Mastic Oil from Pistacia lentiscus var. chia Inhibits Growth and Survival of Human K562 Leukemia Cells and Attenuates Angiogenesis

Molecular pharmacology and therapeutic advances of monoterpene perillyl alcohol

BACKGROUND

Perillyl alcohol (POH) is a aroma monoterpene commonly obtained from various plants' essential oil. Recently, increasing researches have demonstrated that POH may be useful, not only as flavor compound, but also as bioactive molecule because of a variety of biological activities.

PURPOSE

The aim of this review is to summarize the production, pharmacological activities and molecular mechanism, active derivatives, toxicity and parmacokinetics, and industrial application of POH.

METHODS

A systematic search of published articles up to January 2024 in Web of Science, China Knowledge Network, and PubMed databases is conducted using the following keywords: POH, POH derivatives, biological or pharmacological, production or synthesis, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and application.

RESULTS

Biotechnological production is considered to be a potential alternative approach to generate POH. POH provides diverse pharmacological benefits, including anticancer, antimicrobial, insecticidal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypotensive, vasorelaxant, antinociceptive, antiasthmatic, hepatoprotective effects, etc. The underlying mechanisms of action include modulation of NF-κB, JNK/c-Jun, Notch, Akt/mTOR, PI3K/Akt/eNOS, STAT3, Nrf2 and ERS response pathways, mitigation of mitochondrial dysfunction and membrane integrity damage, and inhibition of ROS accumulation, pro-inflammatory cytokines release and NLRP3 activation. What's more, the proteins or genes influenced by POH against diseases refer to Bax, Bcl-2, cyclin D1, CDK, p21, p53, HIF-1α, AP-1, caspase-3, M6P/IGF2R, PARP, VEGF, etc. Some clinical studies report that intranasal delivery of POH is a safe and effective treatment for cancer, but further clinical investigations are needed to confirm other health benefits of POH in human healthy. Depending on these health-promoting properties together with desirable flavor and safety, POH can be employed as dietary supplement, preservative and flavor additive in food and cosmetic fields, as building block in synthesis fields, as anticancer drug in medicinal fields, and as pesticides and herbicides in agricultural fields.

CONCLUSION

This review systematically summarizes the recent advances in POH and highlights its therapeutic effects and potential mechanisms as well as the clinical settings, which is helpful to develop POH into functional food and new candidate drug for prevention and management of diseases. Future studies are needed to conduct more biological activity studies of POH and its derivatives, and check their clinical efficacy and potential side effects.

Synergistic anticancer effect of Pistacia lentiscus essential oils and 5-Fluorouracil co-loaded onto biodegradable nanofibers against melanoma and breast cancer

Chemoresistance and severe toxicities represent major drawbacks of chemotherapy. Natural extracts, including the essential oils of Pistacia lentiscus (PLEO), exhibit substantial anticancer and anti-inflammatory activities where different cancers are reported to dramatically recess following targeting with PLEO. PLEO has promising antimicrobial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties. However, the therapeutic properties of PLEO are restricted by limited stability, bioavailability, and targeting ability. PLEO nanoformulation can maximize their physicochemical and therapeutic properties, overcoming their shortcomings. Hence, PLEO was extracted and its chemical composition was determined by GC-MS. PLEO and 5-Fluorouracil (5FU) were electrospun into poly-ε-caprolactone nanofibers (PCL-NFs), of 290.71 nm to 680.95 nm diameter, to investigate their anticancer and potential synergistic activities against triple-negative breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231), human adenocarcinoma breast cancer cells (MCF-7), and human skin melanoma cell line (A375). The prepared nanofibers (NFs) showed enhanced thermal stability and remarkable physical integrity and tensile strength. Biodegradability studies showed prolonged stability over 42 days, supporting the NFs use as a localized therapy of breast tissues (postmastectomy) or melanoma. Release studies revealed sustainable release behaviors over 168 h, with higher released amounts of 5FU and PLEO at pH 5.4, indicating higher targeting abilities towards cancer tissues. NFs loaded with PLEO showed strong antioxidant properties. Finally, NFs loaded with either PLEO or 5FU depicted greater anticancer activities compared to free compounds. The highest anticancer activities were observed with NFs co-loaded with PLEO and 5FU. The developed 5FU-PLEO-PCL-NFs hold potential as a local treatment of breast cancer tissues (post-mastectomy) and melanoma to minimize their  possible recurrence.

Biodiesel production from Mastic oil via electrolytic transesterification: optimization using response surface methodology and engine test

This study aimed to synthesize the biodiesel from Mastic oil by electrolysis method. Mastic gum is a potential and inexpensive feedstock for the biodiesel production. The oil content of Mastic gum was ~ 20% of the total gum weight. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis was exploited to measure the oil's fatty acid profile. The response surface methodology (RSM) via Box-Behnken design (BBD) was utilized to specify the best processing condition of the electrolytic transesterification process. According to the RSM-BBD results, the highest predicted biodiesel yield was 95% at the reaction time of 1 h, methanol to oil ratio of 4:1, and catalyst weight of 1.2 wt%. Under these conditions, the produced Mastic oil biodiesel was blended with the neat diesel at different volume ratios of 5:95 (B5), 10:90 (B10), and 15:85 (B15). These fuel mixtures were tested in a single-cylinder engine to assess engine performance and exhaust emissions. The experiments exhibited that blending biodiesel with diesel can slightly improve the engine performance. Moreover, the application of blends with high volumes of biodiesel decreased the exhaust emissions, such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) by 54.54%, 41%, and 39.3%, respectively. However, the nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission increased because of the higher oxygen content of the biodiesel. It was also found that the physical and chemical characteristics of the Mastic oil biodiesel are the same as diesel, consistent with the ASTM standard. The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis also confirmed the biodiesel production.

Mastic (Pistacia lentiscus) gum and oral health: a state-of-the-art review of the literature

The aim of this state-of-the-art review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the various therapeutic effects of Mastic (Pistacia lentiscus) gum on oral health. The search of the literature was conducted across thirteen databases for relevant publications published through May 2022 in English, Arabic, or Greek using a combination of keywords and phrases. Out of 246 papers, the search procedure identified 14 papers for inclusion. Mastic gum displayed antibacterial and antimicrobial properties and inhibited plaque accumulation, constituting a beneficial adjuvant in caries prevention. In the treatment and prevention of periodontal diseases, Pistacia lentiscus essential oil provided effective antibacterial activity against a variety of periodontal bacteria as well as anti-inflammatory properties. For oral cancer, several clinical trials revealed interesting results against cell proliferation, induction of apoptosis, and regulation of intracellular signaling pathways. This indicates the potential of Mastic gum to serve as a preventive and therapeutic agent for oral mucosa inflammation and oral cancer. No notable toxic or side effects were reported in the clinical trials reviewed. This review highlights the various beneficial effects of Mastic gum in the prevention and potential treatment of oral diseases. Further research targeting Pistacia lentiscus products is required in order to validate and utilize these products to prevent and to treat oral health diseases.

