The Relation Between Gender Role Orientation and Fear and Anxiety in Nonclinic-Referred Children

Girls' Stuff? Maternal Gender Stereotypes and Their Daughters' Fear

One of the most robust findings in psychopathology is the fact that specific phobias are more prevalent in women than in men. Although there are several theoretical accounts for biological and social contributions to this gender difference, empirical data are surprisingly limited. Interestingly, there is evidence that individuals with stereotypical feminine characteristics are more fearful than those with stereotypical masculine characteristics; this is beyond biological sex. Because gender role stereotypes are reinforced by parental behavior, we aimed to examine the relationship of maternal gender stereotypes and children's fear. Dyads of 38 mothers and their daughters (between ages 6 and 10) were included. We assessed maternal implicit and explicit gender stereotypes as well as their daughters' self-reported general fearfulness, specific fear of snakes, and approach behavior toward a living snake. First, mothers' fear of snakes significantly correlated with their daughters' fear of snakes. Second, mothers' gender stereotypes significantly correlated with their daughters' self-reported fear. Specifically, maternal implicit gender stereotypes were associated with daughters' fear of snakes and fear ratings in response to the snake. Moreover, in children, self-reported fear correlated with avoidance of the fear-relevant animal. Together, these results provide first evidence for a potential role of parental gender stereotypes in the development and maintenance of fear in their offspring.

Longitudinal Effects of the Pandemic and Confinement on the Anxiety Levels of a Sample of Spanish Children in Primary Education

(1) Background: The psychological effects of confinement due to the SARS-CoV-2 virus pandemic on children are only partially known. In Madrid, Spain, children suffered a strict confinement for 10 weeks and they returned to school under conditions that were far from normal. This work assesses the effects of the pandemic on the anxiety levels of a group of children living in Madrid. (2) Methods: Children were aged 6 to 11 years (N = 215). A self-report measure of anxiety was completed by participants at two time-points: (1) a few months before the beginning of the pandemic and (2) 1 year later. A smaller subgroup of participants also completed the measure during the confinement period (n = 60). (3) Results: A comparison of these three measures shows that the children’s anxiety was reduced during confinement, and that one year later these levels continue below those registered before the start of the pandemic. (4) Conclusions: These results contradict some previous studies, which found an increase in children’s anxiety as a result of confinement and the pandemic. The discussion considers protective and vulnerability factors in the context of the pandemic, which may affect children’s levels of anxiety.

The Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale: A systematic review and reliability generalization meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Anxiety and depression are among the most common mental disorders during childhood and adolescence. Among the instruments for the brief screening assessment of symptoms of anxiety and depression, the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS) is one of the more widely used. Previous studies have demonstrated the reliability of the RCADS for different assessment settings and different versions. The aims of this study were to examine the mean reliability of the RCADS and the influence of the moderators on the RCADS reliability.

METHODS

We searched in EBSCO, PsycINFO, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and NCBI databases and other articles manually from lists of references of extracted articles.

RESULTS

A total of 146 studies were included in our meta-analysis. The RCADS showed robust internal consistency reliability in different assessment settings, countries, and languages. We only found that reliability of the RCADS was significantly moderated by the version of RCADS. However, these differences in reliability between different versions of the RCADS were slight and can be due to the number of items.

LIMITATIONS

We did not examine factor structure, factorial invariance across gender, age, or country, and test-retest reliability of the RCADS.

CONCLUSIONS

The RCADS is a reliable instrument for cross-cultural use, with the advantage of providing more information with a low number of items in the assessment of both anxiety and depression symptoms in children and adolescents.

