoporosis prevention interventions in postmenopausal women. We searched MEDLINE, Embase and Cochrane Library from inception to 24 February 2019. Included studies were randomised controlled trials (RCT) comparing the effects of different treatments on BMD in postmenopausal women. Studies were independently screened by six authors in three pairs. Data were extracted independently by two authors and synthesised using Bayesian random-effects network meta-analysis. The results were summarised as mean difference in BMD and surface under the cumulative ranking (SUCRA) of different interventions. A total of ninety RCT (10 777 participants) were included. Ca, vitamin D, vitamin K, oestrogen, exercise, Ca + vitamin D, vitamin D + vitamin K and vitamin D + oestrogen were associated with significantly beneficial effects relative to no treatment or placebo for lumbar spine (LS). For femoral neck (FN), Ca, exercise and vitamin D + oestrogen were associated with significantly beneficial intervention effects relative to no treatment. Ranking probabilities indicated that oestrogen + vitamin D is the best strategy in LS, with a SUCRA of 97·29 % (mean difference: +0·072 g/cm2 compared with no treatment, 95 % credible interval (CrI) 0·045, 0·100 g/cm2), and Ca + exercise is the best strategy in FN, with a SUCRA of 79·71 % (mean difference: +0·029 g/cm2 compared with placebo, 95 % CrI –0·00093, 0·060 g/cm2). In conclusion, in postmenopausal women, many interventions are valuable for improving BMD in LS and FN. Different intervention combinations can affect BMD at different sites diversely.

Role of microRNAs in osteogenesis of stem cells

Osteogenic differentiation is a controlled developmental process in which external and internal factors including cytokines, growth factors, transcription factors (TFs), signaling pathways and microRNAs (miRNAs) play important roles. Various stimulatory and inhibitory TFs contribute to osteogenic differentiation and are responsible for bone development. In addition, cross-talk between several complex signaling pathways regulates the osteogenic differentiation of some stem cells. Although much is known about regulatory genes and signaling pathways in osteogenesis, the role of miRNAs in osteogenic differentiation still needs to be explored. miRNAs are small, approximately 22 nucleotides, single-stranded nonprotein coding RNAs which are abundant in many mammalian cell types. They paly significant regulated roles in various biological processes and serve as promising biomarkers for disease states. Recently, emerging evidence have shown that miRNAs are the key regulators of osteogenesis of stem cells. They may endogenously regulate osteogenic differentiation of stem cells through direct targeting of positive or negative directors of osteogenesis and depending on the target result in the promotion or inhibition of osteogenic differentiation. This review aims to provide a general overview of miRNAs participating in osteogenic differentiation of stem cells and explain their regulatory effect based on the genes targeted with these miRNAs.

Bone Manifestation of Faulty Perinatal Hormonal Imprinting: A Review

Hormonal imprinting takes place at the first encounter between the developing receptor and its target hormone and the encounter determines the receptor's binding capacity for life. In the critical period of development, when the window for imprinting is open, the receptor can be misdirected by related hormones, synthetic hormones, and industrial or communal endocrine disruptors which cause faulty hormonal imprinting with life-long consequences. Considering these facts, the hormonal imprinting is a functional teratogen provoking alterations in the perinatal (early postnatal) period. One single encounter with a low dose of the imprinter in the critical developmental period is enough for the formation of faulty imprinting, which is manifested later, in adult age. This has been justified in the immune system, in sexuality, in animal behavior and brain neurotransmitters etc. by animal experiments and human observations. This review points to the faulty hormonal imprinting in the case of bones (skeleton), by single or repeated treatments. The imprinting is an epigenetic alteration which is inherited to the progeny generations. From clinical aspect, the faulty imprinting can have a role in the pathological development of the bones as well, as in the risk of osteoporotic fractures, etc.

Proficiencies of Zingiber officinale against spine curve and vertebral damage induced by corticosteroid therapy associated with gonadal hormone deficiency in a rat model of osteoporosis

This study was assessed to examine whether Zingiber officinale (ZO) can prevent spine disorder and trabecular microarchitecture disruption in osteoporotic murin model. Three groups of male rats were selected: Controls (CTRL), combined model of osteoporosis (CMO), in which rats were orchidectomized and treated with cortisol, and CMO treated with ZO (CMO + ZO). One month after the surgical procedures, the rats were sacrificed. Lumbar curve of the spine has been evaluated using the kyphotic method. The spines were submitted to histological and histomorphometric analysis and mineral (calcium and phosphorus) metabolism assessment. Compared to CTRL, the mean kyphotic angle (KA) was significantly higher in CMO rats. The spinal deconditioning associated decreased bone trabecular volume and a disrupted microarchitecture. A disorder was observed in the serum and bone levels of calcium and phosphorus in the combined severe osteopenia model. An increase in the level of TRAcP associated with an increase in osteoclast number and activity has been reported. These disturbances were reduced following the use of ZO in the CMO + ZO group. Finally, ginger might be an alternative therapeutic candidate for the treatment of severe osteopenia induced vertebral damage and spine curve disruption.