Heat and Cold-Stressed Individuals of Pistacia lentiscus (Mastic Tree) Do Modify Their Secreting Profile

Seedlings from the germinated seeds of Pistacia lentiscus were cultured in plant growth chambers for three months. Then, the plants were separated into three groups. Each group was cultured under different conditions. The first group was left to grow under normal Mediterranean conditions, as those recorded in spring. The other group was subjected to a ten-day heat stress while the last one also suffered a cold stress for ten days. The anatomical features of the leaves (leaf thickness, epidermal cell thickness, number of palisade layers, and development) between these three groups differed. The stressed plants accumulated large amounts of phenolics within their mesophyll cells. The biomass of the cold-stressed plants was minor, while it was high for the control plants. The oxidative stress was hardly detectable in the leaves of the control plants, while their heat-stressed counterparts suffered the highest concentration of reactive oxygen species. Differences concerning the absorption spectra of the three groups of leaves were not significant. An interesting incompatibility between the three groups concerned the expression of L-Dopa Decarboxylase, which climbed significantly in the heat-stressed plants. Finally, an interesting variation was observed concerning the concentrations of some biogenic amines/amino acids. This variation can be correlated to the other stress-induced reactions of the plants and, in some cases, was impressive. In conclusion, environmental stress can shift Pistacia lentiscus' metabolism to synthesize different biogenic products, which can be considered as exploitable for the pharmaceutical or food industry.

Cytoprotective, antioxidant, and anti-migratory activity of Pistacia lentiscus L. supercritical carbon dioxide extract on primary human endothelial cells

Green chemistry is a useful tool for producing valuable chemicals from biomass. However, extracted compounds need to be tested for safety and efficacy before their use in humans. Here we investigate the chemical composition and biological effects of a leaves Pistacia lentiscus L. supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO₂) extract. Terpenes represented the main extract fraction, with Germacrene D (11.18%), delta-cadinene (10.54%), and alpha-pinene (8.7%) the most abundant molecules. Challenged with endothelial cells (ECs), increasing extract concentrations failed to affect cell proliferation or promote cell toxicity. ROS assessment in unstressed and H₂O₂-treated ECs revealed an extract dose-dependent antioxidant activity. Exposition of H₂O₂-treated ECs to increasing extract concentrations dose-dependently counteracted H₂O₂-induced cell impairments. The extract significantly counteracted fetal calf serum-induced ECs migration. For the first time, we report that a SCCO₂ extract obtained from PL leaves is safe on ECs and may be a useful source of valuable compounds with vasculoprotective properties.

Apoptotic, Anti-Inflammatory Activities and Interference with the Glucocorticoid Receptor Signaling of Fractions from Pistacia lentiscus L. var. chia Leaves

In this study acetonic extracts of leaves of Pistacia lentiscus L. var. chia (mastiha tree) grown in the south as well as in the north Chios Greek island were isolated and further fractionated to give three different polarity fractions: apolar, medium-polar, and polar. The isolated fractions were assessed as regards their main composition, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory activities, and interference with the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) signaling, applying cytotoxic assay, luciferase assays, and Western blot analysis of apoptosis-, energy-, and inflammation-associated molecules. Differences in cell viability have been detected among different polarity leaf fractions as well as among fractions of different plant origin with polar fractions showing the highest cytotoxicity. Fractions-induced anti-inflammatory activities and suppressive effects on the dexamethasone (DEX)-induced GR transcriptional activation were unveiled. The partition protocol of leaves fractions applied uncovers the enhanced glucocorticoid-associated biological activities of the medium-polar fractions, which may be associated with their enrichment in the triterpenoids that showed structural similarity with the glucocorticoids. A reduction in GR protein levels is observed by the fraction which is shown to be associated with the medium polar-induced proteolytic degradation of the receptor. In addition, the enhanced cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, and potential anti-glycemic activities of the fractions from the Southern P. lentiscus L. that exclusively produce the mastiha resin, is revealed, indicating that leaves fractions from mastiha tree, similarly to mastiha tree resin, may have the potential to be further analyzed for their potent applications in the pharmaceutical cosmetic and nutraceutical fields.

Overview of Chios Mastic Gum (Pistacia lentiscus) Effects on Human Health

Despite the remarkable development of the medical industry in the current era, herbal products with therapeutic potentials arise as attractive alternative treatments. Consequently, Chios mastiha, a natural, aromatic resin obtained from the trunk and brunches of the mastic tree, has recently gained increasing scientific interest due to its multiple beneficial actions. Chios mastiha is being exclusively produced on the southern part of Chios, a Greek island situated in the northern Aegean Sea, and its therapeutic properties have been known since Greek antiquity. There is now substantial evidence to suggest that mastiha demonstrates a plethora of favorable effects, mainly attributed to the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties of its components. The main use of mastiha nowadays, however, is for the production of natural chewing gum, although an approval by the European Medicines Agency for mild dyspeptic disorders and for inflammations of the skin has been given. The aim of this article is to summarize the most important data about the therapeutic actions of Chios mastiha and discuss future fields for its medical application.

Study of Stability, Cytotoxic and Antimicrobial Activity of Chios Mastic Gum Fractions (Neutral, Acidic) after Encapsulation in Liposomes

Mastic gum is a resinous sap produced by Pistacia lentiscus growing in the island of Chios (Greece) and has been recognized since Antiquity for its distinctive aroma as well as medical properties (antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory ones). The oral absorption of Chios Mastic gum (an insoluble polymer of poly-β-myrcene is among the most abundant contents) is poor due to its low water-solubility. We report in this study, two different Chios mastic gum extracts, the acidic mastic gum extract—AMGE—and the neutral one—NMGE, both prepared after removal of the contained polymer in order to ameliorate solubility and enhance in vivo activity. Liposomes are presented as a promising delivery system due to their physicochemical and biophysical properties to increase stability and absorption efficiency of the mastic gum extracts within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The aim of this study was to evaluate the stability in GI simulated conditions together with cytotoxic and antimicrobial activity of the two extracts (AMGE and NMGE) after encapsulation in a well characterized liposome formulation. Liposomes-AMGE complex showed an improved stability behavior in GI simulated conditions. Both assayed extracts showed significant dose dependent inhibition against the growth of liver cancer HepG2 cells and an interesting antimicrobial activity against several microorganisms. Conclusively, encapsulation could be evaluated as a beneficial procedure for further applications of mastic resin.