The role of parental anxiety sensitivity and learning experiences in children's anxiety sensitivity

This study evaluated the impact of the mother's and father's anxiety sensitivity (AS) and learning experiences on children's AS, and the influence of two moderators: the children's femininity orientation and the children's emotional intelligence (EI). The sample comprised 200 non-clinical children, aged 9-13 years, and their parents (mothers and fathers). Results revealed that the effect of parental AS on children's AS is moderated by the children's EI for maternal AS and by their femininity traits for paternal AS. Learning experiences following somatic sensations influenced the children's level of AS. More specifically, special attention by parents following a child's somatic sensations (reinforcement and transmission of information) was associated with high AS in children. Parental reactions of fear following a parent's somatic sensations (modelling) seem to predict higher scores for AS when the link is moderated by the child's femininity orientation. The implications of these findings are discussed. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject The influence of parental factors in child's AS has been demonstrate, but these studies are limited. Specific mechanisms might condition the relationship between child's AS and parental factors. What does this study add? Learning experiences and parental AS influence the child's level of AS. It is important to consider the influence of mothers and fathers in child's AS. Child's emotional intelligence and expressive traits may moderate the effect of parental factors.

Do you think I should be scared? The effect of peer discussion on children's fears

This study investigated whether close friends affect each other's fear responses (fear beliefs and avoidance) when they discuss fear-related issues together. Children (N = 242) aged 7-10 years were first presented with ambiguous and threatening information about two novel animals respectively, after which their fear responses towards each animal were assessed (T1). Next, dyads of close friends had a discussion about their feelings regarding the animals, and their fear responses were measured again (T2). Results showed that children influenced each other's cognitions following the discussion; from T1 to T2 their fear responses became more similar and close friends' fear responses at T1 significantly predicted children's fear responses at T2. Gender pair type predicted change in children's fear responses over time. Children in boy-boy pairs showed a significant increase in fear responses following the discussion; their fear level became more in line with that of other gender pairs at T2, while those in girl-girl pairs showed a significant decrease in their fear beliefs, at least when threatening information was given. Differences in anxiety level between close friends did not affect change in fear responses over time. Altogether, the results indicate that children may affect each other's fears.

Utilising a paediatric version of the indicator of sedation need for children's dental care: a pilot study

AIM

To assess the treatment outcomes of using inhalation sedation for comprehensive dental care in children by utilising a modified version of the indicator of sedation need tool.

METHODS

Investigating the outcomes of dental treatment of patients referred to the sedation unit at the Leeds Dental Institute when the paediatric version of the indicator of sedation need (p-IOSN) was utilised.

RESULTS

Forty patients of mean age 9.99 (SD = 3.14) years were followed up to ascertain treatment outcomes when the p-IOSN was used. Of the total of 40 children included, 20 scored 6 on p-IOSN. Treatment completion rate was 72.5 %. Although major differences existed between age and treatment outcomes, they failed to achieve statistical significance. No significant association was found between gender and p-IOSN of any score with any treatment outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

p-IOSN may be a useful tool that can be used to predict those child patients who would benefit from sedation for their dental treatment. However, the p-IOSN is still in a developmental stage and further research is required prior to its use on clinical grounds.

Parents' perception of children's fear: from FSSC-IT to FSSC-PP

Studies involving parents' reports about children's fears and multiple informant comparisons are less extended than investigations on children's self-reporting fear schedules. Starting with the Italian version of FSSC-R, the FSSC-IT, the main aims of this study were to adapt a schedule for parents' perception of their children's fear: the FSSC-Parent Perception. Its psychometric properties were examined in a large sample of parents (N = 2970) of children aged 8-10 years. Exploratory and confirmatory factorial structures were examined and compared with the Italian children's ones. Mother vs. father, children's gender and school age group effects were analyzed. The confirmatory factor analysis confirmed a four correlated factors solution model (Fear of Danger and Death; Fear of Injury and Animals; Fear of Failure and Criticism; Fear of the unknown and Phobic aspects). Some effects related to child gender, age group, mother vs. father, were found. The FSSC-PP properties supported its use by parents to assess their children's fears. A qualitative analysis of the top 10 fears most endorsed by parents will be presented and compared with children's fears. Clinical implications about the quality of parent-child relationships where discussed, comparing mothers and fathers, and parents' perception about daughters' and sons' most endorsed fears.