Actions of pituitary hormones beyond traditional targets

Studies over the past decade have challenged the long-held belief that pituitary hormones have singular functions in regulating specific target tissues, including master hormone secretion. Our discovery of the action of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) on bone provided the first glimpse into the non-traditional functions of pituitary hormones. Here we discuss evolving experimental and clinical evidence that growth hormone (GH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), prolactin, oxytocin and arginine vasopressin (AVP) regulate bone and other target tissues, such as fat. Notably, genetic and pharmacologic FSH suppression increases bone mass and reduces body fat, laying the framework for targeting the FSH axis for treating obesity and osteoporosis simultaneously with a single agent. Certain 'pituitary' hormones, such as TSH and oxytocin, are also expressed in bone cells, providing local paracrine and autocrine networks for the regulation of bone mass. Overall, the continuing identification of new roles for pituitary hormones in biology provides an entirely new layer of physiologic circuitry, while unmasking new therapeutic targets.

α-Linolenic Acid Inhibits Receptor Activator of NF-κB Ligand Induced (RANKL-Induced) Osteoclastogenesis and Prevents Inflammatory Bone Loss via Downregulation of Nuclear Factor-KappaB-Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthases (NF-κB-iNOS) Signaling Pathways

Background

Inflammation is a major cellular strain causing increased risk of osteo-degenerative diseases. Omega-3 fatty acids have been great source in suppressing inflammation. We investigated the effect of α-linolenic acid (ALA) on RANKL-stimulated osteoclast differentiation, LPS-induced and ovariectomized bone loss in mice models.

Material/Methods

The bone marrow macrophages (BMMs) were isolated from femurs of ICR mice, stimulated with RANKL, and treated with ALA (100, 200, 300 μM). Major analytical methods include histological analysis, osteoclasts viability assay, serum cytokines and chemokines ELISA, and gene expression by qPCR.

Results

ALA intervention inhibited RANKL-induced osteoclasts proliferation and differentiation. ALA inhibited bone resorption activity as measured by materialization of F-actin ring structures as well. ALA suppressed the RANKL-induced osteoclast markers c-Fos, c-Jun and NFATc1 together with transcription factor proteins TRAP, OSCAR, cathepsin K and β3-integrin. ALA also suppressed the RANKL-stimulated phosphorylation of JNK, ERK, and AKT as well as NF-κB and BCL-2 proteins. ALA intervention (100 and 300 mg/kg) to LPS-challenged mice showed annulled morphometric changes induced by LPS by suppressing the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. ALA (100 and 300 mg/kg) intervention to estrogen-deficiency induced bone loss mice (ovariectomized) showed reductions in TRAP⁺ osteoclasts count, CTX-I expression, levels of IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL10, TNF-α and MCP-1 and iNOS and COX-2.

Conclusions

ALA suppresses RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation and prevents inflammatory bone loss via downregulation of NF-κB-iNOS-COX-2 signaling. ALA is suggested to be a preventive herbal medicine against inflammatory bone disorders.

Serum levels of phosphorylated heat shock protein 27 (pHSP27) are associated with bone mineral density in pre- & postmenopausal women: A pilot study

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES

Phosphorylated heat shock protein 27 (pHSP27) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis. oxidative stress and proinflammatory cytokines, which are known to be involved in aetiology of osteoporosis, can trigger HSP27 phosphorylation. Since pHSP27 is present in circulation, it was hypothesized that serum pHSP27 would be elevated in low bone mineral density (BMD) condition and might serve as an indicator of osteoporosis/osteopenia. Hence, the aim of this study was to examine serum levels of pHSP27 in relation with BMD in pre- and postmenopausal women.

METHODS

Premenopausal (30 to 40 yr) and postmenopausal (50 to 60 yr) women having either low BMD (osteopenia/osteoporosis) or high BMD were selected (n=80) from a prospective cohort (n=200). Serum levels of pHSP27; along with levels of oestradiol, malondialdehyde, total antioxidant capacity, interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, tumour necrosis factor - alpha, (TNF-α), c-telopeptide fragments of collagen type I (CTX-1) and osteocalcin were estimated.

RESULTS

The serum levels of pHSP27 were significantly elevated in low BMD groups in premenopausal and postmenopausal categories (p<0.05). It also exhibited a significant odds ratio (OR) to differentiate between low and high BMD in both premenopausal (OR=1.734, p=0.013) and postmenopausal (OR=1.463, p=0.042) categories. Additionally, area under the curve to predict low BMD was non-significantly higher for pHSP27 than CTX-1 in premenopausal and postmenopausal categories.

INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights a novel relation between serum pHSP27 and BMD in Indian women however, these findings need to be confirmed in larger studies.

Animal models for glucocorticoid-induced postmenopausal osteoporosis: An updated review

Glucocorticoid-induced postmenopausal osteoporosis is a severe osteoporosis, with high risk of major osteoporotic fractures. This severe osteoporosis urges more extensive and deeper basic study, in which suitable animal models are indispensable. However, no relevant review is available introducing this model systematically. Based on the recent studies on GI-PMOP, this brief review introduces the GI-PMOP animal model in terms of its establishment, evaluation of bone mass and discuss its molecular mechanism. Rat, rabbit and sheep with their respective merits were chosen. Both direct and indirect evaluation of bone mass help to understand the bone metabolism under different intervention. The crucial signaling pathways, miRNAs, osteogenic- or adipogenic- related factors and estrogen level may be the predominant contributors to the development of glucocorticoid-induced postmenopausal osteoporosis.

