Niosome-encapsulated gentamicin for ophthalmic controlled delivery

Surface modified niosomal quercetin with cationic lipid: an appropriate drug delivery system against Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections

The Increase in infections caused by resistant strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa poses a formidable challenge to global healthcare systems. P. aeruginosa is capable of causing severe human infections across diverse anatomical sites, presenting considerable therapeutic obstacles due to its heightened drug resistance. Niosomal drug delivery systems offer enhanced pharmaceutical potential for loaded contents due to their desirable properties, mainly providing a controlled-release profile. This study aimed to formulate an optimized niosomal drug delivery system incorporating stearylamine (SA) to augment the anti-bacterial and anti-biofilm activities of quercetin (QCT) against both standard and clinical strains of P. aeruginosa. QCT-loaded niosome (QCT-niosome) and QCT-loaded SA- niosome (QCT-SA- niosome) were synthesized by the thin-film hydration technique, and their physicochemical characteristics were evaluated by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), zeta potential measurement, entrapment efficacy (EE%), and in vitro release profile. The anti-P. aeruginosa activity of synthesized niosomes was assessed using minimum inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations (MICs/MBCs) and compared with free QCT. Additionally, the minimum biofilm inhibitory and eradication concentrations (MBICs/MBECs) were carried out to analyze the ability of QCT-niosome and QCT-SA-niosome against P. aeruginosa biofilms. Furthermore, the cytotoxicity assay was conducted on the L929 mouse fibroblasts cell line to evaluate the biocompatibility of the formulated niosomes. FE-SEM analysis revealed that both synthesized niosomal formulations exhibited spherical morphology with different sizes (57.4 nm for QCT-niosome and 178.9 nm for QCT-SA-niosome). The EE% for cationic and standard niosomal formulations was reported at 75.9% and 59.6%, respectively. Both formulations showed an in vitro sustained-release profile, and QCT-SA-niosome exhibited greater stability during a 4-month storage time compared to QCT-niosome. Microbial experiments indicated that both prepared formulations had higher anti-bacterial and anti-biofilm activities than free QCT. Also, the QCT-SA-niosome exhibited greater reductions in MIC, MBC, MBIC, and MBEC values compared to the QCT-niosome at equivalent concentrations. This study supports the potential of QCT-niosome and QCT-SA-niosome as effective agents against P. aeruginosa infections, manifesting significant anti-bacterial and anti-biofilm efficacy alongside biocompatibility with L929 cell lines. Furthermore, our results suggest that optimized QCT-niosome with cationic lipids could efficiently target P. aeruginosa cells with negligible cytotoxic effect.

Repro-protective activity of amygdalin and spirulina platensis in niosomes and conventional forms against aluminum chloride-induced testicular challenge in adult rats: role of CYP11A1, StAR, and HSD-3B expressions

The male reproductive system is negatively influenced by Al exposure. Al represented a considerable hazard to men's reproduction capabilities. Amygdalin (AMG) and spirulina platensis (SP) have been considered to have a strong antioxidant and repro-protective activity; also, targeted drug delivery systems called niosomes improve the distribution of water-soluble medications like amygdalin and spirulina. Current study targeted to determine the effectiveness of AMG and SP against negative reproductive impact resulted by aluminum chloride (AlCl3) toxicity. Sixty adult male albino rats were separated into 6 groups, including the control group, which received distilled water; AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3; AMG+AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3+AMG; AMGLN+AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3+amygdalin-loaded niosomes; SP+AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3+SP; and SPLN+AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3+spirulina-loaded niosomes. All treatments were orally gavaged daily for 5 weeks, and rats were weighed weekly. At the termination of the experiment, some males (three from each group) were used for fertility traits via mating thirty virgin rat females (in a ratio of 1:2 and 2:3 male:female, respectively) followed by recording of birth weights and litter size (number of pups per each female) at birth to assess males' reproductive capability. Other males were euthanized for collection of serum, epididymal semen samples, and tissue samples for biochemical, sperm evaluation, gene expression, and histopathological measurements. There are a considerable number of negative impacts of AlCl3 on male fertility clarified by declined serum testosterone levels; an increased oxidative stress (MDA, TAC); deteriorated semen quality; down-regulation of CYP11A1, StAR, and HSD-3b gene expressions; and testicular tissue degenerative changes. In addition, litter size (number of pups per each female) and birth weights of pups obtained from mated females were affected. AMG and SP treatments, either in niosomal or conventional form, alleviated the AlCl3 negative effects by reducing oxidative stress; increasing testosterone levels; improving semen quality; upregulating of CYP11A1, StAR, and HSD-3b gene expressions; and reducing degenerative changes of testicular tissue. Besides, negative reproductive effect was diminished as observed by changes in the litter size (number of pups per each female) and birth weights of pups obtained from mated females. AMG and SP treatments (either in niosomal or conventional form), ameliorated the AlCl3 negative effects as they possess powerful antioxidant activity, as well as they have the ability to improve the reproductive activity of affected males.

Kinetic assessment of iontophoretic delivery efficiency of niosomal tetracycline hydrochloride incorporated in electroconductive gel

The purpose of this study was to conduct the kinetic assessment of iontophoretic delivery of niosomal tetracycline-HCl formulated in an electroconductive gel. Tween-80 and Span-80 were used to obtain tetracycline-HCl niosomes with an average diameter of 101.9 ± 3.3 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.247 ± 0.004, a zeta potential of - 34.1 mV, and an entrapment efficiency of 70.08 ± 0.16%. Four different gel preparations, two of which contained niosomal tetracycline-HCl, were transdermally delivered using Franz diffusion cells under the trigger effect of iontophoresis, applied at 0.2, 0.5, and 1 mA/cm2 current density. The control group was the passive diffusion results of the preparation made using a tetracycline-HCl-based drug marketed in Turkey. The control group was compared with the groups that contained (a) tetracycline-HCl in an electroconductive gel, (b) the niosomal tetracycline-HCl formulation in water, and (c) the niosomal tetracycline-HCl formulation in the electroconductive gel. The group with the niosomal formulation in the electroconductive gel displayed the highest increase in iontophoretic transdermal delivery relative to the control group, displaying a 2-, 2.1-, and 2.2-fold increase, respectively, by current density. The experimental results of transdermal delivery using the synergistic effect of niosomal formulation in electroconductive gel and the trigger effect of iontophoresis appeared to divert slightly from zero-order kinetics, demonstrating a statistically significant increase in the rate of controlled transdermal drug delivery. Considering that about 20% of the formulation is transdermally delivered in the first half-hour, the iontophoretic transdermal delivery of niosomal tetracycline-HCl can be efficiently used in local iontophoretic therapy.

Vesicular Drug Delivery Systems: Promising Approaches in Ocular Drug Delivery

Ocular drug delivery poses unique challenges due to the complex anatomical and physiological barriers of the eye. Conventional dosage forms often fail to achieve optimal therapeutic outcomes due to poor bioavailability, short retention time, and off-target effects. In recent years, vesicular drug delivery systems have emerged as promising solutions to address these challenges. Vesicular systems, such as liposome, niosome, ethosome, transfersome, and others (bilosome, transethosome, cubosome, proniosome, chitosome, terpesome, phytosome, discome, and spanlastics), offer several advantages for ocular drug delivery. These include improved drug bioavailability, prolonged retention time on the ocular surface, reduced systemic side effects, and protection of drugs from enzymatic degradation and dilution by tears. Moreover, vesicular formulations can be engineered for targeted delivery to specific ocular tissues or cells, enhancing therapeutic efficacy while minimizing off-target effects. They also enable the encapsulation of a wide range of drug molecules, including hydrophilic, hydrophobic, and macromolecular drugs, and the possibility of combination therapy by facilitating the co-delivery of multiple drugs. This review examines vesicular drug delivery systems, their advantages over conventional drug delivery systems, production techniques, and their applications in management of ocular diseases.