Relations of Anxiety Sensitivity, Control Beliefs, and Maternal Over-Control to Fears in Clinic-Referred Children with Specific Phobia

The relations of fear to anxiety sensitivity, control beliefs, and maternal overprotection were examined in 126 7- to 13-year-old clinically referred children with specific phobias. Results indicated that anxiety sensitivity and control beliefs were significant predictors of children's fear levels, accounting for approximately 48% of the total variance. Unexpectedly, age, gender, and maternal overprotection did not emerge as significant predictors of fear in the overall sample. In subsequent analyses, anxiety sensitivity was found to be a consistent, significant predictor for both girls and boys, for both younger and older children, and for children with and without an additional anxiety disorder diagnosis. Control beliefs were only a significant predictor for girls, younger children, and children with an additional anxiety diagnosis. Maternal overprotection was not a significant predictor for any group. Children with an additional anxiety disorder diagnosis had higher levels of fear, anxiety sensitivity, and maternal overprotection, as well as lower levels of control beliefs than the non-additional anxiety disorder subgroup. Future directions and clinical implications are explored.

Assessment of anxiety symptoms in school children: a cross-sex and ethnic examination

We evaluated the cross-sex and -ethnic (Hispanic/Latino, non-Hispanic White) measurement invariance of anxiety symptoms based on the Spence Children's Anxiety Scale (SCAS) as well as SCAS anxiety symptoms' correspondence with scores on the 5-item Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) and teacher ratings of child anxiety. Based on data corresponding to 702 children (M age = 9.65, SD = 0.70; 51.9 % girls; 55 % Hispanic/Latino), findings showed some sex and ethnic variations in SCAS measured anxiety at the item and scale levels. Moreover, SCAS correspondence to the 5-item SCARED was found across ethnicity and sex. SCAS correspondence to teacher ratings was found for non-Hispanic White boys and non-Hispanic White girls, marginally in Hispanic/Latino boys, and poorly in Hispanic/Latino girls.

The short form of the fear survey schedule for children-revised (FSSC-R-SF): an efficient, reliable, and valid scale for measuring fear in children and adolescents

The present study examined the psychometric properties of the Short Form of the Fear Survey Schedule for Children-Revised (FSSC-R-SF) in non-clinical and clinically referred children and adolescents from the Netherlands and the United States. Exploratory as well as confirmatory factor analyses of the FSSC-R-SF yielded support for the hypothesized five-factor structure representing fears in the domains of (1) failure and criticism, (2) the unknown, (3) animals, (4) danger and death, and (5) medical affairs. The FSSC-R-SF showed satisfactory reliability and was capable of assessing gender and age differences in youths' fears and fearfulness that have been documented in previous research. Further, the convergent validity of the scale was good as shown by substantial and meaningful correlations with the full-length FSSC-R and alternative childhood anxiety measures. Finally, support was found for the discriminant validity of the scale. That is, clinically referred children and adolescents exhibited higher scores on the FSSC-R-SF total scale and most subscales as compared to their non-clinical counterparts. Moreover, within the clinical sample, children and adolescents with a major anxiety disorder generally displayed higher FSSC-R-SF scores than youths without such a diagnosis. Altogether, these findings indicate that the FSSC-R-SF is a brief, reliable, and valid scale for assessing fear sensitivities in children and adolescents.

Effects of voluntary and involuntary exercise on cognitive functions, and VEGF and BDNF levels in adolescent rats

Regular treadmill running during adolescence improves learning and memory in rats. During adolescence, the baseline level of stress is thought to be greater than during other periods of life. We investigated the effects of voluntary and involuntary exercise on the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels, and spatial learning, memory and anxiety in adolescent male and female rats. The voluntary exercise group was given free access to a running wheel for 6 weeks. The involuntary exercise group was forced to run on a treadmill for 30 min at 8 m/min 5 days/week for 6 weeks. Improved learning was demonstrated in both exercise groups compared to controls. Neuron density in the CA1 region of the hippocampus, dentate gyrus and prefrontal cortex were increased. Hippocampal VEGF and BDNF levels were increased in both exercise groups compared to controls. In females, anxiety and corticosterone levels were decreased; BDNF and VEGF levels were higher in the voluntary exercise group than in the involuntary exercise group. The adolescent hippocampus is affected favorably by regular exercise. Although no difference was found in anxiety levels as a result of involuntary exercise in males, females showed increased anxiety levels, and decreased VEGF and BDNF levels in the prefrontal cortex after involuntary exercise.