Advances in Nanotechnology for the Treatment of Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a degenerative bone disease commonly related to aging. With an increase in life expectancies worldwide, the prevalence of the disease is expected to rise. Current clinical therapeutic treatments are not able to offer long-term solutions to counter the bone mass loss and the increased risk of fractures, which are the primary characteristics of the disease. However, the combination of bioactive nanomaterials within a biomaterial scaffold shows promise for the development of a localized, long-term treatment for those affected by osteoporosis. This review summarizes the unique characteristics of engineered nanoparticles that render them applicable for bone regeneration and recaps the current body of knowledge on nanomaterials with potential for osteoporosis treatment and bone regeneration. Specifically, we highlight new developments that are shaping this emerging field and evaluate applications of recently developed nanomaterials for osteoporosis treatment. Finally, we will identify promising new research directions in nanotechnology for bone regeneration.

Inhibition of substance P signaling aggravates the bone loss in ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis

INTRODUCTION

Substance P signaling regulates the functions of both osteoblast and osteoclast. Available reports on the effects of substance P on bone mass are contradictory. The objective of this study was to determine the change of substance P expression in the osteoporotic bone of OVX mice. The effects of substance P signaling blockade by using its specific receptor antagonist L-703606 on bone remodeling in sham-operated mice and OVX mice were also investigated.

METHODS

Forty-eight nine-week-old female C57BL/6J mice were evenly distributed into three groups with sham surgery, OVX or OVX with estrogen replacement. Substance P expression in the bones of each group of mice was evaluated by immunohistochemistry and enzyme immunoassay. Another thirty-two nine-week-old female C57BL/6J mice were divided into a SHAM group (sham surgery followed by vehicle treatment with DMSO), a SHAM + L group (sham surgery followed by 15 mg/kg/d L-703606 repeated intraperitoneal injections), an OVX group (ovariectomy with the same vehicle treatment) and an OVX + L group (ovariectomy with the same L-703606 injections), with 8 mice in each group. Treatment started 3 weeks after surgery and last for 3 weeks. A 2 × 2 factorial experimental design was used to detect the effects of substance P signaling blockade on bone remodeling in sham-operated mice and OVX mice. Techniques including micro-computed tomography, biomechanical testing, histomorphometric analysis, enzyme immunoassay, and real-time PCR were employed.

RESULTS

Immunohistochemistry and enzyme immunoassay revealed that substance P expression significantly decreased in the bones of OVX mice both at 3 weeks and 6 weeks after surgery. Micro-CT tomography demonstrated that application of L-703606 led to bone loss in sham-operated mice, and aggravated the micro-structural deterioration of bones in OVX mice. This was shown by reduced BV/TV (Mean bone volume fraction), Tb.N (Mean trabecular number) and Tb.Th (Mean trabecular thickness), and increased Tb.Sp (Mean trabecular separation). Biomechanical analysis demonstrated that blockade of substance P signaling reduced the maximum stress and maximum load of L3 vertebrae and tibiae. Inhibited recruitment of bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) to bone remodeling sites, which was evidenced by increased number of osteoclasts, decreased number of osteoblasts and increased osteoid volume in the secondary spongiosa, was observed in the mice treated with L-703606. A significant decrease of OPG/RANKL ratio was also found in the bones of mice treated with L-703606. Body weight, uterine weight and serum estradiol level were not significantly different between the mice treated with L-703606 and those treated with vehicle.

CONCLUSION

The results demonstrated that blocking substance P signaling led to bone loss in sham-operated mice, and exacerbated the bone loss in OVX mice. Substance P signaling had an important role in the maintenance of bone mass.

Odanacatib: An Emerging Novel Treatment Alternative for Postmenopausal Osteoporosis

Odanacatib represents a novel treatment option in the approach of postmenopausal women. Postmenopausal women with osteoporosis experience a disturbance in bone remodeling wherein bone resorption exceeds bone formation. Cathepsin K is a lysosomal cysteine protease found primarily in osteoclasts that plays a major role in the breakdown of bone via its collagenase properties. Targeting a new area of pathophysiology, odanacatib inhibits cathepsin K to reduce bone resorption while preserving bone formation. Phase II and III trials have shown efficacy in increasing bone mineral density in the target treatment group. Overall, safety studies have found odanacatib to be well-tolerated and comparable to placebo; however, some imbalances in adverse events have been observed in the Phase III trials. Current and future studies will analyze the long-term ability of odanacatib in preventing bone fracture.

Harpagoside Inhibits RANKL-Induced Osteoclastogenesis via Syk-Btk-PLCγ2-Ca(2+) Signaling Pathway and Prevents Inflammation-Mediated Bone Loss

Harpagoside (HAR) is a natural compound isolated from Harpagophytum procumbens (devil's claw) that is reported to have anti-inflammatory effects; however, these effects have not been investigated in the context of bone development. The current study describes for the first time that HAR inhibits receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclastogenesis in vitro and suppresses inflammation-induced bone loss in a mouse model. HAR also inhibited the formation of osteoclasts from mouse bone marrow macrophages (BMMs) in a dose-dependent manner as well as the activity of mature osteoclasts, including filamentous actin (F-actin) ring formation and bone matrix breakdown. This involved a HAR-induced decrease in extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation, leading to the inhibition of Syk-Btk-PLCγ2-Ca(2+) in RANKL-dependent early signaling, as well as the activation of c-Fos and nuclear factor of activated T cells cytoplasmic 1 (NFATc1), which resulted in the down-regulation of various target genes. Consistent with these in vitro results, HAR blocked lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced bone loss in an inflammatory osteoporosis model. However, HAR did not prevent ovariectomy-mediated bone erosion in a postmenopausal osteoporosis model. These results suggest that HAR is a valuable agent against inflammation-related bone disorders but not osteoporosis induced by hormonal abnormalities.