Formulation, pharmacokinetics, and antibacterial activity of florfenicol-loaded niosome

The growing interest in employing nano-sized pharmaceutical formulations in veterinary medicine has prompted the exploration of the novel nanocarriers' ability to augment the therapeutic outcome. In this study, we harnessed niosomes, spherical nanocarriers formed through non-ionic surfactant self-assembly, to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of the broad-spectrum antibiotic florfenicol. Pre-formulation studies were conducted to identify the optimal parameters for preparing florfenicol-loaded niosomes (FLNs). These studies revealed that the formulation that consisted of Span 60, cholesterol, and dihexadecyl phosphate (DDP) at a molar ratio of 1:1:0.1 exhibited the highest entrapment efficiency (%EE) and uniform size distribution. In vitro antibacterial testing demonstrated the niosomal capacity to significantly reduce florfenicol minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against E. coli and S. aureus. Pharmacokinetic profiles of free florfenicol and FLN were assessed following oral administration of 30 mg florfenicol/kg body weight to healthy or E. coli-infected chickens. FLN exhibited a substantially higher maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) of florfenicol compared to free florfenicol. Furthermore, FLN showed significantly higher area under the curve (AUC0-t) than free florfenicol as revealed from the relative bioavailability studies. Lethal dose (LD) 50 values for both free florfenicol and FLN exceeded 5 g/kg of body weight, indicating high safety profile. Assessment of mortality protection in mice against lethal E. coli infections showed the significantly higher capability of FLN to improve the survival rate (75%) than free florfenicol (25%). Collectively, these findings demonstrate the niosomal ability to improve the oral bioavailability as well as the antibacterial activity of the incorporated veterinary antibiotic florfenicol.

Radioprotective effect of nanoniosome loaded by Mentha Pulegium essential oil on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells exposed to ionizing radiation

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to assess the radioprotective effect of nanoniosomes loaded by Mentha Pulegium essential oil (MPEO-N nanoparticles) as a natural antioxidant on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs).

SIGNIFICANCE

Despite the applications and advantages of ionizing radiation, there are many radiation risks to biological systems that are necessary to be reduced as much as possible.

METHODS

MPEO-N nanoparticles were prepared by the lipid thin film hydration method, and its physicochemical characteristics were analyzed. PBMCs were then irradiated with X-ray using a 6 MV linear accelerator at two radiation doses in the presence of nontoxic concentrations of MPEO-N nanoparticles (IC10). After 48 and 72 h of incubation, the radioprotective effect was investigated by measuring survival, apoptosis, and necrosis of PBMCs, using MTT assay and flow cytometry analysis.

KEY FINDINGS

The hydrodynamic diameter and zeta potential of nanoniosomes were 106.0 ± 4.69 nm and -15.2 ± 0.9 mV, respectively. The mean survival percentage of PBMCs showed a significant increase only at a radiation dose of 200 cGy compared with the control group. The percentages of apoptosis and necrosis of cells in the presence of MPEO-N nanoparticles at both radiation doses and incubation periods (48 and 72 h) demonstrated a significant reduction compared with the control.

CONCLUSION

MPEO-N nanoparticles as a natural antioxidant, exhibited a favorable radioprotective effect by a significant reduction in the percentage of apoptosis and necrosis of irradiated PBMCs.

Impact of umbelliprenin-containing niosome nanoparticles on VEGF-A and CTGF genes expression in retinal pigment epithelium cells

AIM

To investigate the impact of niosome nanoparticles carrying umbelliprenin (UMB), an anti-angiogenic and anti-inflammatory plant compound, on the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A) and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) genes in a human retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)-like retina-derived cell line.

METHODS

UMB-containing niosomes were created, optimized, and characterized. RPE-like cells were treated with free UMB and UMB-containing niosomes. The IC50 values of the treatments were determined using an MTT assay. Gene expression of VEGF-A and CTGF was evaluated using real-time polymerase chain reaction after RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis. Niosomes' characteristics, including drug entrapment efficiency, size, dispersion index, and zeta potential were assessed. Free UMB had an IC50 of 96.2 µg/mL, while UMB-containing niosomes had an IC50 of 25 µg/mL.

RESULTS

Treatment with UMB-containing niosomes and free UMB resulted in a significant reduction in VEGF-A expression compared to control cells (P=0.001). Additionally, UMB-containing niosomes demonstrated a significant reduction in CTGF expression compared to control cells (P=0.05). However, there was no significant reduction in the expression of both genes in cells treated with free UMB.

CONCLUSION

Both free UMB and niosome-encapsulated UMB inhibits VEGF-A and CTGF genes expression. However, the latter demonstrates significantly greater efficacy, potentially due to the lower UMB dosage and gradual delivery. These findings have implications for anti-angiogenesis therapeutic approaches targeting age-related macular degeneration.

Niosomes: A Smart Drug Delivery System for Brain Targeting

Niosomes are lipid-based nanovesicles that have the potential to act as drug-delivery vehicles for a variety of agents. They are effective drug delivery systems for both ASOs and AAV vectors, with advantages such as improved stability, bioavailability, and targeted administration. In the context of brain-targeted drug delivery, niosomes have been investigated as a drug delivery system for brain targeting, but more research is needed to optimize their formulation to improve their stability and release profile and address the challenges of scale-up and commercialization. Despite these challenges, several applications of niosomes have demonstrated the potential of novel nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery to the brain. This review briefly overviews the current use of niosomes in treating brain disorders and diseases.

Nanoformulations Insights: A Novel Paradigm for Antifungal Therapies and Future Perspectives

Currently, fungal infections are becoming more prevalent worldwide. Subsequently, many antifungal agents are available to cure diseases like pemphigus, athlete's foot, acne, psoriasis, hyperpigmentation, albinism, and skin cancer. Still, they fall short due to pitfalls in physiochemical properties. Conventional medications like lotion, creams, ointments, poultices, and gels are available for antifungal therapy but present many shortcomings. They are associated with drug retention and poor penetration problems, resulting in drug resistance, hypersensitivity, and diminished efficacy. On the contrary, nanoformulations have gained tremendous potential in overcoming the drawbacks of conventional delivery. Furthermore, the potential breakthroughs of nanoformulations are site-specific targeting. It has improved bioavailability, patient-tailored approach, reduced drug retention and hypersensitivity, and improved skin penetration. Nowadays, nanoformulations are gaining popularity for antifungal therapy against superficial skin infections. Nanoformulations-based liposomes, niosomes, nanosponges, solid lipid nanoparticles, and potential applications have been explored for antifungal therapy due to enhanced activity and reduced toxicity. Researchers are now more focused on developing patient-oriented target-based nano delivery to cover the lacunas of conventional treatment with higher immune stimulatory effects. Future direction involves the construction of novel nanotherapeutic devices, nanorobotics, and robust methods. In addition, for the preparations of nanoformulations for clinical studies, animal modeling solves the problems of antifungal therapy. This review describes insights into various superficial fungal skin infections and their potential applications, nanocarrier-based drug delivery, and mechanism of action. In addition, it focuses on regulatory considerations, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies, clinical trials, patents, challenges, and future inputs for researchers to improve antifungal therapy.