Chemical Profiling of Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia Resin and Essential Oil: Ageing Markers and Antimicrobial Activity

Chios Mastic Gum (CMG) and Chios Mastic Oil (CMO) are two unique products of the tree Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia, cultivated exclusively on the Greek island of Chios. In the present study, the method proposed by the European Pharmacopoeia for mastic identification was employed using HPTLC together with an in-house method. A GC-MS methodology was also developed for the chemical characterization of CMOs. α-Pinene and β-myrcene were found in abundance in the fresh oils; however, in the oil of the aged collection, oxygenated monoterpenes and benzenoids such as verbenone, pinocarveol, and α-campholenal were found at the highest rates. Additionally, the antimicrobial activity of Chios Mastic Gums (CMGs) with their respective Chios Mastic Oils (CMOs) was evaluated, with growth tests against the fungi Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans, Mucor circinelloides, and Rhizopus oryzae, and the bacteria Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bacillus subtilis, with the samples exhibiting a moderate activity. To our knowledge, this is the first time that an HPTLC method is proposed for the analysis of mastic and its essential oil and that a standardized methodology is followed for the distillation of CMO with a parallel assessment of the ageing effect on the oil’s composition.

Structure and organization of the secretion apparatus of the mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus L.) and LC-HRMS analysis of leaf extracts

The quantitative profile of the biochemicals secreted by summer and winter leaves, present noticeable differences and appear to be qualitatively different from the biochemical profile of the commercially valuable mastic. The anatomy of the root and the primary and secondary shoot as well as that of the summer and winter leaves of P. lentiscus was thoroughly investigated. The secreting network was tracked throughout the plant axis, from the root to the leaves, and the active secreting cells of the duct epithelium were localized, while the secondary metabolites produced within the cells of the summer and winter leaf tissues were identified histochemically. Numerous phytochemicals were identified in the leaf extracts with UHPLC-qTOF MS analysis. The analyzed extracts from summer and winter leaves displayed similar qualitative profile, although quantitative differences were evident, since, during the summer, the leaves tend to synthesize the more complex amongst the identified compounds. The phytochemical profile of the leaf extracts turns to be completely different compared to that of the valuable mastic harvested from the injured trunks. Many of the compounds common in mastic were not detected in the analyzed leaves samples. The numerous secreting ducts either fail to form a unified network, so composition of the secreted material varies in the different organs of the plant or they compose a continuous network, but the biochemical profile of the secreted material differs along the plant axis. Such a detailed investigation of the secretion network of the mastic tree may assist the improvement of the yield and promote the production of valuable phytochemicals through in vitro cultures.

Antioxidant and Cytoprotective Potential of the Essential Oil Pistacia lentiscus var. chia and Its Major Components Myrcene and α-Pinene

The antioxidant, cytoprotective, and wound-healing potential of the essential oil from the resin of Pistacia lentiscus var. chia (mastic oil) was evaluated, along with that of its major components, myrcene and α-pinene. Antioxidant potential was monitored as: (i) direct antioxidant activity as assessed by 2,2-di-phenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), and ABTS assays; (ii) DNA damage protection activity; and (iii) cytoprotective activity as assessed via induction of transcription of genes related to the antioxidant response in human keratinocyte cells (HaCaT). The cytoprotective potential of the test substances was further evaluated against ultraviolet radiation B (UVB)- or H₂O₂-induced oxidative damage, whereas their regenerative capability was accessed by monitoring the wound closure rate in HaCaT. Μastic oil and major components did not show significant direct antioxidant activity, however they increased the mRNA levels of antioxidant response genes, suggesting indirect antioxidant activity. Treatment of HaCaT with the test substances before and after UVB irradiation resulted in increased cell viability in the cases of pre-treatment with mastic oil or post-treatment with myrcene. Increased cytoprotection was also observed in the case of cell treatment with mastic oil or its major components prior to H₂O₂ exposure. Finally, mastic oil and myrcene demonstrated a favorable dose-dependent effect for cell migration and wound closure. Collectively, mastic essential oil may exert its promising cytoprotective properties through indirect antioxidant mechanisms.

Phytochemical Characterization and Effects on Cell Proliferation of Lentisk (Pistacia lentiscus) Berry Oil: a Revalued Source of Phenolics

The ethno-pharmaceutical use of the edible fixed oil produced from lentisk (Pistacia lentiscus) berries covers a long tradition in several Mediterranean regions. Many of the health-promoting properties of lentisk berry oil (LBO) have been associated with the content of polar (poly)phenolic compounds. However, the polar fraction (methanol 80%, v/v) of LBO (LBO-pf) remains poorly and inadequately characterized. We assessed the phytochemical composition (fatty acids, phytosterols and polyphenols) of cold-pressed LBO produced in Cilento (Campania region, Italy) over four years of production (2015-2018). Main phenolic compounds present in LBO-pf were identified and semi-quantified combining ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS) and HPLC with diode array detection. Phenolic compounds, also responsible for oil stability and antioxidant properties, are relatively abundant in LBO, compared to other edible oils. LBO-pf induced clear dose-dependent effects on the growth of HT-29 cell line derived from human colorectal adenocarcinoma, as evidenced by the cell cycle arrest. Our data support the health-promoting properties of cold-pressed LBO, which is obtained with good yield from spontaneous plants growing in semiarid regions.

Essential Oils and Their Main Chemical Components: The Past 20 Years of Preclinical Studies in Melanoma

Simple Summary

In the last years, targeted therapy and immunotherapy modified the landscape for metastatic melanoma treatment. These therapeutic approaches led to an impressive improvement in patients overall survival. Unfortunately, the emergence of drug resistance and side effects occurring during therapy strongly limit the long-term efficacy of such treatments. Several preclinical studies demonstrate the efficacy of essential oils as antitumoral agents, and clinical trials support their use to reduce side effects emerging during therapy. In this review we have summarized studies describing the molecular mechanism through which essential oils induce in vitro and in vivo cell death in melanoma models. We also pointed to clinical trials investigating the use of essential oils in reducing the side effects experienced by cancer patients or those undergoing anticancer therapy. From this review emerged that further studies are necessary to validate the effectiveness of essential oils for the management of melanoma.

Abstract

The last two decades have seen the development of effective therapies, which have saved the lives of a large number of melanoma patients. However, therapeutic options are still limited for patients without BRAF mutations or in relapse from current treatments, and severe side effects often occur during therapy. Thus, additional insights to improve treatment efficacy with the aim to decrease the likelihood of chemoresistance, as well as reducing side effects of current therapies, are required. Natural products offer great opportunities for the discovery of antineoplastic drugs, and still represent a useful source of novel molecules. Among them, essential oils, representing the volatile fraction of aromatic plants, are always being actively investigated by several research groups and show promising biological activities for their use as complementary or alternative medicine for several diseases, including cancer. In this review, we focused on studies reporting the mechanism through which essential oils exert antitumor action in preclinical wild type or mutant BRAF melanoma models. We also discussed the latest use of essential oils in improving cancer patients’ quality of life. As evidenced by the many studies listed in this review, through their effect on apoptosis and tumor progression-associated properties, essential oils can therefore be considered as potential natural pharmaceutical resources for cancer management.