Role of RUNX2 in Breast Carcinogenesis

RUNX2 is a transcription factor playing the major role in osteogenesis, but it can be involved in DNA damage response, which is crucial for cancer transformation. RUNX2 can interact with cell cycle regulators: cyclin-dependent kinases, pRB and p21Cip1 proteins, as well as the master regulator of the cell cycle, the p53 tumor suppressor. RUNX2 is involved in many signaling pathways, including those important for estrogen signaling, which, in turn, are significant for breast carcinogenesis. RUNX2 can promote breast cancer development through Wnt and Tgfβ signaling pathways, especially in estrogen receptor (ER)-negative cases. ERα interacts directly with RUNX2 and regulates its activity. Moreover, the ERα gene has a RUNX2 binding site within its promoter. RUNX2 stimulates the expression of aromatase, an estrogen producing enzyme, increasing the level of estrogens, which in turn stimulate cell proliferation and replication errors, which can be turned into carcinogenic mutations. Exploring the role of RUNX2 in the pathogenesis of breast cancer can lead to revealing new therapeutic targets.

Association between change in body weight after midlife and risk of hip fracture-the Singapore Chinese Health Study

The relationship between change in body weight and risk of fractures is inconsistent in epidemiologic studies. In this cohort of middle-aged to elderly Chinese in Singapore, compared to stable weight, weight loss ≥10 % over an average of 6 years is associated with nearly 40 % increase in risk of hip fracture.

INTRODUCTION

Findings on the relationship between change in body weight and risk of hip fracture are inconsistent. In this study, we examined this association among middle-aged and elderly Chinese in Singapore.

METHODS

We used prospective data from the Singapore Chinese Health Study, a population-based cohort of 63,257 Chinese men and women aged 45-74 years at recruitment in 1993-1998. Body weight and height were self-reported at recruitment and reassessed during follow-up interview in 1999-2004. Percent in weight change was computed based on the weight difference over an average of 6 years, and categorized as loss ≥10 %, loss 5 to <10 %, loss or gain <5 % (stable weight), gain 5 to <10 %, and gain ≥10 %. Multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression model was applied with adjustment for risk factors for hip fracture and body mass index (BMI) reported at follow-up interview.

RESULTS

About 12 % experienced weight loss ≥10 %, and another 12 % had weight gain ≥10 %. After a mean follow-up of 9.0 years, we identified 775 incident hip fractures among 42,149 eligible participants. Compared to stable weight, weight loss ≥10 % was associated with 39 % increased risk (hazard ratio 1.39; 95 % confidence interval 1.14, 1.69). Such elevated risk with weight loss ≥10 % was observed in both genders and age groups at follow-up (≤65 and >65 years) and in those with baseline BMI ≥20 kg/m(2).There was no significant association with weight gain.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide evidence that substantial weight loss is an important risk factor for osteoporotic hip fractures among the middle-aged to elderly Chinese.

The associations of exposure to combined hormonal contraceptive use on bone mineral content and areal bone mineral density accrual from adolescence to young adulthood: A longitudinal study

Background

The association of long term combined hormone based contraceptives (CHC) use on bone mineral content (BMC) and areal bone mineral density (aBMD) development remains controversial, as it appears that the relationship may be age-dependent. The purpose of this study was to investigate the long-term associations of CHC exposure on the accrual of bone parameters from adolescence into young-adulthood.

Methods

110 women (67 exposed to CHC) were drawn from the Pediatric Bone Mineral Accrual Study (PBMAS). Serial measures of total body (TB), lumbar spine (LS) and femoral neck (FN) BMC and aBMD were assessed by DXA (a total of 950 scans) and aligned by biological age (BA, years from peak height velocity [PHV]). Multilevel random effects models were constructed to assess the time dependent associations between annual CHC exposure and the development of bone parameters.

Results

After BA, height, lean tissue mass, fat mass, calcium and vitamin D intake, and physical activity were controlled, it was observed that those individuals exposed to CHC 6-years post PHV developed significantly less (−0.00986 ± 0.00422 g/cm²) TB aBMD than their non CHC exposed peers. Additionally, there were significant BA by CHC exposure interactions, where CHC exposure 6-years or more post PHV resulted in developing less TB BMC (−4.94 ± 2.41 g), LS BMC (−0.29 ± 0.11 g) and LS aBMD (−0.00307 ± 0.00109 g/cm²). One year after the attainment of PHV, CHC users were predicted to have 1.2% more TB BMC, 3.8% more LS BMC and 1.7% more LS aBMD than non-users. At 9-years post PHV the predicted differences showed that CHC users had 0.9% less TB BMC and 2.7% less LS BMC and 1.6% less LS BMD than those not exposed to CHC.

Conclusions

CHC may not hinder the development of BMC or aBMD during adolescence; however, exposure 6-years or more after PHV may be detrimental.

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The effects of combined hormone contraceptive (CHC) exposure on bone mass were assessed.

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CHC exposure resulted in developing significantly less (− 9.86 ± 4.22 g/cm²) TB aBMD.

