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Trebuian CI, Marza AM, Chioibaş R, Şutoi D, Petrica A, Crintea-Najette I, Popa D, Borcan F, Flondor D, Mederle OA. Lactate Profile Assessment-A Good Predictor of Prognosis in Patients with COVID-19 and Septic Shock Requiring Continuous Renal Therapy. Clin Pract 2024; 14:980-994. [PMID: 38921256 PMCID: PMC11202829 DOI: 10.3390/clinpract14030078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2024] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Lactate is a useful prognostic marker, as its level increases in hypoxic tissue and/or during accelerated aerobic glycolysis due to excessive beta-adrenergic stimulation and decreased lactate clearance. The Surviving Sepsis Campaign Bundle 2018 Update suggests premeasurement of lactate within 2-4 h so that physicians perform, assist, administer, and introduce lactate-guided resuscitation to reduce mortality due to sepsis. METHODS A total of 108 patients with septic shock who underwent continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) for acute kidney injury were enrolled in this observational study. Demographic, clinical, and laboratory data were collected, and patients were divided into two groups: survivors and non-survivors. RESULTS Multivariate analysis demonstrated that lactate levels at 24 h after initiation of CRRT treatment, but not lactate levels at intensive care unit (ICU) admission, were associated with mortality. Lactate clearance was associated with lower mortality among the survivors (OR = 0.140) at 6 h after ICU admission and late mortality (OR = 0.260) after 24 h. The area under the ROC curves for mortality was 0.682 for initial lactate; 0.797 for lactate at 24 h; and 0.816 for lactate clearance at 24 h. CONCLUSIONS Our result reinforces that the determination of lactate dynamics represents a good predictor for mortality, and serial lactate measurements may be more useful prognostic markers than initial lactate in patients with septic shock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cosmin Iosif Trebuian
- Department of Surgery I, Faculty of Medicine, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Square, 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (C.I.T.); (A.M.M.); (D.Ş.); (A.P.); (I.C.-N.); (D.P.); (O.A.M.)
- Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, Emergency County Hospital Resita, 320210 Resita, Romania
| | - Adina Maria Marza
- Department of Surgery I, Faculty of Medicine, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Square, 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (C.I.T.); (A.M.M.); (D.Ş.); (A.P.); (I.C.-N.); (D.P.); (O.A.M.)
- Emergency Department, Emergency Clinical Municipal Hospital Timisoara, 300079 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Raul Chioibaş
- Department of Surgery I, Faculty of Medicine, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Square, 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (C.I.T.); (A.M.M.); (D.Ş.); (A.P.); (I.C.-N.); (D.P.); (O.A.M.)
| | - Dumitru Şutoi
- Department of Surgery I, Faculty of Medicine, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Square, 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (C.I.T.); (A.M.M.); (D.Ş.); (A.P.); (I.C.-N.); (D.P.); (O.A.M.)
| | - Alina Petrica
- Department of Surgery I, Faculty of Medicine, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Square, 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (C.I.T.); (A.M.M.); (D.Ş.); (A.P.); (I.C.-N.); (D.P.); (O.A.M.)
- Emergency Department of “Pius Brinzeu”, Emergency Clinical County Hospital Timisoara, 300736 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Iulia Crintea-Najette
- Department of Surgery I, Faculty of Medicine, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Square, 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (C.I.T.); (A.M.M.); (D.Ş.); (A.P.); (I.C.-N.); (D.P.); (O.A.M.)
- Emergency Department, Emergency Clinical Municipal Hospital Timisoara, 300079 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Daian Popa
- Department of Surgery I, Faculty of Medicine, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Square, 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (C.I.T.); (A.M.M.); (D.Ş.); (A.P.); (I.C.-N.); (D.P.); (O.A.M.)
- Emergency Department, Emergency Clinical Municipal Hospital Timisoara, 300079 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Florin Borcan
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Square, 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (F.B.); (D.F.)
| | - Daniela Flondor
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Square, 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (F.B.); (D.F.)
- Research Center for Pharmaco-Toxicological Evaluation, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy Timisoara, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Square, 300041 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Ovidiu Alexandru Mederle
- Department of Surgery I, Faculty of Medicine, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 2nd Eftimie Murgu Square, 300041 Timisoara, Romania; (C.I.T.); (A.M.M.); (D.Ş.); (A.P.); (I.C.-N.); (D.P.); (O.A.M.)