Span 60/Cholesterol Niosomal Formulation as a Suitable Vehicle for Gallic Acid Delivery with Potent In Vitro Antibacterial, Antimelanoma, and Anti-Tyrosinase Activity

Natural compounds such as gallic acid (GA) have attracted more attention in cosmetic and pharmaceutical skin care products. However, the low solubility and poor stability of GA have limited its application. This study aimed to synthesize and characterize the GA niosomal dispersion (GAN) and investigate the potential of an optimal formulation as a skin drug delivery system for GA. For this purpose, GAN formulations were synthesized using the thin layer evaporation method with different molar ratios of Tween 60/Span 60, along with a constant molar ratio of polyethylene glycol 4000 (PEG-4000) and cholesterol in a methanol and chloroform solvent (1:4 v/v). The physicochemical properties of nanosystems in terms of size, zeta potential, drug entrapment, drug release, morphology, and system-drug interaction were characterized using different methods. In addition, in vitro cytotoxicity, anti-tyrosinase activity, and antibacterial activity were evaluated by MTT assay, the spectrophotometric method, and micro-well dilution assay. All formulations revealed a size of 80-276 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) values below 0.35, and zeta potential values below-9.7 mV. F2 was selected as the optimal formulation due to its smaller size and high stability. The optimal formulation of GAN (F2) was as follows: a 1:1 molar ratio of Span 60 to cholesterol and 1.5 mM GA. The release of the F2 drug showed a biphasic pattern, which was fast in the first 12 h until 58% was released. Our results showed the high antibacterial activity of GAN against Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The MTT assay showed that GA encapsulation increased its effect on B6F10 cancer cells. The F2 formulation exhibited potent anti-tyrosinase activity and inhibited melanin synthesis. These findings suggest that it can be used in dermatological skin care products in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries due to its significant antibacterial, anti-melanoma, and anti-tyrosinase activity.

PEGylated Tween 80-functionalized chitosan-lipidic nano-vesicular hybrids for heightening nose-to-brain delivery and bioavailability of metoclopramide

A PEGylated Tween 80-functionalized chitosan-lipidic (PEG-T-Chito-Lip) nano-vesicular hybrid was developed for intranasal administration as an alternative delivery route to help improve the poor oral bioavailability of BCS class-III model/antiemetic (metoclopramide hydrochloride; MTC). The influence of varying levels of chitosan, cholesterol, PEG 600, and Tween 80 on the stability/release parameters of the formulated nanovesicles was optimized using Draper-Lin Design. Two optimized formulations (Opti-Max and Opti-Min) with both maximized and minimized MTC-release goals, were predicted, characterized, and proved their vesicular outline via light/electron microscopy, along with the mutual prompt/extended in-vitro release patterns. The dual-optimized MTC-loaded PEG-T-Chito-Lip nanovesicles were loaded in intranasal in-situ gel (ISG) and further underwent in-vivo pharmacokinetics/nose-to-brain delivery valuation on Sprague-Dawley rats. The absorption profiles in plasma (plasma-AUC_0-∞) of the intranasal dual-optimized MTC-loaded nano-vesicular ISG formulation in pretreated rats were 2.95-fold and 1.64-fold more than rats pretreated with orally administered MTC and intranasally administered raw MTC-loaded ISG formulation, respectively. Interestingly, the brain-AUC_0-∞ of the intranasal dual-optimized MTC-loaded ISG was 10 and 3 times more than brain-AUC_0-∞ of the MTC-oral tablet and the intranasal raw MTC-loaded ISG, respectively. It was also revealed that the intranasal dual-optimized ISG significantly had the lowest liver-AUC_0-∞ (862.19 ng.g^-1.h^-1) versus the MTC-oral tablet (5732.17 ng.g^-1.h^-1) and the intranasal raw MTC-loaded ISG (1799.69 ng.g^-1.h^-1). The brain/blood ratio profile for the intranasal dual-optimized ISG was significantly enhanced over all other MTC formulations (P < 0.05). Moreover, the 198.55% drug targeting efficiency, 75.26% nose-to-brain direct transport percentage, and 4.06 drug targeting index of the dual-optimized formulation were significantly higher than those of the raw MTC-loaded ISG formulation. The performance of the dual-optimized PEG-T-Chito-Lip nano-vesicular hybrids for intranasal administration evidenced MTC-improved bioavailability, circumvented hepatic metabolism, and enhanced brain targetability, with increased potentiality in heightening the convenience and compliance for patients.

Research progress of ophthalmic preparations of immunosuppressants

Immune ophthalmopathy is a collection of autoimmune eye diseases. Immunosuppressants are drugs that can inhibit the body's immune response. Considering drug side effects such as hepatorenal toxicity and the unique structure of the eye, incorporating immunosuppressants into ophthalmic nanodrug delivery systems, such as microparticles, nanoparticles, liposomes, micelles, implants, and in situ gels, has the advantages of improving solubility, increasing bioavailability, high eye-target specificity, and reducing side effects. This study reviews recent research and applications of this aspect to provide a reference for the development of an ophthalmic drug delivery system.

Recent Advances of Ocular Drug Delivery Systems: Prominence of Ocular Implants for Chronic Eye Diseases

Chronic ocular diseases can seriously impact the eyes and could potentially result in blindness or serious vision loss. According to the most recent data from the WHO, there are more than 2 billion visually impaired people in the world. Therefore, it is pivotal to develop more sophisticated, long-acting drug delivery systems/devices to treat chronic eye conditions. This review covers several drug delivery nanocarriers that can control chronic eye disorders non-invasively. However, most of the developed nanocarriers are still in preclinical or clinical stages. Long-acting drug delivery systems, such as inserts and implants, constitute the majority of the clinically used methods for the treatment of chronic eye diseases due to their steady state release, persistent therapeutic activity, and ability to bypass most ocular barriers. However, implants are considered invasive drug delivery technologies, especially those that are nonbiodegradable. Furthermore, in vitro characterization approaches, although useful, are limited in mimicking or truly representing the in vivo environment. This review focuses on long-acting drug delivery systems (LADDS), particularly implantable drug delivery systems (IDDS), their formulation, methods of characterization, and clinical application for the treatment of eye diseases.

Chitosan-Coated Niosomes Loaded with Ellagic Acid Present Antiaging Activity in a Skin Cell Line

The polyphenol compound ellagic acid (EA) extracted from pomegranate has potential bioactivity against different types of chronic diseases. Skin aging is a long-term physiological process caused by many environmental factors, the most important of which is exposure to sun ultraviolet (UV) radiation. UV-induced chronic photodamage of the skin results in extrinsic aging. This study aimed to evaluate the photoprotective effects of EA on the human fibroblast skin cell line HFB4 and investigate its capacity to protect collagen from UV-induced deterioration. EA was encapsulated into chitosan-coated niosomes to reduce the skin aging effect of UV radiation in vitro. The tested formulations (niosomes loaded with EA and chitosan-coated niosomes loaded with EA) were characterized using transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, and scanning electron microscopy. Furthermore, the in vitro release of EA was determined. The HFB4 cell line samples were split into five groups: control, UV, UV-EA, UV-NIO-EA, and UV-CS-NIO-EA. UV irradiation was applied to the cell line groups via a UV-emitting lamp for 1 h, and then cell viability was measured for each group. The expression of genes implicated in skin aging (Co1A1, TERT, Timp3, and MMP3) was also assessed to quantify the impact of the loaded EA. The findings showed that EA-loaded chitosan-coated niosomes improved cell survival, upregulated Col1A1, TERT, and Timp3 genes, and downregulated MMP3. Thus, nanoparticles encapsulating EA are potent antioxidants that can preserve collagen levels and slow down the aging process in human skin.