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CHC exposure 6-years after PHV resulted in significantly less BMC and aBMD.

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CHC may not hinder adolescent bone development, but may be detrimental after growth.

The RANKL-RANK Story

Receptor activator of nuclear factor x03BA;B (RANK) and its ligand (RANKL) have originally been described for their key roles in bone metabolism and the immune system. Subsequently, it has been shown that the RANKL-RANK system is critical in the formation of mammary epithelia in lactating females and the thermoregulation of the central nervous system. RANKL and RANK are under the tight control of the female sex hormones estradiol and progesterone. A reduction of the circulating female sex hormones leading to an increase in RANKL-RANK signaling is the leading cause of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Denosumab, a human monoclonal anti-RANKL antibody, has been approved for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis, where it is showing great promise. In addition, RANKL-RANK signaling also plays a critical role in other bone pathologies, bone metastasis or hormone-driven breast cancer. This review will highlight some of the functions of RANKL-RANK in bone turnover, the immune system and brain with a focus on the regulatory role of the female sex hormones.

Rooibos flavonoids, orientin and luteolin, stimulate mineralization in human osteoblasts through the Wnt pathway

SCOPE

Several epidemiological studies have shown that tea consumption is associated with higher bone mineral density in women. Flavonoids in tea are recognized as potential estrogen mimics and may positively influence bone metabolism in estrogen-deficient women. Luteolin and orientin, flavonoids from rooibos tea, are of particular interest as rooibos tea contains no caffeine that can be detrimental to bone health. This study analyzed changes in mineral content when luteolin or orientin was added to a human osteoblast cell line and the potential mechanisms involved. Measurements included alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, cell mitochondrial activity, toxicity, and changes in regulatory proteins involved in osteoblast metabolism.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Mineral was significantly elevated in Saos2 cells treated with orientin (0.1-1.0 μM, 15-100 μM) or luteolin (5.0 μM) and was associated with increased ALP and mitochondrial activity, as determined by the production of p-nitrophenol and the reduction of 2-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, respectively. Greater mineral content was also associated with lower toxicity as determined by lactate dehydrogenase activity and lower expression of TNF-α, IL-6, sclerostin, osteopontin, and osteoprotegerin.

CONCLUSION

Orientin and luteolin, flavonoids in rooibos tea, enhance mineral content in Saos2 cells. These findings provide guidance for doses to be studied in well-established animal models.

Effects of estrogens and estrogenic disrupting compounds on fish mineralized tissues

Estrogens play well-recognized roles in reproduction across vertebrates, but also intervene in a wide range of other physiological processes, including mineral homeostasis. Classical actions are triggered when estrogens bind and activate intracellular estrogen receptors (ERs), regulating the transcription of responsive genes, but rapid non-genomic actions initiated by binding to plasma membrane receptors were recently described. A wide range of structurally diverse compounds from natural and anthropogenic sources have been shown to interact with and disrupt the normal functions of the estrogen system, and fish are particularly vulnerable to endocrine disruption, as these compounds are frequently discharged or run-off into waterways. The effect of estrogen disruptors in fish has mainly been assessed in relation to reproductive endpoints, and relatively little attention has been given to other disruptive actions. This review will overview the actions of estrogens in fish, including ER isoforms, their expression, structure and mechanisms of action. The estrogen functions will be considered in relation to mineral homeostasis and actions on mineralized tissues. The impact of estrogenic endocrine disrupting compounds on fish mineralized tissues will be reviewed, and the potential adverse outcomes of exposure to such compounds will be discussed. Current lacunae in knowledge are highlighted along with future research priorities.

A comparative study of Sr-incorporated mesoporous bioactive glass scaffolds for regeneration of osteopenic bone defects

Recently, the use of the pharmacological agent strontium ranelate has come to prominence for the treatment of osteoporosis. While much investigation is focused on preventing disease progression, here we fabricate strontium-containing scaffolds and show that they enhance bone defect healing in the femurs of rats induced by ovariectomy.

INTRODUCTION

Recently, the use of the pharmacological agent strontium ranelate has come to prominence for the treatment of osteoporosis due to its ability to prevent bone loss in osteoporotic patients. Although much emphasis has been placed on using pharmacological agents for the prevention of disease, much less attention has been placed on the construction of biomaterials following osteoporotic-related fracture. The aim of the present study was to incorporate bioactive strontium (Sr) trace element into mesoporous bioactive glass (MBG) scaffolds and to investigate their in vivo efficacy for bone defect healing in the femurs of rats induced by ovariectomy.

METHODS

In total, 30 animals were divided into five groups as follows: (1) empty defect (control), (2) empty defects with estrogen replacement therapy, (3) defects filled with MBG scaffolds alone, (4) defects filled with MBG + estrogen replacement therapy, and (5) defects filled with strontium-incorporated mesopore-bioglass (Sr-MBG) scaffolds.

RESULTS

The two groups demonstrating the highest levels of new bone formation were the defects treated with MBG + estrogen replacement therapy and the defects receiving Sr-MBG scaffolds as assessed by μ-CT and histological analysis. Furthermore, Sr scaffolds had a reduced number of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase-positive cells when compared to other modalities.

CONCLUSION

The results from the present study demonstrate that the local release of Sr from bone scaffolds may improve fracture repair. Future large animal models are necessary to investigate the future relationship of Sr incorporation into biomaterials.