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Ronaldson PT, Davis TP. Blood-brain barrier transporters: a translational consideration for CNS delivery of neurotherapeutics. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2024; 21:71-89. [PMID: 38217410 PMCID: PMC10842757 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2024.2306138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Successful neuropharmacology requires optimization of CNS drug delivery and, by extension, free drug concentrations at brain molecular targets. Detailed assessment of blood-brain barrier (BBB) physiological characteristics is necessary to achieve this goal. The 'next frontier' in CNS drug delivery is targeting BBB uptake transporters, an approach that requires evaluation of brain endothelial cell transport processes so that effective drug accumulation and improved therapeutic efficacy can occur. AREAS COVERED BBB permeability of drugs is governed by tight junction protein complexes (i.e., physical barrier) and transporters/enzymes (i.e., biochemical barrier). For most therapeutics, a component of blood-to-brain transport involves passive transcellular diffusion. Small molecule drugs that do not possess acceptable physicochemical characteristics for passive permeability may utilize putative membrane transporters for CNS uptake. While both uptake and efflux transport mechanisms are expressed at the brain microvascular endothelium, uptake transporters can be targeted for optimization of brain drug delivery and improved treatment of neurological disease states. EXPERT OPINION Uptake transporters represent a unique opportunity to optimize brain drug delivery by leveraging the endogenous biology of the BBB. A rigorous understanding of these transporters is required to improve translation from the bench to clinical trials and stimulate the development of new treatment paradigms for neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas P. Davis
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Arizona College of Medicine
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Jung S, Kim M, Kim S, Lee S. Interaction between γ-Hydroxybutyric Acid and Ethanol: A Review from Toxicokinetic and Toxicodynamic Perspectives. Metabolites 2023; 13:metabo13020180. [PMID: 36837798 PMCID: PMC9965651 DOI: 10.3390/metabo13020180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is a potent, short-acting central nervous system depressant as well as an inhibitory neurotransmitter or neuromodulator derived from gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a major inhibitory neurotransmitter. The sodium salt of GHB, sodium oxybate, has been used for the treatment of narcolepsy and cataplexy, whereas GHB was termed as a date rape drug or a club drug in the 1990s. Ethanol is the most co-ingested drug in acute GHB intoxication. In this review, the latest findings on the combined effects of GHB and ethanol are summarized from toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic perspectives. For this purpose, we mainly discussed the pharmacology and toxicology of GHB, GHB intoxication under alcohol consumption, clinical cases of the combined intoxication of GHB and ethanol, and previous studies on the toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic interactions between GHB and ethanol in humans, animals, and an in vitro model. The combined administration of GHB and ethanol enhanced sedation and cardiovascular dysfunction, probably by the additive action of GABA receptors, while toxicokinetic changes of GHB were not significant. The findings of this review will contribute to clinical and forensic interpretation related to GHB intoxication. Furthermore, this review highlights the significance of studies aiming to further understand the enhanced inhibitory effects of GHB induced by the co-ingestion of ethanol.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Sooyeun Lee
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-53-580-6651; Fax: +82-53-580-5164
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Felmlee MA, Morse BL, Morris ME. γ-Hydroxybutyric Acid: Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Toxicology. AAPS J 2021; 23:22. [PMID: 33417072 PMCID: PMC8098080 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-020-00543-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is a short-chain fatty acid present endogenously in the brain and used therapeutically for the treatment of narcolepsy, as sodium oxybate, and for alcohol abuse/withdrawal. GHB is better known however as a drug of abuse and is commonly referred to as the "date-rape drug"; current use in popular culture includes recreational "chemsex," due to its properties of euphoria, loss of inhibition, amnesia, and drowsiness. Due to the steep concentration-effect curve for GHB, overdoses occur commonly and symptoms include sedation, respiratory depression, coma, and death. GHB binds to both GHB and GABAB receptors in the brain, with pharmacological/toxicological effects mainly due to GABAB agonist effects. The pharmacokinetics of GHB are complex and include nonlinear absorption, metabolism, tissue uptake, and renal elimination processes. GHB is a substrate for monocarboxylate transporters, including both sodium-dependent transporters (SMCT1, 2; SLC5A8; SLC5A12) and proton-dependent transporters (MCT1-4; SLC16A1, 7, 8, and 3), which represent significant determinants of absorption, renal reabsorption, and brain and tissue uptake. This review will provide current information of the pharmacology, therapeutic effects, and pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of GHB, as well as therapeutic strategies for the treatment of overdoses. Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie A Felmlee
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Medicinal Chemistry Thomas J Long School of Pharmacy, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California, USA
| | - Bridget L Morse
- Drug Disposition, Eli Lilly and Company, Lilly Corporate Center, Indianapolis, Indiana, 46285, USA
| | - Marilyn E Morris
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, 304 Pharmacy Building, Buffalo, New York, 14214, USA.