Identification of an antiviral compound isolated from Pistacia lentiscus

This study screened mastic gum (Pistacia lentiscus L.) for antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), coxsackievirus type B3, and adenovirus type 5. The organs of this plant (leaves, stem, and seed) were macerated sequentially using solvents of increasing polarity (hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and methanol). Only the methanol extract of stem exhibited significant activity against HSV-2. This extract showed anti-HSV-2 activity with a selectivity index of 51 (50% cytotoxic concentration = 186 µg/mL; 50% inhibitory concentration = 3.63 µg/mL), and demonstrated direct inhibition against this virus with a virucidal selectivity index of 620 (50% virucidal concentration = 0.30 µg/mL). A bio-guided assay involving thin-layer chromatography led to the isolation of two active compounds, which have been identified as dammaradienone and dammaradienol using high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. P. lentiscus has been widely studied for other biological activities. However, to our knowledge, this is the first report of P. lentiscus L. exhibiting antiviral activity.

Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Chios mastic gum (Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia, Anacardiaceae): A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Chios mastic gum constitutes a unique Greek product, produced exclusively in the southern part of the island of Chios. References about its use from local populations for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders or as a cosmetic agent can even be encountered in ancient texts of Galen, Theophrastus and Dioscorides. Nowadays, this versatile resin has been rediscovered, not only as a traditional remedy and aromatic agent, but as a potent phytotherapeutic product with various biological properties.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to quote the summation of the ethnopharmacology, phytochemical profile and pharmacological properties of the resin of Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia and thus provide the scientific community with a summary of the research conducted so far. Furthermore, perspectives and uses are being discussed and studied so as to broaden the field of its applications.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A comprehensive review of the literature on Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia was performed using as resources scientific databases such as Scopus, Sciencedirect, Pubmed and Web of science, studies and traditional books provided by the Chios Mastiha Growers Association as well as PhD and Master' s theses.

RESULTS

Chios mastic gum has been used as a traditional medicine over the last 2500 years. More than 120 chemical compounds have been identified in the resin and the major components are a natural polymer, acidic and neutral triterpenes and volatile secondary metabolites. Several plant extracts and compounds have been studied for their antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-ulcer, anti-diabetic, cardioprotective and anti-cancer properties in vitro and in vivo. Clinical interventions and trials have also showed the therapeutic potential of Chios mastic gum. In 2015 Pistacia lentiscus L., resin (mastic) was recognized as a herbal medicinal product with traditional use by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) with two therapeutic indications (mild dyspeptic disorders & skin inflammation/healing of minor wounds). Over the last years, Chios mastic gum is widely involved in medicinal products, food supplements and cosmetics and has become object of study, also in the field of Pharmacotechnology.

CONCLUSIONS

Chios mastic's beneficial properties have been demonstrated in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, wound healing, skin inflammations, plasma lipid and blood sugar reduction and oral care. These properties are attributed to triterpenes and volatile compounds. However, because of the resin's chemical complexity and the lack of commercial standards for its main compounds, there is a notable gap in literature concerning the biological evaluation of CMG's isolated components. Therefore, future research should focus on the development of efficient extraction, isolation and analysis techniques in order to unravel CMG's full pharmacological potential.

Effects of the Essential Oil from Pistacia lentiscus Var. chia on the Lateral Line System and the Gene Expression Profile of Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Mastic essential oil exhibits anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidant properties. With the growing interest of the use of mastic oil in the food and pharmaceutical industry, systematic in vivo studies are needed to address controlled usage and safety issues. In the present work we evaluated the safety of mastic oil using as a model the zebrafish lateral line system. In addition, we studied the gene expression profile of zebrafish fed with mastic oil-supplemented diet using microarray analysis. Our results showed that the hair cells of lateral line neuromasts are functional upon exposure of zebrafish larvae up to 20 ppm of mastic essential oil, while treatment with higher concentrations, 100 and 200 ppm, resulted in increased larvae mortality. Dietary supplementation of zebrafish with mastic essential oil led to differential expression of interferon response-related genes as well as the immune responsive gene 1 (irg1) that links cellular metabolism with immune defense. Notably, mucin 5.2, a constituent of the mucus hydrogel that protects the host against invading pathogens, was up-regulated. Our in vivo work provides information concerning the safety of mastic essential oil use and suggests dietary effects on gene expression related with the physical and immunochemical properties of the gastrointestinal system.

Anticancer Activity of Essential Oils and Other Extracts from Aromatic Plants Grown in Greece

Aromatic plants have a long and significant history in the traditional medicine of many countries. Nowadays, there is an increasing interest in investigating the biological properties of aromatic plant extracts mainly due to their diversity, high availability, and low toxicity. Greece is abundant in aromatic plants, which can be attributed to the country’s geographical position, the morphology of its landscape, and its numerous mountainous and insular areas. In the past 15 years, a number of aromatic plant extracts of Greek origin have been studied for their bioactivities, including their antiproliferative potential against different types of cancer. Although the pharmacological activities of specific species of Greek origin have been reviewed before, no gathered information on explicitly Greek species exist. In this review, we summarize existing data on the antiproliferative activity of extracts isolated from Greek aromatic plants and discuss their molecular mode(s) of action, where available, in order to identify promising extracts for future research and link chemical constituents responsible for their activity. We conclude that essentials oils are the most frequently studied plant extracts exhibiting high diversity in their composition and anticancer potential, but also other extracts appear to be worthy of further investigation for cancer chemoprevention.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of the genotoxic and antigenotoxic potential of the major Chios mastic water constituents

Chios mastic products are well-known for their broad applications in food industry, cosmetics, and healthcare since the antiquity. Given our recent finding that Chios mastic water (CMW) exerts antigenotoxic action, in the present study, we evaluated the genotoxic as well as the antigenotoxic potential of the four major compounds of CMW, namely, verbenone, α-terpineol, linalool, and trans-pinocarveol. The cytokinesis block micronucleus (CBMN) assay in cultured human lymphocytes and the Drosophila Somatic Mutation And Recombination Test (SMART), also known as the wing spot test, were employed. None of the four major CMW's constituents or their mixtures showed genotoxic or recombinogenic activity in either of the assays used. Co-treatment of each of the constituents with MMC revealed that all except trans-pinocarveol exerted antigenotoxic potential. Moreover, co-administration of verbenone with linalool or α-terpineol presented statistically significant reduction of MMC-induced mutagenicity. In conclusion, the major CMW constituents were shown to be free of genotoxic effects, while some exerted antigenotoxic activity either alone or in combinations, suggesting synergistic phenomena. Our results provide evidence on the key antigenotoxicity effectors of the plant extract CMW.