Structure of the Italian Fear Survey Schedule for Children (FSSC-IT)

Psychometric properties of the Italian Fear Survey Schedule for Children (FSSC-IT) were examined in a large community sample of children aged 6 to 10 years. PCA and CFA yielded and confirmed a six correlated factor model, named FSSC-IT54. Internal consistency estimates of the FSSC-IT54 total score and of most of its factors were acceptable. Analyses of variance were carried out considering gender and age sub-groups and confirmed findings in the extant literature. Convergent validity of the FSSC-IT54 scores was supported by its positive correlations with a measure of childhood anxiety, the Spence Children's Anxiety Scale.

Understanding Gender Differences in Anxiety

Developing a better understanding of modifiable psychological factors that account for gender differences in anxiety may provide insight into interventions that can be used to target these risk processes. The authors developed a mediational model to examine the degree to which gender differences in anxiety are explained by instrumentality and mastery while controlling for the influence of environmental stress and social desirability. Undergraduates (159 men and 239 women) completed an online questionnaire including measures of mastery, instrumentality, daily hassles, social desirability, and anxiety. Women reported significantly lower levels of instrumentality and mastery and higher levels of anxiety than men. Path analyses indicated that instrumentality and mastery were both significant mediators of the relationship between gender and anxiety after controlling for social desirability and hassles. The addition of a direct path from gender to anxiety was not significant and did not improve the fit of the model. These findings suggest that differences in gender socialization and mastery learning experiences for men and women help account for the female preponderance of anxiety. Interventions aimed at building instrumentality and mastery, particularly among girls, may help buffer against anxiety.

Maternal treadmill exercise during pregnancy decreases anxiety and increases prefrontal cortex VEGF and BDNF levels of rat pups in early and late periods of life

In a previous study we demonstrated that, regular aerobic exercise during pregnancy decreased maternal deprivation induced anxiety. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether the positive effects of maternal exercise on the male and female offspring's early and late period of life. Half of the test subjects in each group were evaluated when they were 26 days old, and the other half were evaluated when they were 4 months old. The anxiety levels of maternally exercised groups were less than the control groups in both sexes and in both prepubertal and adult periods. The locomotor activity more increased in females. The prefrontal VEGF and BDNF levels were greater for both age groups and sexes in the maternally exercised group compared to control group. Moreover, there was a strong positive correlations between prefrontal cortex BDNF levels and results of open field tests; and VEGF levels and results of elevated plus maze tests. There was no difference in serum corticosterone levels between groups. These results indicate that maternal exercise during pregnancy may protect the pups from anxiety in early and late periods of life, and affects the prefrontal cortex positively.

Gender, gender roles, and anxiety: perceived confirmability of self report, behavioral avoidance, and physiological reactivity

Despite the well-documented gender effect in anxiety, less is known about contributing factors to women's greater risk for anxiety and fears. The present study examined the relationship between gender, gender role orientation (i.e., expressivity/instrumentality) and fear of harmless insects (tarantula), using a multimodal approach of self-report measures, a Behavioral Approach Test (BAT), and physiological reactivity. Participants (144 college students; 67 women, 77 men) completed a questionnaire packet and then were instructed to approach a tarantula. We were unable to replicate Pierce and Kirkpatrick's (1992) findings that men underreport anxiety. Consistent with the literature, women in the study experienced greater anxiety and avoidance compared to men. However, men and women did not differ on physiological reactivity during the first 2 min of the BAT. The concordance across avoidance, anxiety and heart rate reactivity differed by gender, suggesting that men and women have different experiences when faced with a fearful object. Furthermore, instrumentality (masculinity) was negatively related to anticipatory anxiety for women but not for men.

Facing the Beast Apart Together: Fear in Boys and Girls after Processing Information about Novel Animals Individually or in a Duo

In this experimental study, we made an attempt to examine gender-related peer influences on childhood fear. Nine- to 12-year-old boys and girls were provided with ambiguous and positive information about novel animals and then asked to provide a subjective fear rating of the animals under two conditions: fear of one animal was assessed individually by the child on its own, whereas fear of the other animal was measured after a brief discussion on fear-related issues with a same-gender peer. Results indicated that children who completed the FBQ after a discussion with a same-gender peer displayed lower fear beliefs scores than children who completed the questionnaire fully on their own. This fear-suppression effect was mainly evident in boys after hearing ambiguous information about the novel animals. The implications of these findings are briefly discussed.