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Felmlee MA, Morse BL, Follman KE, Morris ME. The Drug of Abuse Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid Exhibits Tissue-Specific Nonlinear Distribution. AAPS JOURNAL 2017; 20:21. [PMID: 29280004 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-017-0180-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/03/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The drug of abuse γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) demonstrates complex toxicokinetics with dose-dependent metabolic and renal clearance. GHB is a substrate of monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs) which are responsible for the saturable renal reabsorption of GHB. MCT expression is observed in many tissues and therefore may impact the tissue distribution of GHB. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the tissue distribution kinetics of GHB at supratherapeutic doses. GHB (400, 600, and 800 mg/kg iv) or GHB 600 mg/kg plus L-lactate (330 mg/kg iv bolus followed by 121 mg/kg/h infusion) was administered to rats and blood and tissues were collected for up to 330 min post-dose. K p values for GHB varied in both a tissue- and dose-dependent manner and were less than 0.5 (except in the kidney). Nonlinear partitioning was observed in the liver (0.06 at 400 mg/kg to 0.30 at 800 mg/kg), kidney (0.62 at 400 mg/kg to 0.98 at 800 mg/kg), and heart (0.15 at 400 mg/kg to 0.29 at 800 mg/kg), with K p values increasing with dose consistent with saturation of transporter-mediated efflux. In contrast, lung partitioning decreased in a dose-dependent manner (0.43 at 400 mg/kg to 0.25 at 800 mg/kg) suggesting saturation of active uptake. L-lactate administration decreased K p values in liver, striatum, and hippocampus and increased K p values in lung and spleen. GHB demonstrates tissue-specific nonlinear distribution consistent with the involvement of monocarboxylate transporters. These observed complexities are likely due to the involvement of MCT1 and 4 with different affinities and directionality for GHB transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie A Felmlee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York, 14214, USA. .,Department of Pharmaceutics & Medicinal Chemistry, Thomas J Long School of Pharmacy & Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California, 95211, USA.
| | - Bridget L Morse
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York, 14214, USA.,Investigative Drug Disposition, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Kristin E Follman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York, 14214, USA
| | - Marilyn E Morris
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York, 14214, USA
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Dave RA, Follman KE, Morris ME. γ-Hydroxybutyric Acid (GHB) Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics: Semi-Mechanistic and Physiologically Relevant PK/PD Model. AAPS JOURNAL 2017; 19:1449-1460. [PMID: 28653244 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-017-0111-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
An overdose of γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), a drug of abuse, results in fatality caused by severe respiratory depression. In this study, a semi-mechanistic pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) model was developed to characterize monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1)-mediated transport of GHB, as well as effects of GHB on respiration frequency, for IV doses of 200, 600, and 1500 mg/kg in rats. The proposed PK/PD model for GHB consists of nonlinear metabolism of GHB in the liver, MCT1-mediated renal reabsorption with physiologically relevant concurrent fluid reabsorption, MCT1-mediated uptake into the brain, and direct effects of binding of GHB to GABAB receptors on the PD parameter, respiration frequency. Michaelis-Menten affinity constants for metabolism, renal reabsorption, and uptake into and efflux from the brain were fixed to the observed in vitro values. The IC 50 value for the effect of GHB on respiration frequency was fixed to a reported value for binding of GHB to GABAB receptors. All physiological parameters were fixed to the reported values for a 300-g rat. The model successfully captured the GHB PK/PD data and was further validated using the data for a 600-mg/kg dose of GHB after IV bolus administration. Unbound GHB brain ECF/blood partition coefficient (Kp u,u ) values obtained from the model agreed well with values calculated using experimental ECF concentrations obtained with brain microdialysis, demonstrating the physiological relevance of this model. Sensitivity analysis indicated that the PK/PD model was stable. In conclusion, we developed a semi-mechanistic and physiologically relevant PK/PD model of GHB using in vitro drug-transporter kinetics and in vivo PK/PD data in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rutwij A Dave
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, New York, 14214, USA.,Preclinical and Translational Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics (PTPK), Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Kristin E Follman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, New York, 14214, USA
| | - Marilyn E Morris
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, New York, 14214, USA.