Formulation and Characterization of Epalrestat-Loaded Polysorbate 60 Cationic Niosomes for Ocular Delivery

The aim of this work was to develop niosomes for the ocular delivery of epalrestat, a drug that inhibits the polyol pathway and protects diabetic eyes from damage linked to sorbitol production and accumulation. Cationic niosomes were made using polysorbate 60, cholesterol, and 1,2-di-O-octadecenyl-3-trimethylammonium propane. The niosomes were characterized using dynamic light scattering, zeta-potential, and transmission electron microscopy to determine their size (80 nm; polydispersity index 0.3 to 0.5), charge (-23 to +40 mV), and shape (spherical). The encapsulation efficiency (99.76%) and the release (75% drug release over 20 days) were measured with dialysis. The ocular irritability potential (non-irritating) was measured using the Hen's Egg Test on the Chorioallantoic Membrane model, and the blood glucose levels (on par with positive control) were measured using the gluc-HET model. The toxicity of the niosomes (non-toxic) was monitored using a zebrafish embryo model. Finally, corneal and scleral permeation was assessed with the help of Franz diffusion cells and confirmed with Raman spectroscopy. Niosomal permeation was higher than an unencapsulated drug in the sclera, and accumulation in tissues was confirmed with Raman. The prepared niosomes show promise to encapsulate and carry epalrestat through the eye to meet the need for controlled drug systems to treat the diabetic eye.

Nanospanlastics as a Novel Approach for Improving the Oral Delivery of Resveratrol in Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Endotoxicity in Mice

Purpose

Resveratrol (RSV) is a natural polyphenolic compound that has numerous biological effects. Owing to its poor bioavailability, only trace concentrations of RSV could be found at the site of action. Therefore, the present study was aimed at developing RSV-loaded nanospanlastics to improve its oral delivery and therapeutic activity.

Methods

RSV-loaded nanospanlastics were prepared using the thin film hydration technique. The developed formulations were characterized via vesicular size (VS), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP) measurements, fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy analysis and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In vitro release profile was carried out using dialysis bag diffusion technique. In vivo study was carried out using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endotoxicity model in mice to evaluate the formulations activity.

Results

The results revealed the successful development of RSV-loaded nanospanlastics which exhibited EE% ranging from 45 to 85%, particle sizes ranging from 260.5 to 794.3 nm; negatively charged zeta potential (≤ − 20 mV) and TEM revealed their spherical shape. An in vitro release study showed biphasic pattern with sustained release of drug up to 24 h. In vivo results showed the superiority of RSV-loaded nanospanlastics over conventional niosomes in attenuating serum levels of liver and kidney functions (aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), and creatinine) in LPS-induced endotoxic mice. Furthermore, both of them suppressed the elevated oxidative stress and inflammatory markers (malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), and interleukin-1beta (IL-1β)) estimated in the liver and kidney tissues. However, the nanospanlastics showed a prevalence effect over conventional niosomes in kidney measurements and the histopathological examinations.

Conclusions

These findings reveal the potential of nanospanlastics in improving the oral delivery and therapeutic efficacy of RSV.

Budesonide-Loaded Bilosomes as a Targeted Delivery Therapeutic Approach Against Acute Lung Injury in Rats

Budesonide (BUD), a glucocorticoids drug, inhibits all steps in the inflammatory response. It can reduce and treat inflammation and other symptoms associated with acute lung injury such as COVID-19. Loading BUD into bilosomes could boost its therapeutic activity, and lessen its frequent administration and side effects. Different bilosomal formulations were prepared where the independent variables were lipid type (Cholesterol, Phospholipon 80H, L-alpha phosphatidylcholine, and Lipoid S45), bile salt type (Na cholate and Na deoxycholate), and drug concentration (10, 20 mg). The measured responses were: vesicle size, entrapment efficiency, and release efficiency. One optimum formulation (composed of cholesterol, Na cholate, and 10 mg of BUD) was selected and investigated for its anti-inflammatory efficacy in vivo using Wistar albino male rats. Randomly allocated rats were distributed into four groups: The first: normal control group and received intranasal saline, the second one acted as the acute lung injury model received intranasal single dose of 2 mg/kg potassium dichromate (PD). Whereas the third and fourth groups received the market product (Pulmicort® nebulising suspension 0.5 mg/ml) and the optimized formulation (0.5 mg/kg; intranasal) for 7 days after PD instillation, respectively. Results showed that the optimized formulation decreased the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, and TGF-β contents as well as reduced PKC content in lung. These findings suggest the potentiality of BUD-loaded bilosomes for the treatment of acute lung injury with the ability of inhibiting the pro-inflammatory cytokines induced COVID-19.

Niosomes-loaded selenium nanoparticles as a new approach for enhanced antibacterial, anti-biofilm, and anticancer activities

Targeted drug delivery and increasing the biological activity of drugs is one of the recent challenges of pharmaceutical researchers. Niosomes are one of the new targeted drug delivery systems that enhances the biological properties of drugs. In this study, for the first time, the green synthesis of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs), and its loading into niosome was carried out to increase the anti-bacterial and anti-cancer activity of SeNPs. Different formulations of noisome-loaded SeNPs were prepared, and the physical and chemical characteristics of the prepared niosomes were investigated. The antibacterial and anti-biofilm effects of synthesized niosomes loaded SeNPs and free SeNPs against standard pathogenic bacterial strains were studied, and also its anticancer activity was investigated against breast cancer cell lines. The expression level of apoptotic genes in breast cancer cell lines treated with niosome-loaded SeNPs and free SeNPs was measured. Also, to evaluate the biocompatibility of the synthesized niosomes, their cytotoxicity effects against the human foreskin fibroblasts normal cell line (HFF) were studied using the MTT (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) assay. The results illustrated that the optimal formulation had an average size of 177.9 nm, a spherical shape, and an encapsulation efficiency of 37.58%. Also, the results revealed that the release rate of SeNPs from niosome-loaded SeNPs and free SeNPs was 61.26% and 100%, respectively, in 72 h. Also, our findings demonstrated that the niosome-loaded SeNPs have significant antibacterial, anti-biofilm, and anticancer effects compared to the free SeNPs. In addition, niosome-loaded SeNPs can upregulate the expression level of Bax, cas3, and cas9 apoptosis genes while the expression of the Bcl2 gene is down-regulated in all studied cell lines, significantly. Also, the results of the MTT test indicated that the free niosome has no significant cytotoxic effects against the HFF cell line which represents the biocompatibility of the synthesized niosomes. In general, based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that niosomes-loaded SeNPs have significant anti-microbial, anti-biofilm, and anti-cancer effects, which can be used as a suitable drug delivery system.