Sex variations in youth anxiety symptoms: effects of pubertal development and gender role orientation

This study evaluated whether pubertal development and gender role orientation (i.e., masculinity and femininity) can partially explain sex variations in youth anxiety symptoms among clinic-referred anxious youth (N = 175; ages 9-13 years; 74% Hispanic; 48% female). Using youth and parent ratings of youth anxiety symptoms, structural equation modeling results indicated that youth who reported being more advanced in their pubertal development reported high levels of femininity and anxiety symptoms. Youth who reported high levels of masculinity had low levels of anxiety symptoms as reported by both youths and parents. The estimated effects of pubertal development, femininity, and masculinity on youth and parent ratings of youth anxiety symptoms were not significantly moderated by biological sex. Pubertal development and gender role orientation appear to be important in explaining levels of youth anxiety symptoms among clinic-referred anxious youth.

Subjective anxiety and behavioral avoidance: Gender, gender role, and perceived confirmability of self-report

Commonly reported gender effects for differential vulnerability for anxiety may relate to gender socialization processes. The present study examined the relationship between gender role and fear under experimental conditions designed to elicit accurate fear reporting. Undergraduate students (N=119) completed several self-report measures and a behavioral avoidance task (BAT) with a tarantula while wearing a heart rate monitor. Gender roles were operationalized as instrumentality and expressiveness, as measured by the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1975). As expected, women reported greater subjective anxiety and were more avoidant of the tarantula than men. Regardless of gender, low levels of instrumentality were associated with greater avoidance of the tarantula. The hypothesis that men underreport fear compared to women and that gender role differences underlie this reporting bias was not supported. In spite of a ceiling effect on the BAT, results of this study confirm the relevance of gender role in understanding gender effects in fear and anxiety.

The Fear Survey Schedule for Children-Revised: Normative Developmental Data in Italy

The aim of the study was to explore children's fear content. Using the Italian Fear Survey Schedule for Children, an Italian-language version of Ollendick's Fear Survey Schedule for Children–Revised (1983), the study assessed the reliability of the survey and reported intensity, prevalence, and content of fears in children aged six to 10 years, using this questionnaire. 1,845 school children (931 girls, 914 boys; M age = 8.3 yr., SD = 1.4) were asked to complete the survey, indicating what they thought were their fears, and the intensity of those fears. Sex and age differences were also examined. Girls endorsed significantly higher fearfulness than did boys. Few age differences were found, with seven-year-olds appearing more fearful than 10- to 11-year-old children. Results were interpreted in relation to developmental changes. Cross-national comparisons were discussed.

Childhood fears, neurobehavioral functioning and behavior problems in school-age children

The objective is to examine underlying associations between childhood fears, behavior problems and neurobehavioral functioning (NBF) in school-age children. Healthy, regular school children (N = 135), from second, fourth and sixth grade classes were assessed. Data regarding children's fears and behavioral problems were obtained with the Revised Fear Survey Schedule for Children, the Child Behavior Checklist, and NBF was assessed using a computerized neurobehavioral evaluation system. Significant correlations between childhood fears and NBF measures and somatic complaints were found. Children who reported higher levels of fears demonstrated lower working memory span (r = 0.24, p < 0.05), lower motor speed (r = -0.23, p < 0.05), and had more somatic complaints (r = 0.20, p < 0.05). Furthermore, younger children reported less fears than older ones and girls reported more fears than boys. These results highlight significant association between childhood fears, NBF and behavior problems in a non-clinical group children. Lower working memory span is an important component of executive control that may be an underlying factor in fears and anxiety in children.