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Abstract
Highlights Fermentation of the dietary fiber by intestinal microflora results in production of butyrate.Butyrate possesses anticarcinogenic effect at the colonic level.Three transporters (MCT1, SMCT1 and BCRP) regulate the intracellular concentration of BT in colonic epithelial cells.Changes in the expression of these transporters occur in colorectal cancer. Abstract Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common solid tumors worldwide. Consumption of dietary fiber is associated with a low risk of developing CRC. The fermentation of the dietary fiber by intestinal microflora results in production of butyrate (BT). This short-chain fatty acid is an important metabolic substrate in normal colonic epithelial cells and has important homeostatic functions at the colonic level. Because the cellular effects of BT (e.g. inhibition of histone deacetylases) are dependent on its intracellular concentration, knowledge on the mechanisms involved in BT membrane transport and its regulation seems particularly relevant. In this review, we will present the carrier-mediated mechanisms involved in BT membrane transport at the colonic epithelial level and their regulation, with an emphasis on CRC. Several xenobiotics known to modulate the risk for developing CRC are able to interfere with BT transport at the intestinal level. Thus, interference with BT transport certainly contributes to the anticarcinogenic or procarcinogenic effect of these compounds and these compounds may interfere with the anticarcinogenic effect of BT. Finally, we suggest that differences in BT transport between normal colonocytes and tumoral cells contribute to the "BT paradox" (the apparent opposing effect of BT in CRC cells and normal colonocytes).
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Dave RA, Morris ME. Semi-mechanistic kidney model incorporating physiologically-relevant fluid reabsorption and transporter-mediated renal reabsorption: pharmacokinetics of γ-hydroxybutyric acid and L-lactate in rats. J Pharmacokinet Pharmacodyn 2015; 42:497-513. [PMID: 26341876 DOI: 10.1007/s10928-015-9441-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
This study developed a semi-mechanistic kidney model incorporating physiologically-relevant fluid reabsorption and transporter-mediated active reabsorption. The model was applied to data for the drug of abuse γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), which exhibits monocarboxylate transporter (MCT1/SMCT1)-mediated renal reabsorption. The kidney model consists of various nephron segments--proximal tubules, Loop-of-Henle, distal tubules, and collecting ducts--where the segmental fluid flow rates, volumes, and sequential reabsorption were incorporated as functions of the glomerular filtration rate. The active renal reabsorption was modeled as vectorial transport across proximal tubule cells. In addition, the model included physiological blood, liver, and remainder compartments. The population pharmacokinetic modeling was performed using ADAPT5 for GHB blood concentration-time data and cumulative amount excreted unchanged into urine data (200-1000 mg/kg IV bolus doses) from rats [Felmlee et al (PMID: 20461486)]. Simulations assessed the effects of inhibition (R = [I]/KI = 0-100) of renal reabsorption on systemic exposure (AUC) and renal clearance of GHB. Visual predictive checks and other model diagnostic plots indicated that the model reasonably captured GHB concentrations. Simulations demonstrated that the inhibition of renal reabsorption significantly increased GHB renal clearance and decreased AUC. Model validation was performed using a separate dataset. Furthermore, our model successfully evaluated the pharmacokinetics of L-lactate using data obtained from Morse et al (PMID: 24854892). In conclusion, we developed a semi-mechanistic kidney model that can be used to evaluate transporter-mediated active renal reabsorption of drugs by the kidney.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rutwij A Dave
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, 14214, USA
| | - Marilyn E Morris
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, 14214, USA.
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Vijay N, Morse BL, Morris ME. A Novel Monocarboxylate Transporter Inhibitor as a Potential Treatment Strategy for γ-Hydroxybutyric Acid Overdose. Pharm Res 2014; 32:1894-906. [PMID: 25480120 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-014-1583-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Monocarboxylate transporter (MCT) inhibition represents a potential treatment strategy for γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) overdose by blocking its renal reabsorption in the kidney. This study further evaluated the effects of a novel, highly potent MCT inhibitor, AR-C155858, on GHB toxicokinetics/toxicodynamics (TK/TD). METHODS Rats were administered GHB (200, 600 or 1500 mg/kg i.v. or 1500 mg/kg po) with and without AR-C155858. Breathing frequency was continuously monitored using whole-body plethysmography. Plasma and urine samples were collected up to 8 h. The effect of AR-C155858 on GHB brain/plasma partitioning was also assessed. RESULTS AR-C155858 treatment significantly increased GHB renal and total clearance after intravenous GHB administration at all the GHB doses used in this study. GHB-induced respiratory depression was significantly improved by AR-C155858 as demonstrated by an improvement in the respiratory rate. AR-C155858 treatment also resulted in a significant reduction in brain/plasma partitioning of GHB (0.1 ± 0.03) when compared to GHB alone (0.25 ± 0.02). GHB CLR and CLoral (CL/F) following oral administration were also significantly increased following AR-C155858 treatment (from 1.82 ± 0.63 to 5.74 ± 0.86 and 6.52 ± 0.88 to 10.2 ± 0.75 ml/min/kg, respectively). CONCLUSION The novel and highly potent MCT inhibitor represents a potential treatment option for GHB overdose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha Vijay
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, 352 Kapoor Hall, Buffalo, New York, 14214-8033, USA
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