Safety of drugs used in the treatment of osteoporosis

A number of drug classes are licensed for the treatment of osteoporosis including bisphosphonates, recombinant human parathyroid hormone (PTH), strontium, hormone replacement therapy (HRT), selective oestrogen receptor modulators (SERMS) and denosumab. This review discusses the safety of osteoporosis treatments and their efficacies. Recent concerns about the safety of calcium and high-dose vitamin D are discussed. Bisphosphonates have substantial postmarketing experience and a clearer picture of safety issues is emerging. Along with the well recognized effects on the gastrointestinal tract and kidney function, recently described adverse effects such as osteonecrosis of the jaw, oesophageal cancer, atrial fibrillation, subtrochanteric femur fractures and ocular complications of bisphosphonate therapy are discussed. Therapy with PTH is limited to two years' duration because of the development of osteogenic sarcomas in animal studies, which appeared related to dose, duration and timing of therapy. Strontium should be used with caution in patients with renal impairment and its use has been associated with venous thromboembolism. The role of HRT and SERMs in the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis is restricted as a result of an increased risk of stroke, venous thromboembolism and breast cancer. Postmarketing experience with denusomab is limited but a number of potential safety concerns including osteonecrosis of the jaw are emerging. All of these drugs have been proven to reduce fractures. The decision to use a drug to reduce fracture risk should be based on risk-benefit analysis of the drug and its suitability for individual patients.

Puerarin stimulates proliferation and differentiation and protects against cell death in human osteoblastic MG-63 cells via ER-dependent MEK/ERK and PI3K/Akt activation

Puerarin, the main isoflavone glycoside found in the Chinese herb radix of Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi, has received increasing attention because of its possible role in the prevention of osteoporosis. Previously, we showed that puerarin could inhibit the bone absorption of osteoclasts and promote long bone growth in fetal mouse in vitro. Further study confirmed that puerarin stimulated proliferation and differentiation of osteoblasts in rat. However, the mechanisms underlying its actions on human bone cells have not been well defined. Here we show that puerarin increases proliferation and differentiation and opposes cisplatin-induced apoptosis in human osteoblastic MG-63 cells containing two estrogen receptor (ER) isoforms. Puerarin promotes proliferation by altering cell cycle distribution whereas puerarin-mediated survival may be associated with up-regulation of Bcl-xL expression. Treatment with the ER antagonist ICI 182,780 abolishes the above actions of puerarin on osteoblast-derived cells. Using small interfering double-stranded RNA technology, we further demonstrate that the effects of puerarin on proliferation, differentiation and survival are mediated by both ERα and ERβ. Moreover, we also demonstrate that puerarin functions at least partially through activation of MEK/ERK and PI3K/Akt signaling. This agent also shows much weaker effect on breast epithelial cell growth than that of estrogen. Therefore, puerarin will be a promising agent that prevents or retards osteoporosis.

Cyclic variations of bone resorption mediators and markers in the different phases of the menstrual cycle

Female hormones are very important in regulating bone homeostasis; the drop of estrogen levels occurring at menopause is linked to a dramatic prevalence of bone resorption on formation. Only a small number of studies investigated the relationship between changes in circulating female sex hormones and the markers and mediators of bone homeostasis and they showed conflicting results. To explore such relationships we studied 20 young fertile healthy women, aged between 19 and 32 years. None had received hormone treatment for at least 6 months. We assayed luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, progesterone and 17β-estradiol, as well as the levels of osteoprotegerin (OPG), C-terminal telopeptide of collagen type I (CTx) and RANKL (receptor activator of nuclear factor-B ligand) in samples drawn from every subject at four different times during the menstrual cycle when estrogens are lowest, at the start of the cycle: T 0 (2-4th day); when estrogens are highest, in the pre-ovulatory period: T 14 (12-14th day); when progesterone activity is highest, in the advanced luteal phase: T 26 (24-26th day); and again at the start of the next cycle: T 01 (2-4th day). We observed that CTx levels are highest at the start of the cycle, decreased significantly from T 0 to T 26 (pfwe = 0.0455) and then increased from T 26 to T 01 (pfwe = 0.0415); OPG, on the other hand, which was also highest at the start of the cycle, decreased significantly from T 0 to T 14 (pfwe = 0.02) and then increased, though not significantly, from T 14 to T 01; no variation was observed in RANKL values at any time. We observed inverse correlations between estradiol and OPG levels, which became highly significant at T 01 between estradiol nadir and OPG peak levels (pfw = 0.0095). Furthermore, the increase of estradiol from T 0 to T 14 was negatively correlated with the concomitant decrease of OPG (pfwe = 0.0277), as was the fall of estradiol from T 26 to T 01 with the OPG peak levels, both at T 01 (pfw = 0.0045) and at T 0 (pfwe = 0.0381). We also observed direct correlations between the OPG levels and the variations of progesterone in the preceding intervals, but they never attained statistical significance. We conclude that OPG and CTx fluctuation during the menstrual cycle are likely due to the physiological variations of sex steroids levels.