Phytochemical analysis and antioxidant and anticancer activities of mastic gum resin from Pistacia atlantica subspecies kurdica

BACKGROUND

The mastic gum resin has been used in traditional Kurdish medicine for treating various disorders such as topical wound and gastric ulcer. The study designed to evaluate the total polyphenol and flavonoid content, free radical scavenging activity, and anticancer effects of mastic gum resin derived from Pistacia atlantica subspecies kurdica.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Folin -Ciocalteau and the aluminum chloride colorimetric assays were used to determine the total phenol and flavonoid contents in the mastic gum resin respectively. Whereas, DPPH and ABTS+ assays were used to determine the antioxidant activities of mastic gum resin. Regarding anticancer activities, the MTT assay was used to study the effect of mastic gum resin on the proliferation of various cancer cells and the morphological changes were identified after Acridine Orange/Propidium Iodide staining. Flow cytometry was applied to determine the influence of mastic gum resin on the apoptosis rate by Annexin V double staining and to investigate the influence on cell cycle progression. Caspase colorimetric assay was used to estimate the hallmark enzyme of apoptosis, and finally RNA were obtained from COLO205 cells and analyzed by qRT-PCR analyses.

RESULTS

The MTT results showed that the mastic gum resin at concentrations from 0.01 to 100 μM induced death of cancer cells in a dose and time-dependent manner. The mastic gum resin suppressed proliferation of human cancer cells with 72 h IC50 value of 15.34 ± 0.21, 11.52 ± 0.18, 8.11 ± 0.23 and 5.2 ± 0.8 μg/mL for bile duct cancer (cholangiocarcinoma) (KMBC), pancreatic carcinoma (PANC-1), gastric adenocarcinoma (CRL-1739), and colonic adenocarcinoma (COLO205) cells, respectively. Normal human colon fibroblast (CCD-18Co) cells were not adversely affected by resin treatment. Flow cytometry showed that the mastic gum resin significantly (P<0.05) arrested COLO205 cell proliferation at the G2/M phase of cell cycle. The resin caused apoptotic morphological changes in COLO205 cells. The apoptotic effect to mastic gum resin was via the mitochondrial as shown by the up-regulation of Bax, down-regulation of Bcl-2 genes, and activation of caspase-9 and -3 activities.

CONCLUSION

It was confirmed that the antiproliferative efficacy of the resin is positively correlated with its polyphenolic contents, suggesting a causal link related to exudate content of phenolic acid and flavonoids. The results revealed that the mastic gum resin has potential to be developed as an anticancer and antioxidant product due to its high content of polyphenol compounds.

Toxicity and Toxicokinetic Study of Subcutaneously Administered RPh201 in Minipigs

Mastic gum extracts are widely used as herbal remedies and are being tested for several clinical indications. Nevertheless, information on their safety is limited. RPh201 is an extract of the mastic gum, formulated and stabilized in a proprietary method, which is being developed as a novel drug candidate for neurological indications. The aim of this study was to assess the systemic toxic potential of RPh201, administered twice weekly by subcutaneous injections to minipigs, after 39 weeks of administration followed by a recovery period of 6 weeks. No clinical or dose-related signs were observed, but treatment-related findings were seen at the injection sites of the high-dose animals, composed of abscesses, chronic inflammation, and subcutaneous fibrosis. Abscesses >30 mm in size, graded as marked severity, were confined to the high-dose group and were considered as adverse. Minimal-slight subcutaneous and lymph nodes abscesses seen in control, low, and intermediate doses, related to the vehicle (cottonseed oil), were not considered as adverse. Additionally, minimal-to-slight cystic spaces or vacuolation related to the vehicle were observed in the skin, lymph nodes, kidney, and lungs. These findings were considered not to be adverse. The no-observed-adverse-effect level was considered to be 12.5 mg/kg/occasion.

Human Adenocarcinoma Cell Line Sensitivity to Essential Oil Phytocomplexes from Pistacia Species: a Multivariate Approach

Principal component analysis (PCA) multivariate analysis was applied to study the cytotoxic activity of essential oils from various species of the Pistacia genus on human tumor cell lines. In particular, the cytotoxic activity of essential oils obtained from P. lentiscus, P. lentiscus var. chia (mastic gum), P. terebinthus, P. vera, and P. integerrima, was screened on three human adenocarcinoma cell lines: MCF-7 (breast), 2008 (ovarian), and LoVo (colon). The results indicate that all the Pistacia phytocomplexes, with the exception of mastic gum oil, induce cytotoxic effects on one or more of the three cell lines. PCA highlighted the presence of different cooperating clusters of bioactive molecules. Cluster variability among species, and even within the same species, could explain some of the differences seen among samples suggesting the presence of both common and species-specific mechanisms. Single molecules from one of the most significant clusters were tested, but only bornyl-acetate presented cytotoxic activity, although at much higher concentrations (IC₅₀ = 138.5 µg/mL) than those present in the essential oils, indicating that understanding of the full biological effect requires a holistic vision of the phytocomplexes with all its constituents.

Dietary mastic oil extracted from Pistacia lentiscus var. chia suppresses tumor growth in experimental colon cancer models

Plant-derived bioactive compounds attract considerable interest as potential chemopreventive anticancer agents. We analyzed the volatile dietary phytochemicals (terpenes) present in mastic oil extracted from the resin of Pistacia lentiscus var. chia and comparatively investigated their effects on colon carcinoma proliferation, a) in vitro against colon cancer cell lines and b) in vivo on tumor growth in mice following oral administration. Mastic oil inhibited - more effectively than its major constituents- proliferation of colon cancer cells in vitro, attenuated migration and downregulated transcriptional expression of survivin (BIRC5a). When administered orally, mastic oil inhibited the growth of colon carcinoma tumors in mice. A reduced expression of Ki-67 and survivin in tumor tissues accompanied the observed effects. Notably, only mastic oil -which is comprised of 67.7% α-pinene and 18.8% myrcene- induced a statistically significant anti-tumor effect in mice but not α-pinene, myrcene or a combination thereof. Thus, mastic oil, as a combination of terpenes, exerts growth inhibitory effects against colon carcinoma, suggesting a nutraceutical potential in the fight against colon cancer. To our knowledge, this is the first report showing that orally administered mastic oil induces tumor-suppressing effects against experimental colon cancer.

Quality profile determination of Chios mastic gum essential oil and detection of adulteration in mastic oil products with the application of chiral and non-chiral GC-MS analysis

The determination of mastic oil profile, with emphasis on its chiral characteristics, could serve as a method for detecting adulteration in products found in the market with a claim of mastic oil content aiming towards protecting it from counterfeiting. Furthermore the evaluation of the raw material is crucial, as the profile is potentially affected by factors as mastic origin and storage time. Thus 45 authentic mastic oil samples were analyzed by GC-MS employing a chiral column and content limits for all major constituents were determined. The chiral GC-MS analysis proved that selected concentration ratios between these constituents, namely those of (-)/(+)-α-pinene (≤1:100) and (-)-α-pinene/myrcene (1.9:100-11:100) could serve as markers for the determination of mastic oil authenticity. Employing this methodology, the analysis of 25 mastic oils contained in cosmetic and dietary products, as well as an artificial mastic oil sample, exhibited several differentiations that could indicate adulteration either with artificial essential oils or volatile compounds, or the use of aged mastic oil.