"You might belong in Gryffindor": children's courage and its relationships to anxiety symptoms, big five personality traits, and sex roles

This study describes a first exploration of the construct of courage in youths. Children aged 8-13 years were invited to report on the most courageous action that they had ever performed during their life. In addition, the Courage Measure for Children (CM-C) was construed as an index of children's level of personal courage, and this scale was administered in two samples of school children (Ns being 168 and 159) along with a number of other questionnaires. Results indicated that children were familiar with the concept of courage as more than 70% reported to have carried out a courageous action during their life. In addition, self-reported courage as indexed by the CM-C was positively correlated with scores on a vignette measure of courage, parent ratings of children's courage, extraversion, openness/intellect, and a masculine sex role, whereas a negative correlation was observed with anxiety symptoms. The implications of these findings and potential directions for future research are briefly discussed.

Children's fears: a survey of Italian children ages 6 to 10 years

The aim of this study was to explore children's fears. The article reports on average factor scores of a study carried out in Italy using the Fear Survey Schedule for Children (here, the "Fear Survey"; Ollendick, 1983) with normal 6- to 10-yr.-old children (931 girls, 914 boys). Participants were 1,845 children, recruited in mainstream classrooms. Respondents were asked to complete the schedule indicating their fears and the intensity of such fears. A principal components analysis yielded a four-factor structure (1: Death and Danger, 2: Injury and Animals, 3: Failure and Criticism, 4: Fear of the Unknown). Average factor scores showed significant differences across the factors and according to sex and age. Girls reported significantly higher fearfulness than boys. Age differences were found on some factors.

Brave men and timid women? A review of the gender differences in fear and anxiety

Substantial evidence indicates that women report greater fear and are more likely to develop anxiety disorders than men. Women's greater vulnerability for anxiety disorders can be partly understood by examining gender differences in the etiological factors known to contribute to anxiety. This review examines evidence for gender differences across a broad range of relevant factors, including biological influences, temperamental factors, stress and trauma, cognitive factors, and environmental factors. Gender differences are observed with increasing consistency as the scope of analysis broadens to molar levels of functioning. Socialization processes cultivate and promote processes related to anxiety, and moderate gender differences across levels of analysis.

Effects of verbal information on fear-related reasoning biases in children

The present study made an attempt to induce fear-related reasoning biases by providing children with negative information about a novel stimulus. For this purpose, non-clinical children aged 9-12 years (N=318) were shown a picture of an unknown animal for which they received either negative, ambiguous, positive, or no information. Then children completed a series of tests for measuring various types of reasoning biases (i.e., confirmation bias and covariation bias) in relation to this animal. Results indicated that children in the negative and, to a lesser extent, the ambiguous information groups displayed higher scores on tests of fear-related reasoning biases than children in the positive and no information groups. Altogether, these results support the idea that learning via negatively tinted information plays a role in the development of fear-related cognitive distortions in youths.

Social anxiety disorder: a review of environmental risk factors

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is a debilitating and chronic illness characterized by persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations, with a relatively high lifetime prevalence of 7% to 13% in the general population. Although the last two decades have witnessed enormous growth in the study of biological and dispositional factors underlying SAD, comparatively little attention has been directed towards environmental factors in SAD, even though there has been much ongoing work in the area. In this paper, we provide a recent review and critique of proposed environmental risk factors for SAD, focusing on traditional as well as some understudied and overlooked environmental risk factors: parenting and family environment, adverse life events, cultural and societal factors, and gender roles. We also discuss the need for research design improvements and considerations for future directions.

Gender role orientation and anxiety symptoms among African american adolescents

The present study evaluated gender role theory as an explanation for the observed gender differences in anxiety symptoms among adolescents. Specifically, the relation between gender, gender role orientation (i.e., masculinity and femininity), self-esteem, and anxiety symptoms was examined in a community sample of 114 African Americans aged 14 to 19 (mean age 15.77; 57 girls). Results revealed that masculinity was negatively associated with anxiety symptoms whereas femininity was positively associated with anxiety symptoms. Gender role orientation accounted for unique variance in anxiety scores above biological gender and self-esteem, and self-esteem moderated the relation between femininity (but not masculinity) and overall anxiety symptoms. Consistent with research on children and Caucasians, findings supported gender role theory as a partial explanation for the observed gender disparity in anxiety symptoms among African American adolescents.