Estrogen facilitates osteoblast differentiation by upregulating bone morphogenetic protein-4 signaling

Imbalanced functions of osteoclasts and osteoblasts are involved in various types of bone damage including postmenopausal osteoporosis. In the present study, we investigated the cellular mechanism by which estrogen interacts in the process of osteoblastic differentiation regulated by BMP-4 using mouse MC3T3-E1 cells that express estrogen receptors (ER) and BMP-4. Estradiol enhanced BMP-4-induced Runx2, osterix, ALP and osteocalcin expression in MC3T3-E1 cells. BMP-4-induced mineralization shown by Alizarin red staining was also facilitated by estrogen treatment. It was revealed that estrogen upregulated BMP-4-induced Smad1/5/8 phosphorylation, BRE-Luc activity and Id-1 mRNA expression. The expression of BMPRII was increased by estrogen in MC3T3-E1 cells, and inhibition of BMPRII or ALK-2/3 signaling impaired the effect of estrogen on BMP-4 signaling. Of note, the enhanced expression of osterix, ALP and osteocalcin mRNAs induced by BMP-4 and estrogen was reversed in the presence of an ER antagonist. Given that membrane-impermeable estrogen also upregulated BMP-4-induced expression of osteoblastic markers and Id-1 mRNA, non-genomic ER activity is involved in the mechanism by which estrogen enhances BMP-4-induced osteoblast differentiation in MC3T3-E1 cells. On the other hand, the expression of ERα and endogenous BMP-4 was suppressed by BMP-4 treatment regardless of the presence of estrogen, implying the presence of a negative feedback loop for osteoblast differentiation. Thus, estrogen is functionally involved in the process of osteoblast differentiation regulated by BMP-4 through upregulating BMP sensitivity of MC3T3-E1 cells.

Disruption of claudin-18 diminishes ovariectomy-induced bone loss in mice

Claudin-18 (Cldn-18), a member of the tight junction family of proteins, is a negative regulator of RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption (BR) in vivo. Since estrogen deficiency decreases bone mass in part by a RANKL-mediated increase in BR, we evaluated whether estrogen regulates Cldn-18 expression in bone. We found that Cldn-18 expression was reduced in the bones of estrogen deficient mice, whereas it was increased by estrogen treatment in osteoblasts and osteoclasts in vitro. We next evaluated the role of Cldn-18 in mediating estrogen-induced bone loss. Cldn-18 knockout (KO) and littermate wild-type (WT) mice were ovariectomized (OVX) or sham operated at 6 wk of age, and the skeletal phenotype was evaluated at 14 wk of age. PIXImus revealed that total body, femur, and lumbar BMD were reduced 8-13% (P < 0.05) after 8 wk of OVX compared with sham in WT mice. As expected, total body, femur, and lumbar BMD were reduced 14-21% (P < 0.05) in Cldn-18 KO sham mice compared with sham WT mice. However, ovariectomy failed to induce significant changes in BMD of total body, femur, or vertebra in the Cldn-18 KO mice. μCT analysis of the distal femur revealed that trabecular (Tb) bone volume was decreased 50% in the OVX WT mice compared with sham that was caused by a 26% decrease in Tb number and a 30% increase in Tb separation (all P < 0.05). By contrast, none of the Tb parameters were significantly different in OVX Cldn-18 KO mice compared with sham KO mice. Histomorphometric analyses at the Tb site revealed that neither osteoclast surface nor osteoclast perimeter was increased significantly as a consequence of OVX in either genotype at the time point examined. Based on our findings, we conclude that the estrogen effects on osteoclasts may in part be mediated via regulation of Cldn-18 signaling.

IL-1α and IL-1β levels in blood serum and saliva of menopausal women

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to examine the level of IL-1α and IL-1β in serum and saliva of postmenopausal women.

DESIGN

The study was designed to verify the possibility of using the salivary concentration of interleukin 1 as a marker in the diagnosis of osteoporosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study involved a group of 60 women during menopause-30 untreated and 30 treated with hormone replacement therapy. Patients were examined and anamnesis questionnaire was filled. Blood and saliva samples were collected. Densitometry was conducted on the femoral bone in order to compare the bone mineral density (BMD) of different research groups.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences in the concentrations of interleukins in the various research groups. The results of densitometric analysis showed a positive impact of hormone replacement therapy on the BMD (0.91-0.92 g/cm2) compared with the density in the group not treated with hormone therapy (0.77-0.8 g/cm2). There was no relationship between concentration of interleukins and the level of BMD. CONCLUSIONS. Further research on the level of cytokines in serum and saliva conducted on a broader group of patients is required. Determination of markers of bone turnover can be useful in the assessment of the treatment of metabolic bone changes.

Divergent responsiveness of the dentary and vertebral bone to a selective estrogen-receptor modulator (SERM) in the teleost Sparus auratus

In teleosts the regulation of skeletal homeostasis and turnover by estrogen is poorly understood. For this reason raloxifene, a selective estrogen-receptor modulator (SERM), was administered to sea bream (Sparus auratus) and its effect on plasma calcium balance and transcript expression in dentary (dermal bone) and vertebra (perichondral bone) was studied. The concentration of total calcium or phosphorus in plasma was unchanged by raloxifene treatment for 6days. The activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) in dentary bone of raloxifene treated fish was significantly (p<0.05) higher than control fish but it was not changed in vertebral bone. Transcripts for estrogen receptor (ER) α were in very low abundance in the sea bream dentary and vertebra and were unchanged by raloxifene treatment. In contrast, raloxifene caused significant (p<0.05) up-regulation of the duplicate ERβ transcripts in the dentary but did not affect specific transcripts for osteoclast (TRAP), osteoblast (ALP, Runx2, osteonectin) or cartilage (IGF1, CILP2, FN1a). In the vertebra ERβb was not changed by raloxifene but ERβa was significantly (p<0.05) down-regulated as was the skeletal specific transcripts, TRAP, ALP, CILP2, FN1a. In summary, ERβs regulate estrogen sensitivity of the skeleton in sea bream, which responds in a non uniform manner. In common with mammals raloxifene appears to have an anti-resorptive role (in sea bream vertebra), but also an osteoblast stimulatory role, inducing ALP activity in the dentary of sea bream. Overall, the results indicate bone specific responsiveness to raloxifene in the sea bream. Further work will be required to understand the basis of bone responsiveness and the role of E(2) and ERs in teleost bone homeostasis.