Cytotoxic Effects of the Ethanol Bane Skin Extract in Human Prostate Cancer Pc3 Cells

Background:

It is extensively supposed that vegetarian diet could affect cancer progress and increase the influence of formal chemotherapy.

Objectives:

The present study was designed to determine the effect of the ethanol Bane skin extract against chemo resistant prostate cancer PC3 cells.

Materials and Methods:

PC3 and L929 cells were cultivated and then incubated in the ethanol Bane skin extract with various concentrations of 0.78, 1.5, 3.13, 6.25, 12.5 mg/mL in 3 times 24, 48, 72 hours. Cytotoxic effect of the ethanol Bane skin extract on PC3 and L929 cells was examined by MTT assay after 24, 48, and 72 hours. Morphology of PC3 cells was evaluated by Gimsa staining.

Results:

The ethanol Bane skin extract inhibited proliferation and caused cell death with IC50 values of 2.8 mg/mL on PC3 cells and the IC50 was 6.1 mg/mL on l929 cells. Morphological changes and apoptotic bodies were observed in PC3 cells faced with the ethanol Bane skin extract by staining with Gimsa.

Conclusions:

The ethanol Bane skin extract could repress the growth of PC3 cell line. This inhibitory effect of the Bane extract depended on the dose and the time on PC3. The result of this study shows that the ethanol Bane skin extract includes photochemical and inhibitory function against proliferation and inducer of apoptosis in human prostate cancer PC3 cells and also has less cytotoxic effect on l929 than PC3 cells. The ethanol Bane skin extract might be a good candidate for the new herbal anticancer drug.

Beneficial health effects of Chios Gum Mastic and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors: indications of common mechanisms

For thousands of years, Chios Gum Mastic (CGM), the resin produced by the trunk of Pistachia lentiscus var Chia, has been used for culinary and medicinal purposes and several therapeutic properties have been attributed to it. CGM has been used in traditional medicine of various nations in the eastern Mediterranean area. This survey was carried out to identify biological mechanisms that could explain traditional usage and recent pharmacological findings. We reviewed the related scientific literature available from the NCBI PUBMED database on CGM studies and on natural products showing peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) agonist effects. We investigated whether CGM qualifies as a PPAR modulator. A large number of studies demonstrate that CGM has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic, and anticancer properties. Recently, the first evidence of CGM antidiabetic effect became known. CGM chemical composition has been extensively analyzed and the presence of several compounds, especially triterpenoids is well documented. Some of them, oleanonic acid, oleanolic acid, and gallic acid are considered to act as PPAR modulators. PPARs are nuclear receptors functioning as transcription factors and thereby controlling cellular functions at the level of gene expression. PPARs are involved in the pathways of significant diseases, such as metabolic syndrome, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, inflammation, atheromatosis, and neoplasias, constituting a key target for pharmacological interventions. This article proposes that the synergistic action of some constituents of CGM on PPARs and more precisely on both PPARs isotypes-α and -γ, may be one of the major biological mechanisms via which CGM exerts its multiple effects.

Genotoxic and Antigenotoxic Assessment of Chios Mastic Oil by the In Vitro Micronucleus Test on Human Lymphocytes and the In Vivo Wing Somatic Test on Drosophila

Chios mastic oil (CMO), the essential oil derived from Pistacia lentiscus (L.) var. chia (Duham), has generated considerable interest because of its antimicrobial, anticancer, antioxidant and other beneficial properties. In the present study, the potential genotoxic activity of CMO as well as its antigenotoxic properties against the mutagenic agent mitomycin-C (MMC) were evaluated by employing the in vitro Cytokinesis Block MicroNucleus (CBMN) assay and the in vivo Somatic Mutation And Recombination Test (SMART). In the in vitro experiments, lymphocytes were treated with 0.01, 0.05 and 0.10% (v/v) of CMO with or without 0.05 μg/ml MMC, while in the in vivo assay Drosophila larvae were fed with 0.05, 0.10, 0.50 and 1.00% (v/v) of CMO with or without 2.50 μg/ml MMC. CMO did not significantly increase the frequency of micronuclei (MN) or total wing spots, indicating lack of mutagenic or recombinogenic activity. However, the in vitro analysis suggested cytotoxic activity of CMO. The simultaneous administration of MMC with CMO did not alter considerably the frequencies of MMC-induced MN and wing spots showing that CMO doesn't exert antigenotoxic or antirecombinogenic action. Therefore, CMO could be considered as a safe product in terms of genotoxic potential. Even though it could not afford any protection against DNA damage, at least under our experimental conditions, its cytotoxic potential could be of interest.

Essential oils and their constituents as anticancer agents: a mechanistic view

Exploring natural plant products as an option to find new chemical entities as anticancer agents is one of the fastest growing areas of research. Recently, in the last decade, essential oils (EOs) have been under study for their use in cancer therapy and the present review is an attempt to collect and document the available studies indicating EOs and their constituents as anticancer agents. This review enlists nearly 130 studies of EOs from various plant species and their constituents that have been studied so far for their anticancer potential and these studies have been classified as in vitro and in vivo studies for EOs and their constituents. This review also highlights in-depth various mechanisms of action of different EOs and their constituents reported in the treatment strategies for different types of cancer. The current review indicates that EOs and their constituents act by multiple pathways and mechanisms involving apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, antimetastatic and antiangiogenic, increased levels of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS), DNA repair modulation, and others to demonstrate their antiproliferative activity in the cancer cell. The effect of EOs and their constituents on tumour suppressor proteins (p53 and Akt), transcription factors (NF- κB and AP-1), MAPK-pathway, and detoxification enzymes like SOD, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase has also been discussed.

Five Pistacia species (P. vera, P. atlantica, P. terebinthus, P. khinjuk, and P. lentiscus): a review of their traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology

Pistacia, a genus of flowering plants from the family Anacardiaceae, contains about twenty species, among them five are more popular including P. vera, P. atlantica, P. terebinthus, P. khinjuk, and P. lentiscus. Different parts of these species have been used in traditional medicine for various purposes like tonic, aphrodisiac, antiseptic, antihypertensive and management of dental, gastrointestinal, liver, urinary tract, and respiratory tract disorders. Scientific findings also revealed the wide pharmacological activities from various parts of these species, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiviral, anticholinesterase, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antidiabetic, antitumor, antihyperlipidemic, antiatherosclerotic, and hepatoprotective activities and also their beneficial effects in gastrointestinal disorders. Various types of phytochemical constituents like terpenoids, phenolic compounds, fatty acids, and sterols have also been isolated and identified from different parts of Pistacia species. The present review summarizes comprehensive information concerning ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities of the five mentioned Pistacia species.