The Formation of Self-Assembled Nanoparticles Loaded with Doxorubicin and d-Limonene for Cancer Therapy

Self-assembled nanoparticles present unique properties that have potential applications in the development of a successful drug delivery system. Doxorubicin (DOX) is an important anti-neoplastic anthracycline chemotherapeutic drug widely described. However, it suffers from serious dose-dependent cardiotoxicity. d-Limonene is a major constituent of numerous citrus oils that is considered a specific monoterpene against free radicals producing antioxidant activity. Herein, we aimed to design three types of self-assembled nanodelivery systems (nanoemulsion, niosomes, and polylactide nanoparticles) for loading both DOX and d-limonene to enhance the solubilization of d-limonene and provide antioxidant activity with excellent anticancer activity. As confirmed by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy, the nanoparticles were prepared successfully with diameter sizes of 52, 180, and 257 nm for the DOX-loaded nanoemulsion, niosomes, and polylactide nanoparticles, respectively. The zeta potential values were above -30 mV in all cases, which confirms the formation of stable nanoparticles. The loading efficiency of DOX was the highest in the case of the DOX-loaded nanoemulsion (75.8%), followed by niosomes (62.8%), and the least was in the case of polylactide nanoparticles with a percentage of 50.2%. The in vitro release study of the DOX-loaded nanoparticles showed a sustained release profile of doxorubicin with the highest release in the case of DOX-loaded PDLLA nanoparticles. The kinetic release model for all developed nanoparticles was the Peppas-Sahlin model, demonstrating DOX release through Fickian diffusion phenomena. Moreover, all developed nanoparticles maintain the antioxidant activity of d-limonene. The cytotoxicity study of the DOX-loaded nanoparticles showed concentration-dependent anticancer activity with excellent anticancer activity in the case of the DOX-loaded nanoemulsion and polylactide nanoparticles. These nanoparticles will be further studied in vivo to prove the cardioprotective effect of d-limonene in combination with DOX.

In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of the Effectiveness and Safety of Amygdalin as a Cancer Therapy

Cancer is one of the most important causes of death worldwide. Several studies have shown the efficacy of apricot kernel seed as a cancer therapy due to the presence of amygdalin. These studies have demonstrated amygdalin's cytotoxicity, antioxidant activity, and apoptosis in vitro using human cancer cell lines. However, no studies have demonstrated their cancer activity in vivo. The aim of this study is to develop an amygdalin-loaded niosomes (ALN) gel formulation as a drug delivery system in order to investigate the selectivity, efficacy, and toxicity of amygdalin as a cancer therapy in vivo using the 7,12-dimethylbenz (a) anthracene (DMBA) carcinoma rat model. Based on pre-formulation studies, the ALN formulation composed of Tween 60: cholesterol: dihexadecyl phosphate in a molar ratio of 1:2:0.1 was chosen as an optimum formulation because it has a percent of EE of 66.52% with a particle size of 269.3 nm and a reflux of 3.54 µg.cm^-2.h^-1. The ALN gel formulation was integrated into carbopol gel to be evaluated in vivo. Compared to DMBA control, treatment with ALN gel showed a reduction in the carcinoma volume and in the hyperplasia of the epidermis with no signs of edema. In conclusion, the ALN gel formulation could be an efficient cancer therapy.

Novel Bile Salt Stabilized Vesicles-Mediated Effective Topical Delivery of Diclofenac Sodium: A New Therapeutic Approach for Pain and Inflammation

The oral delivery of diclofenac sodium (DNa), a non-steroidal analgesic, anti-inflammatory drug, is associated with various gastrointestinal side effects. The aim of the research was to appraise the potential of transdermal delivery of DNa using bilosomes as a vesicular carrier (BSVC) in inflamed paw edema. DNa-BSVCs were elaborated using a thin-film hydration technique and optimized using a 3¹.2² multilevel categoric design with Design Expert^® software 10 software (Stat-Ease, Inc., Minneapolis, MI, USA). The effect of formulation variables on the physicochemical properties of BSVC, as well as the optimal formulation selection, was investigated. The BSVCs were evaluated for various parameters including entrapment efficiency (EE%), vesicle size (VS), zeta potential (ZP) and permeation studies. The optimized BSVC was characterized for in vitro release, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and incorporated into hydrogel base. The optimized DNa-BSVC gel effectiveness was assessed in vivo using carrageenan-induced paw edema animal model via cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), interleukin 6 (IL-6), Hemooxygenase 1 (HO-1) and nuclear factor-erythroid factor2-related factor 2 (Nfr-2) that potentiate anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activity coupled with histopathological investigation. The resulting vesicles presented VS from 120.4 ± 0.65 to 780.4 ± 0.99 nm, EE% from 61.7 ± 3.44 to 93.2 ± 2.21%, ZP from −23.8 ± 2.65 to −82.1 ± 12.63 mV and permeation from 582.9 ± 32.14 to 1350.2 ± 45.41 µg/cm². The optimized BSVCs were nano-scaled spherical vesicles with non-overlapped bands of their constituents in the FTIR. Optimized formulation has superior skin permeability ex vivo approximately 2.5 times greater than DNa solution. Furthermore, histological investigation discovered that the formed BSVC had no skin irritating properties. It was found that DNa-BSVC gel suppressed changes in oxidative inflammatory mediators (COX-2), IL-6 and consequently enhanced Nrf2 and HO-1 levels. Moreover, reduction of percent of paw edema by about three-folds confirmed histopathological alterations. The results revealed that the optimized DNa-BSVC could be a promising transdermal drug delivery system to boost anti-inflammatory efficacy of DNa by enhancing the skin permeation of DNa and suppressing the inflammation of rat paw edema.

Combinatorial Therapy of Letrozole- and Quercetin-Loaded Spanlastics for Enhanced Cytotoxicity against MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells

Breast cancer is the most widespread cancer in women with rising incidence, prevalence, and mortality in developed regions. Most breast cancers (80%) are estrogen receptor–positive, indicating that disease progression could be controlled by estrogen inhibition in the breast tissue. However, drug resistance limits the benefits of this approach. Combinatorial treatment could overcome the resistance and improve the outcome of breast cancer treatment. In the current study, we prepared letrozole-(LTZSPs) and quercetin-loaded spanlastics (QuSPs) using different edge activators—Tween 80, Brij 35, and Cremophor RH40—with different concentrations. The spanlastics were evaluated for their average particles size, surface charge, and percent encapsulation efficiency. The optimized formulations were further examined using transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, in vitro drug release and ex vivo skin permeation studies. The prepared spherical LTZSPs and QuSPs had average particle sizes ranged between 129–310 nm and 240–560 nm, respectively, with negative surface charge and high LTZ and Qu encapsulation (94.3–97.2% and 97.9–99.6%, respectively). The in vitro release study of LTZ and Qu from the selected formulations showed a sustained drug release for 24 h with reasonable flux and permeation through the rat skin. Further, we evaluated the in vitro cytotoxicity, cell cycle analysis, and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) of the combination therapy of letrozole and quercetin either in soluble form or loaded in spanlastics against MCF-7 breast cancer cells. The LTZSPs and QuSPs combination was superior to the individual treatments and the soluble free drugs in terms of in vitro cytotoxicity, cell cycle analysis, and ROS studies. These results confirm the potential of LTZSPs and QuSPs combination for transdermal delivery of drugs for enhanced breast cancer management.