In Vivo Study on the Pharmacological Interactions between a Chinese Herbal Formula ELP and Antiresorptive Drugs to Counteract Osteoporosis

Antiresorptive drugs, alendronate and raloxifene, are effective in lowering bone mineral density (BMD) loss in postmenopausal women. However, long-term treatment may be associated with serious side effects. Our research group has recently discovered that a Chinese herbal formula, ELP, could significantly reduce BMD loss in animal and human studies. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the potential synergistic bone-protective effects of different herb-drug combinations using ovariectomized rats. To assess the efficacy of different combinations, the total BMD was monitored biweekly in the 8-week course of daily oral treatment. Bone microarchitecture, bone strength, and deoxypyridinoline level were also determined after 8 weeks. From our results, coadministration of ELP and raloxifene increased the total tibial BMD by 5.26% (2.5 mg/kg/day of raloxifene; P = 0.014) and 5.94% (0.25 mg/kg/day of raloxifene; P = 0.026) when compared with the respective dosage groups with raloxifene alone. Similar synergistic effects were also observed in BMD increase at distal femur (0.25 mg/kg/day; P = 0.001) and reduction in urinary deoxypyridinoline crosslink excretion (2.5 and 0.25 mg/kg/day; both P = 0.02). However, such interactions could not be observed in all alendronate-treated groups. Our data provide first evidence that ELP could synergistically enhance the therapeutic effects of raloxifene, so that the clinical dosage of raloxifene could be reduced.

Characterization of steroid sulfatase in the MC3T3-E1 mouse pre-osteoblastic cell line

Regulation of bone density is partly dependent upon steroid hormones, with estrogens playing an important role. Inactive conjugated estrogens may serve as precursors to active estrogens, especially in post-menopausal women, via steroid sulfatase, which converts conjugated estrogens into unconjugated estrogens. The purpose of this study was to characterize steroid sulfatase in the MC3T3-E1 mouse pre-osteoblastic cell line. Enzyme conversion assays were performed on whole MC3T3-E1 cells in culture and on microsomes prepared by differential centrifugation. (3)H-E(1)S and (3)H-DHEAS were used as tracers, and radioinert E(1)S and DHEAS were used as substrate. Whole cells and microsomes exhibited steroid sulfatase activity, which was blocked by the specific inhibitor estrone-3-O-sulfamate (EMATE). The K(m) of steroid sulfatase in microsomes averaged 83 μM when using E(1)S as substrate and 64 μM when using DHEAS. Western blotting of MC3T3-E1 microsomes for steroid sulfatase was performed, after SDS-PAGE, using an antibody generated against a peptide based on a conserved region of steroid sulfatase. Western blotting revealed three bands of cross-reactivity, ranging from 50 to 79 kDa. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), using specific primers, resulted in a single cDNA band of the expected size (100 bp) and sequence, indicating the presence of steroid sulfatase mRNA. Growth assays revealed that the MC3T3-E1 cells were stimulated by estradiol-17β, and also by estrone sulfate and DHEAS, revealing that the cells can use steroid sulfatase to produce active estrogens. Furthermore, growth of these cells in the presence of estradiol, estrone and estrone sulfate was inhibited by the estrogen receptor blocker ICI 182,780, indicating that stimulation of cell growth is mediated by the estrogen receptor. In our studies, four lines of evidence (enzyme activity, immunoassay, RT-PCR and growth assays) demonstrated the presence of steroid sulfatase in mouse MC3T3-E1 bone cells. The existence of steroid sulfatase in these pre-osteoblastic cells, along with the ability of sulfated steroids to promote their growth, suggest the possibility that this enzyme is involved in regulation of bone density in mice.

Osteoporosis related to disease or therapy in patients with cancer

Osteoporosis is a major public health issue in the general population, particularly in postmenopausal women. Patients with cancer may not only be at risk for primary osteoporosis, but for secondary osteoporosis related to cancer therapies-particularly therapies that impair gonadal function, lead to loss of serum estrogen, and negatively affect bone turnover. Normal bone remodeling is influenced by the receptor activator for nuclear kappa-B ligand pathway, calcium, vitamin D, and other nutrition factors, as well as modifiable and nonmodifiable factors. Identifying which patients with cancer are at risk for bone mineral density loss is important and may include patients with breast or prostate cancer, some survivors of pediatric malignancies, and adults with other tumors. Nurses play a major role in identifying those patients and their risk for low-impact fractures, which can have a significant effect on patient morbidity and mortality. Counseling and teaching are central nursing functions, as well as safely administering therapies, particularly bisphosphonates and denosumab.