Pistacia atlantica Resin Has a Dose-Dependent Effect on Angiogenesis and Skin Burn Wound Healing in Rat

Objectives. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of Pistacia atlantica resin extract on the rat skin burn wound healing. Methods. Thirty-two Wistar rats were divided into four groups and treated by vehicle, 5%, 10%, and 20% concentration of Pistacia atlantica resin extract for 14 days (G1, G2, G3, and G4, resp.). The efficacy of treatment was assessed based on reduction of burn wound size and histological and molecular characteristics. Results. α -Pinene (46.57%) was the main content of essential oil of resin. There were no statistically significant differences between groups according to wound size analysis. The mean histological wound healing scores were not statistically different. Capillary counts of G2 and G3 were significantly higher than those of the G1 (P = 0.042 and 0.032, resp.). NO concentration in wound fluids on the 5th day of study was not significantly different between groups (P = 0.468). But bFGF concentration in G2 and G3 and PDGF concentration in G3 were significantly higher in comparison to G1 (P = 0.043, 0.017, and 0.019, resp.). Conclusion. Our results revealed that Pistacia atlantica resin extract has a concentration-dependent effect on the healing of burn wounds after 14 days of treatment by increasing the concentration of bFGF and PDGF and also through improving the angiogenesis.

Evaluation of the genotoxic and antigenotoxic effects of Chios mastic water by the in vitro micronucleus test on human lymphocytes and the in vivo wing somatic test on Drosophila

Chios mastic gum, a plant-derived product obtained by the Mediterranean bush Pistacia lentiscus (L.) var. chia (Duham), has generated considerable interest because of its antimicrobial, anticancer, antioxidant and other beneficial properties. Its aqueous extract, called Chios mastic water (CMW), contains the authentic mastic scent and all the water soluble components of mastic. In the present study, the potential genotoxic activity of CMW, as well as its antigenotoxic properties against the mutagenic agent mitomycin-C (MMC), was evaluated by employing the in vitro Cytokinesis Block MicroNucleus (CBMN) assay and the in vivo Somatic Mutation And Recombination Test (SMART). In the former assay, lymphocytes were treated with 1, 2 and 5% (v/v) of CMW with or without MMC at concentrations 0.05 and 0.50 µg/ml. No significant micronucleus induction was observed by CMW, while co-treatment with MMC led to a decrease of the MMC-induced micronuclei, which ranged between 22.8 and 44.7%. For SMART, larvae were treated with 50 and 100% (v/v) CMW with or without MMC at concentrations 1.00, 2.50 and 5.00 µg/ml. It was shown that CMW alone did not modify the spontaneous frequencies of spots indicating lack of genotoxic activity. Τhe simultaneous administration of MMC with 100% CMW led to considerable alterations of the frequencies of MMC-induced wing spots with the total mutant clones showing reduction between 53.5 and 74.4%. Our data clearly show a protective role of CMW against the MMC-induced genotoxicity and further research on the beneficial properties of this product is suggested.

De materia medica versus codex alimentarius for the reinforcement of the gynecologic immune system: the case of endometriosis

Since the first Pharmacopoeia under the title "De Materia Medica," the importance of the utilization of plants and herbs has been an invaluable medicinal tool successfully employed for strengthening the immune system for combating a number of diseases in general, or assisting fertility and reproductive issues in particular. The beneficial use of herbal extracts, constituting the basis of modern medicines, is lately under the shadow of Codex Alimentarius that threatens, if not properly applied, serious immunity features rendering the host defenseless for intercepting harmful invaders, one of which is the mesenchymal endometriotic stem cell causing endometriosis.

Induction of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest by pericarp polyphenol-rich extract of Baneh in human colon carcinoma HT29 cells

Plants as important source of natural active components with anticancer effects commonly are different in structure and biological properties. The pericarp of Pistacia atlantica sub kurdica with local name of Baneh, a rich source of active phytochemicals, contains noticeable amounts of polyphenolic compounds, flavonoids and anthocyanins. Therefore, the antiproliferative, apoptosis induction and cell cycle alterations of Baneh were evaluated in human colon carcinoma HT29 cells. The Baneh extract (0.7 mg/ml) resulted in 50% growth inhibition similar to 500 nM of Doxorubicin (Dox) in HT29 cells after 72 h. The down-regulation of cyclin A protein by Baneh extract induced S phase delay in cell cycle progression of HT29 cells. Unlike the Baneh extract, Dox showed G2/M accumulation of HT29 cells which was associated with an increase in cyclin A and cyclin B1 protein expression. Furthermore, the induction of apoptosis following Baneh extract and Dox treatment in HT29 cells was confirmed by DNA fragmentation and translocation of phosphatidylserine. The morphological characteristics of apoptosis were also observed in HT29 cells exposed to the Baneh extract and Dox. These results suggest that due to the existence of bioactive components, methanolic extract of the Baneh has significant cytotoxic effects against human colon carcinoma HT29 cells.

Camphene, a plant-derived monoterpene, reduces plasma cholesterol and triglycerides in hyperlipidemic rats independently of HMG-CoA reductase activity

BACKGROUND

Central to the pathology of coronary heart disease is the accumulation of lipids, cholesterol and triglycerides, within the intima of arterial blood vessels. The search for drugs to treat dislipidemia, remains a major pharmaceutical focus. In this study, we evaluated the hypolipidemic properties of the essential oil from Chios mastic gum (MGO).

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

The hypolipidemic effect of MGO was investigated in naïve as well as in rats susceptible to detergent-induced hyperlipidemia. Serum cholesterol and triglycerides were determined using commercial kits. HMG-CoA (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A) reductase activity was measured in HepG2 cell extracts using a radioactive assay; cellular cholesterol and cholesterol esters were assessed using gas chromatography. MGO administration into naïve rats resulted in a dose-dependent reduction in the constitutive synthesis of serum cholesterol and triglycerides. In hyperlipidemic rats, MGO treatment had also a strong hypolipidemic effect. By testing various components of MGO, we show for the first time that the hypolipidemic action is associated with camphene. Administration of camphene at a dose of 30 µg/gr of body weight in hyperlipidemic rats resulted in a 54.5% reduction of total cholesterol (p<0.001), 54% of Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol (p<0.001) and 34.5% of triglycerides (p<0.001). Treatment of HepG2 cells with camphene led to a decrease in cellular cholesterol content to the same extend as mevinolin, a known HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor. The hypolipidemic action of camphene is independent of HMG-CoA reductase activity, suggesting that its hypocholesterolemic and hypotriglyceridemic effects are associated with a mechanism of action different than that of statins.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the critical role that the control of hyperlipidemia plays in cardiovascular disease, the results of our study provide insights into the use of camphene as an alternative lipid lowering agent and merits further evaluation.