Effect of Cholesterol to Vitamin D3 and Span 60 to Tween 60 Ratios on the Characteristics of Niosomes: Variable Optimization Using Response Surface Methodology (RSM)

The main objective of this research was to evaluate the partial replacement of cholesterol (CSL) with vitamin D3 (VD3) on the niosome structure. The effects of different molar ratios of Span 60 (SP60) : Tween 60 (TW60) and CSL : VD3 were investigated on the physicochemical characteristics of niosomes, including particle size, span (distribution width), stability, and encapsulation efficiency of VD3. The data were then optimized using response surface methodology (RSM). Larger particles were obtained as the ratios of SP60 : TW60 and CSL : VD3 were increased. The smallest particles were obtained at SP60 : TW60 and CSL : VD3 ratios of 40.46 : 59.54 and 38.06 : 61.94, respectively. Increasing the ratio of SP60 : TW60 led to higher values of span. As CSL : VD3 ratio was increased from 0 : 100 to 67.67 : 32.32, value of the span was decreased; however, increasing this ratio further led to the increased value of the span. The lowest values of the span were observed at SP60 : TW60 and CSL : VD3 ratios of 67.90 : 32.10 and 72.41 : 27.59, respectively. The increase in the SP60 : TW60 ratio led to lower values of encapsulation efficiency. The highest values for encapsulation efficiency were observed at ratios of 31.76 : 68.24 and 40.02 : 59.98 for SP60 : TW60 and CSL : VD3, respectively. The highest stability was observed at SP60 : TW60 and CSL : VD3 ratios of 31.72 : 68.28 and 14.65 : 85.35, respectively. The optimum conditions were achieved at ratios of 31.72 : 68.28 and 49.37 : 50.63 for SP60 : TW60 and CSL : VD3, respectively. Finally, it can be concluded that VD3 is a suitable replacement for CSL in terms of stability and encapsulation efficiency of niosome.

Sustainable Release of Propranolol Hydrochloride Laden with Biconjugated-Ufasomes Chitosan Hydrogel Attenuates Cisplatin-Induced Sciatic Nerve Damage in In Vitro/In Vivo Evaluation

Peripheral nerve injuries significantly impact patients’ quality of life and poor functional recovery. Chitosan–ufasomes (CTS–UFAs) exhibit biomimetic features, making them a viable choice for developing novel transdermal delivery for neural repair. This study aimed to investigate the role of CTS–UFAs loaded with the propranolol HCl (PRO) as a model drug in enhancing sciatica in cisplatin-induced sciatic nerve damage in rats. Hence, PRO–UFAs were primed, embedding either span 20 or 60 together with oleic acid and cholesterol using a thin-film hydration process based on full factorial design (24). The influence of formulation factors on UFAs’ physicochemical characteristics and the optimum formulation selection were investigated using Design-Expert® software. Based on the optimal UFA formulation, PRO–CTS–UFAs were constructed and characterized using transmission electron microscopy, stability studies, and ex vivo permeation. In vivo trials on rats with a sciatic nerve injury tested the efficacy of PRO–CTS–UFA and PRO–UFA transdermal hydrogels, PRO solution, compared to normal rats. Additionally, oxidative stress and specific apoptotic biomarkers were assessed, supported by a sciatic nerve histopathological study. PRO–UFAs and PRO–CTS–UFAs disclosed entrapment efficiency of 82.72 ± 2.33% and 85.32 ± 2.65%, a particle size of 317.22 ± 6.43 and 336.12 ± 4.9 nm, ζ potential of −62.06 ± 0.07 and 65.24 ± 0.10 mV, and accumulatively released 70.95 ± 8.14% and 64.03 ± 1.9% PRO within 6 h, respectively. Moreover, PRO–CTS–UFAs significantly restored sciatic nerve structure, inhibited the cisplatin-dependent increase in peripheral myelin 22 gene expression and MDA levels, and further re-established sciatic nerve GSH and CAT content. Furthermore, they elicited MBP re-expression, BCL-2 mild expression, and inhibited TNF-α expression. Briefly, our findings proposed that CTS–UFAs are promising to enhance PRO transdermal delivery to manage sciatic nerve damage.

Perspectives of Positively Charged Nanocrystals of Tedizolid Phosphate as a Topical Ocular Application in Rabbits

The aim of this study was the successful utilization of the positively charged nanocrystals (NCs) of Tedizolid Phosphate (TZP) (0.1% w/v) for topical ocular applications. TZP belongs to the 1, 3-oxazolidine-2-one class of antibiotics and has therapeutic potential for the treatment of many drug-resistant bacterial infections, including eye infections caused by MRSA, penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumonia and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. However, its therapeutic usage is restricted due to its poor aqueous solubility and limited ocular availability. It is a prodrug and gets converted to Tedizolid (TDZ) by phosphatases in vivo. The sterilized NC₁ was subjected to antimicrobial testing on Gram-positive bacteria. Ocular irritation and pharmacokinetics were performed in rabbits. Around a 1.29 to 1.53-fold increase in antibacterial activity was noted for NC₁ against the B. subtilis, S. pneumonia, S. aureus and MRSA (SA-6538) as compared to the TZP-pure. The NC₁-AqS was “practically non-irritating” to rabbit eyes. There was around a 1.67- and 1.43 fold increase in t_1/2 (h) and C_max (ngmL⁻¹) while there were 1.96-, 1.91-, 2.69- and 1.41-times increases in AUC_0–24h,AUC_0–∞,AUMC_0–∞ and MRT_0–∞, respectively, which were found by NC₁ as compared to TZP-AqS in the ocular pharmacokinetic study. The clearance of TDZ was faster (11.43 mLh⁻¹) from TZP-AqS as compared to NC₁ (5.88 mLh⁻¹). Relatively, an extended half-life (t_1/2; 4.45 h) of TDZ and the prolonged ocular retention (MRT_0–∞; 7.13 h) of NC₁ was found, while a shorter half-life (t_1/2; 2.66 h) of TDZ and MRT_0–∞(t_1/2; 5.05 h)was noted for TZP-AqS, respectively. Cationic TZP-NC₁ could offer increased transcorneal permeation, which could mimic the improved ocular bioavailability of the drug in vivo. Conclusively, NC₁ of TZP was identified as a promising substitute for the ocular delivery of TZP, with better performance as compared to its conventional AqS.

Ozonated Olive Oil: Enhanced Cutaneous Delivery via Niosomal Nanovesicles for Melanoma Treatment

Ozonated olive oil (OL) combines the therapeutic effects of both ozone and olive oil. However, it suffers from limited water solubility and poor transdermal permeation, which hinder its application in melanoma treatment. Nanocarrier host molecules, such as niosomes, were used to improve the water solubility, transdermal permeation, and anticancer effect of hydrophobic compounds. This study aims to design and optimize a niosomal vesicular nanoplatform loaded with OL (OL/NSs) to improve OL’s skin permeation and anti-melanoma effect. In this regard, OL was prepared and characterized by evaluating its chemical properties (acid, peroxide, and iodine values) and fatty acid composition using gas chromatography. Then, OL/NSs were developed using the thin film hydration method employing cholesterol, Span 60, and Tween 60 at five different molar ratios. The optimized niosomes had an average diameter of 125.34 ± 13.29 nm, a surface charge of −11.34 ± 4.71 mV, and a spherical shape. They could entrap 87.30 ± 4.95% of the OL. OL/NSs showed a 75% sustained oil release over 24 h. The skin permeation percentage of OL/NSs was 36.78 ± 3.31 and 53.44 ± 6.41% at 12 and 24 h, respectively, three times higher than that of the free OL (11.50 ± 1.3 and 17.24 ± 2.06%, at 12 and 24 h, respectively). Additionally, the anticancer activity of the developed niosmal formulation, when tested on human melanoma cells (A375), was double that of the free OL; the IC50 of the OL/NSs was 8.63 ± 2.8 μg/mL, and that of the free OL was 17.4 ± 3.7 μg/mL. In conclusion, the encapsulation of ozonated olive oil in niosomes enhanced its water solubility, skin permeation, and anticancer activity and thus may represent potent natural chemotherapy in treating melanoma.