Current evidence on the anticancer potential of Chios mastic gum

Chios mastic gum derived from the plant Pistacia lentiscus L. variation chia has been shown to exert beneficial effects on a wide range of human disorders. The most comprehensive data so far have indicated that mastic gum provides protection against gastrointestinal malfunctions and bacterial infections. Substantial evidence has also suggested that mastic gum exhibits hepatoprotective and cardioprotective, antiinflammatory/antioxidant, and antiatherogenic properties. In the last decade, an increasing number of studies further evaluated the potential antiproliferative properties of mastic gum against several types of human neoplasia. The present review aims to summarize the current data concerning the anticancer activities of mastic gum and their major constituents, highlighting also the molecular mechanisms through which they exert anticancer function. Mastic gum constituents that belong to the chemical class of triterpenoids appear to be mainly responsible for its anticancer potential. Thus, a brief discussion is dedicated to the anticancer activity of synthetic and naturally occurring triterpenoid analogues with similar chemical structure to mastic gum constituents. Taking into consideration the available data so far, Chios mastic gum could be considered as a conglomeration of effective anticancer drugs.

Comparative cellular and molecular analysis of cytotoxicity and apoptosis induction by doxorubicin and Baneh in human breast cancer T47D cells

It is now widely accepted that dietary phytochemicals inhibit cancer progression and enhance the effects of conventional chemotherapy. In this report, we comparatively studied the cellular and molecular aspects of apoptosis induction by the methanolic extract of Baneh fruit skin in comparison to Doxorubicin (Dox), a well-known anticancer drug, in human breast cancer T47D cells. The MTT assay was used to determine the antiproliferative effects. The flow cytometric and microscopic analyses were done to evaluate the apoptosis induction. Furthermore, western blot analyses have been done to study the role of key molecular players of apoptosis including caspase 3 and PARP. The Baneh extract showed strong antiproliferative activity against T47D cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner that was comparable to and even stronger than Dox in certain concentrations. Analysis of Baneh-treated cells by flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy indicated strong apoptosis induction and nuclear morphological alterations similar to or greater than Dox. Finally, molecular analysis of apoptosis by western blotting proved activation of caspase 3 followed by poly ADP ribose polymerase (PARP) cleavage more efficiently in Baneh than in Dox treated cancer cells. These findings indicate that Baneh extract contains phytochemicals which act as inhibitor of cell proliferation and inducer of apoptosis in human breast cancer T47D cells that makes it a potentially good candidate for new anticancer drug development.

Chemical investigation and antimicrobial properties of mastic water and its major constituents

Mastic water is a commercial flavouring obtained during the steam distillation of mastic resin (the resin of Pistacia lentiscus var. chia) for the production of mastic oil. The mastic water extracts were analysed by GC-MS. The major compounds identified were verbenone, α-terpineol, linalool and trans-pinocarveol. Overall the composition was found to be very different from that of mastic oil. Additional GC-MS revealed the enantiomeric ratio of the chiral constituents of mastic water. The antimicrobial activity of mastic water extract, as well as that of its major constituents, was examined against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida spp. including ATCC wild clinical and food-borne strains. Linalool and α-terpineol were found to be the most potent antimicrobial constituents. Finally the stability of mastic water at different temperatures was studied, showing no change in the GC-MS profile of the organic extract for a period of 4months at storage temperatures up to 4°C.

Mastic oil inhibits the metastatic phenotype of mouse lung adenocarcinoma cells

Mastic oil from Pistacia lentiscus variation chia, a natural combination of bioactive terpenes, has been shown to exert anti-tumor growth effects against a broad spectrum of cancers including mouse Lewis lung adenocarcinomas (LLC). However, no studies have addressed its anti-metastatic actions. In this study, we showed that treatment of LLC cells with mastic oil within a range of non-toxic concentrations (0.01–0.04% v/v): (a) abrogated their Matrigel invasion and migration capabilities in transwell assays; (b) reduced the levels of secreted MMP-2; (c) restricted phorbol ester-induced actin remodeling and (d) limited the length of neo-vessel networks in tumor microenvironment in the model of chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane. Moreover, exposure of LLC and endothelial cells to mastic oil impaired their adhesive interactions in a co-culture assay and reduced the expression of key adhesion molecules by endothelial cells upon their stimulation with tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Overall, this study provides novel evidence supporting a multipotent role for mastic oil in prevention of crucial processes related to cancer metastasis.

A transcriptomic computational analysis of mastic oil-treated Lewis lung carcinomas reveals molecular mechanisms targeting tumor cell growth and survival

Background

Mastic oil from Pistacia lentiscus variation chia, a blend of bioactive terpenes with recognized medicinal properties, has been recently shown to exert anti-tumor growth activity through inhibition of cancer cell proliferation, survival, angiogenesis and inflammatory response. However, no studies have addressed its mechanisms of action at genome-wide gene expression level.

Methods

To investigate molecular mechanisms triggered by mastic oil, Lewis Lung Carcinoma cells were treated with mastic oil or DMSO and RNA was collected at five distinct time points (3-48 h). Microarray expression profiling was performed using Illumina mouse-6 v1 beadchips, followed by computational analysis. For a number of selected genes, RT-PCR validation was performed in LLC cells as well as in three human cancer cell lines of different origin (A549, HCT116, K562). PTEN specific inhibition by a bisperovanadium compound was applied to validate its contribution to mastic oil-mediated anti-tumor growth effects.

Results

In this work we demonstrated that exposure of Lewis lung carcinomas to mastic oil caused a time-dependent alteration in the expression of 925 genes. GO analysis associated expression profiles with several biological processes and functions. Among them, modifications on cell cycle/proliferation, survival and NF-κB cascade in conjunction with concomitant regulation of genes encoding for PTEN, E2F7, HMOX1 (up-regulation) and NOD1 (down-regulation) indicated some important mechanistic links underlying the anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory effects of mastic oil. The expression profiles of Hmox1, Pten and E2f7 genes were similarly altered by mastic oil in the majority of test cancer cell lines. Inhibition of PTEN partially reversed mastic oil effects on tumor cell growth, indicating a multi-target mechanism of action. Finally, k-means clustering, organized the significant gene list in eight clusters demonstrating a similar expression profile. Promoter analysis in a representative cluster revealed shared putative cis-elements suggesting a common regulatory transcription mechanism.

Conclusions

Present results provide novel evidence on the molecular basis of tumor growth inhibition mediated by mastic oil and set a rational basis for application of genomics and bioinformatic methodologies in the screening of natural compounds with potential cancer chemopreventive activities.