Fabrication and Characterization of Tedizolid Phosphate Nanocrystals for Topical Ocular Application: Improved Solubilization and In Vitro Drug Release

Positively charged NCs of TZP (0.1%, w/v) for ocular use were prepared by the antisolvent precipitation method. TZP is a novel 5-Hydroxymethyl-Oxazolidinone class of antibiotic and is effective against many drug-resistant bacterial infections. Even the phosphate salt of this drug is poorly soluble, therefore the NCs were prepared for its better solubility and ocular availability. P188 was found better stabilizer than PVA for TZP-NCs. Characterization of the NCs including the particle-size, PDI, and ZP by Zeta-sizer, while morphology by SEM indicated that the preparation technique was successful to get the optimal sized (151.6 nm) TZP-NCs with good crystalline morphology. Mannitol (1%, w/v) prevented the crystal growth and provided good stabilization to NC₁ during freeze-drying. FTIR spectroscopy confirmed the nano-crystallization did not alter the basic molecular structure of TZP. DSC and XRD studies indicated the reduced crystallinity of TZP-NC₁, which potentiated its solubility. An increased solubility of TZP-NC₁ (25.9 µgmL⁻¹) as compared to pure TZP (18.4 µgmL⁻¹) in STF with SLS. Addition of stearylamine (0.2%, w/v) and BKC (0.01%, w/v) have provided cationic (+29.4 mV) TZP-NCs. Redispersion of freeze-dried NCs in dextrose (5%, w/v) resulted in a clear transparent aqueous suspension of NC₁ with osmolarity (298 mOsm·L⁻¹) and viscosity (21.1 cps at 35 °C). Mannitol (cryoprotectant) during freeze-drying could also provide isotonicity to the nano-suspension at redispersion in dextrose solution. In vitro release in STF with SLS has shown relatively higher (78.8%) release of TZP from NC₁ as compared to the conventional TZP-AqS (43.4%) at 12 h. TZP-NC₁ was physically and chemically stable at three temperatures for 180 days. The above findings suggested that TZP-NC₁ would be a promising alternative for ocular delivery of TZP with relatively improved performance.

Physicochemical and Stability Evaluation of Topical Niosomal Encapsulating Fosinopril/γ-Cyclodextrin Complex for Ocular Delivery

This study aimed to develop a chemically stable niosomal eye drop containing fosinopril (FOS) for lowering intraocular pressure. The effects of cyclodextrin (CD), surfactant types and membrane stabilizer/charged inducers on physiochemical and chemical properties of niosome were evaluated. The pH value, average particle size, size distribution and zeta potentials were within the acceptable range. All niosomal formulations were shown to be slightly hypertonic with low viscosity. Span® 60/dicetyl phosphate niosomes in the presence and absence of γCD were selected as the optimum formulations according to their high %entrapment efficiency and negative zeta potential values as well as controlled release profile. According to ex vivo permeation study, the obtained lowest flux and apparent permeability coefficient values confirmed that FOS/γCD complex was encapsulated within the inner aqueous core of niosome and could be able to protect FOS from its hydrolytic degradation. The in vitro cytotoxicity revealed that niosome entrapped FOS or FOS/γCD formulations were moderate irritation to the eyes. Furthermore, FOS-loaded niosomal preparations exhibited good physical and chemical stabilities especially of those in the presence of γCD, for at least three months under the storage condition of 2–8 °C.

Novel Eye Drop Delivery Systems: Advance on Formulation Design Strategies Targeting Anterior and Posterior Segments of the Eye

Eye drops are the most common and convenient route of topical administration and the first choice of treatment for many ocular diseases. However, the ocular bioavailability of traditional eye drops (i.e., solutions, suspensions, and ointments) is very low because of ophthalmic physiology and barriers, which greatly limits their therapeutic effect. Over the past few decades, many novel eye drop delivery systems, such as prodrugs, cyclodextrins, in situ gels, and nanoparticles, have been developed to improve ophthalmic bioavailability. These novel eye drop delivery systems have good biocompatibility, adhesion, and propermeation properties and have shown superior performance and efficacy over traditional eye drops. Therefore, the purpose of this review was to systematically present the research progress on novel eye drop delivery systems and provide a reference for the development of dosage form, clinical application, and commercial transformation of eye drops.

Tailoring of Selenium-Plated Novasomes for Fine-Tuning Pharmacokinetic and Tumor Uptake of Quercetin: In Vitro Optimization and In Vivo Radiobiodistribution Assessment in Ehrlich Tumor-Bearing Mice

Quercetin (QRC) is a bioflavonoid with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer activities, yet QRC poor bioavailability has hampered its clinical implementation. The aim of the current work was to harness novasomes (NOVs), free fatty acid enriched vesicles, as a novel nano-cargo for felicitous QRC delivery with subsequent functionalization with selenium (SeNOVs), to extend the systemic bio-fate of NOVs and potentiate QRC anticancer efficacy through the synergy with selenium. QRC-NOVs were primed embedding oleic acid, Brij 35, and cholesterol adopting thin-film hydration technique according to Box–Behnken design. Employing Design-Expert^® software, the impact of formulation variables on NOVs physicochemical characteristics besides the optimum formulation election were explored. Based on the optimal NOVs formulation, QRC-SeNOVs were assembled via electrostatic complexation/in situ reduction method. The MTT cytotoxicity assay of the uncoated, and coated nanovectors versus crude QRC was investigated in human rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells. The in vivo pharmacokinetic and biodistribution studies after intravenous administrations of technetium-99m (^99mTc)-labeled QRC-NOVs, QRC-SeNOVs, and QRC-solution were scrutinized in Ehrlich tumor-bearing mice. QRC-NOVs and QRC-SeNOVs disclosed entrapment efficiency of 67.21 and 70.85%, vesicle size of 107.29 and 129.16 nm, ζ potential of −34.71 and −43.25 mV, and accumulatively released 43.26 and 31.30% QRC within 24 h, respectively. Additionally, QRC-SeNOVs manifested a far lower IC₅₀ of 5.56 μg/mL on RD cells than that of QRC-NOVs (17.63 μg/mL) and crude QRC (38.71 μg/mL). Moreover, the biodistribution study elicited higher preferential uptake of ^99mTc-QRC-SeNOVs within the tumorous tissues by 1.73- and 5.67-fold as compared to ^99mTc-QRC-NOVs and ^99mTc-QRC-solution, respectively. Furthermore, the relative uptake efficiency of ^99mTc-QRC-SeNOVs was 5.78, the concentration efficiency was 4.74 and the drug-targeting efficiency was 3.21. Hence, the engineered QRC-SeNOVs could confer an auspicious hybrid nanoparadigm for QRC delivery with fine-tuned pharmacokinetics, and synergized antitumor traits.

Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for Neurological Disorders: A Review of the State-of-the-Art and Therapeutic Success to Date

Neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and dementia are chronic and advanced diseases that are associated with loss of neurons and other related pathologies. Furthermore, these disorders involve structural and functional defections of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Consequently, advances in medicines and therapeutics have led to a better appreciation of various pathways associated with the development of neurodegenerative disorders, thus focusing on drug discovery and research for targeted drug therapy to the central nervous system (CNS). Although the BBB functions as a shield to prevent toxins in the blood from reaching the brain, drug delivery to the CNS is hindered by its presence. Owing to this, various formulation approaches, including the use of lipid-based nanocarriers, have been proposed to address shortcomings related to BBB permeation in CNS-targeted therapy, thus showing the potential of these carriers for translation into clinical use. Nevertheless, to date, none of these nanocarriers has been granted market authorization following the successful completion of all stages of clinical trials. While the aforementioned benefits of using lipid-based carriers underscores the need to fast-track their translational development into clinical practice, technological advances need to be initiated to achieve appropriate capacity for scale-up and the production of affordable dosage forms.

Targeting foodborne pathogens via surface-functionalized nano-antimicrobials

The incorporation of antibiotics and bioactive compounds into non-toxic nanoparticles has been popularly used to produce effective antimicrobial nanocarriers against foodborne pathogens. These systems can protect antimicrobials against harsh environments, control their release, and increase their antimicrobial activities; however, their functions can be decreased by some major barriers. Intracellular localization of bacteria protects them from the host immune system and antimicrobial agents. Also, bacteria can cause constant infection by nestling in professional phagocytic cells. In the last years, surface functionalization of nanocarriers by passive and active modification methods has been applied for their protection against clearance from the blood, increasing both circulation time and uptake by target cells. For achieving this objective, different functional agents such as specifically targeted peptides internalize ligands, saccharide ligands, or even therapeutic molecules (e.g., antibodies or enzymes) are used. In this review, techniques for functionalizing the surface of antimicrobial-loaded nanocarriers have been described. This article offers a comprehensive review of the potential of functional nanoparticles to increase the performance of antimicrobials against foodborne pathogens through targeting delivery.

Formulation and Evaluation of Hybrid Niosomal In Situ Gel for Intravesical Co-Delivery of Curcumin and Gentamicin Sulfate

The current study describes the elaboration of a hybrid drug delivery platform for an intravesical application based on curcumin/gentamicin sulfate simultaneously loaded niosomes incorporated into thermosensitive in situ gels. Series of niosomes were elaborated via the thin film hydration method, evaluating the impact of non-ionic surfactants’, cholesterol’s, and curcumin’s concentration. The formulation composed of equimolar ratio of Span 60, Tween 60, and 30 mol% cholesterol was selected as the optimal composition, due to the high entrapment efficiency values obtained for both drugs, and appropriate physicochemical parameters (morphology, size, PDI, and zeta potential), therefore, was further incorporated into Poloxamers (407/188) and Poloxamers and chitosan based in situ gels. The developed hybrid systems were characterized with sol to gel transition in the physiological range, suitable rheological and gelling characteristics. In addition, the formed gel structure at physiological temperatures determines the retarded dissolution of both drugs (vs. niosomal suspension) and sustained release profile. The conducted microbial studies of selected niosomal in situ gels revealed the occurrence of a synergetic effect of the two compounds when simultaneously loaded. The findings indicate that the elaborated thermosensitive niosomal in situ gels can be considered as a feasible platform for intravesical drug delivery.

Effects of Imipenem-containing Niosome nanoparticles against high prevalence methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Epidermidis biofilm formed

We aim to assess the antibacterial and anti-biofilm properties of Niosome-encapsulated Imipenem. After isolating Staphylococcus epidermidis isolates and determining their microbial sensitivity, their ability to form biofilms was examined using plate microtiter assay. Various formulations of Niosome-encapsulated Imipenem were prepared using the thin-film hydration method, Minimum Biofilm Inhibitory Concentration (MBIC) and Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) were determined, and biofilm genes expression was examined. Drug formulations’ toxicity effect on HDF cells were determined using MTT assay. Out of the 162 separated S. epidermidis, 106 were resistant to methicillin. 87 MRSE isolates were vancomycin-resistant, all of which could form biofilms. The F1 formulation of niosomal Imipenem with a size of 192.3 ± 5.84 and an encapsulation index of 79.36 ± 1.14 was detected, which prevented biofilm growth with a BGI index of 69% and reduced icaD, FnbA, EbpS biofilms’ expression with P ≤ 0.001 in addition to reducing MBIC and MIC by 4–6 times. Interestingly, F1 formulation of niosomal Imipenem indicated cell viability over 90% at all tested concentrations. The results of the present study indicate that Niosome-encapsulated Imipenem reduces the resistance of MRSE to antibiotics in addition to increasing its anti-biofilm and antibiotic activity, and could prove useful as a new strategy for drug delivery.

D-optimal mixture design for optimization of topical dapsone niosomes: in vitro characterization and in vivo activity against Cutibacterium acnes

This study aimed to illustrate the use of D-optimal mixture design (DOMD) for optimization of an enhancer containing Dapsone niosomal formula for acne topical treatment. Mixture components (MixCs) studied were: Span 20, Cholesterol, and Cremophor RH. Different responses were measured. Optimized formula (OF) was selected to minimize particle size and maximize absolute zeta potential and entrapment efficiency. Optimized formula gel (OF-gel) was prepared and characterized. OF-gel in vivo skin penetration using confocal laser scanning microscopy and activity against Cutibacterium acnes in acne mouse model were studied. Based on DOMD results analysis, adequate models were derived. Piepel and contour plots were plotted accordingly to explain how alteration in MixCs L-pseudo values affected studied responses and regions for different responses’ values. The OF had suitable predicted responses which were in good correlation with the actually measured ones. The OF-gel showed suitable characterization and in vivo skin penetration up to the dermis layer. In vivo acne mouse-model showed that OF-gel-treated group (OF-gel-T-gp) had significantly better recovery (healing) criteria than untreated (UT-gp) and Aknemycin^®-treated (A-T-gp) groups. This was evident in significantly higher reduction of inflammation percent observed in OF-gel-T-gp than both UT-gp and A-T-gp. Better healing in OF-gel-T-gp compared with other groups was also verified by histopathological examination. Moreover, OF-gel-T-gp and A-T-gp bacterial loads were non-significantly different from each other but significantly lower than UT-gp. Thus, DOMD was an adequate statistical tool for optimization of an appropriate enhancer containing Dapsone niosomal formula that proved to be promising for topical treatment of acne.

Evaluation of Metformin Hydrochloride Tailoring Bilosomes as an Effective Transdermal Nanocarrier

Introduction

Metformin hydrochloride (metformin HCL), a first-line drug treating diabetes type II, was known to cause severe gastritis, so seeking a non-oral dosage form was the new trend. Bilosomes are bilayer nano-vesicles of non-ionic surfactants embodying bile salts. In our study, bilosomes were investigated as an acceptable novel carrier for active targeting transdermal delivery of metformin HCL, circumventing its side effects.

Methods

Twelve bilosome formulations were prepared with solvent evaporation method with slight modification according to a 3¹.2² full factorial design, and the optimized formulation was determined using Design -Expert 13 software (Stat-Ease, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA) studying the effect of surfactant and bile salt types on the entrapment efficiency (EE), vesicle size (VS), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), percentage of drug released within 24 h (R), and flux of drug permeated within 6 h (Jss) of vesicles. In addition, the optimized formulation was further evaluated to Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), deformability index (DI), and transmission electron microscope (TEM) to ensure bilosomes formation, elasticity, and spherical shape, respectively.

Results

The resulting vesicles publicized EE from 56.21% to 94.21%, VS from 183.64 to 701.8 nm, PDI values oscillating between 0.33 and 0.53, ZP (absolute value) from 29 to 44.2 mV, biphasic release profile within 24 h from 60.62 and up to 75.28%, and permeation flux enhancement (198.79–431.91 ng cm ⁻² h⁻¹) in comparison with the non-formulated drug (154.26 ng cm ⁻² h⁻¹). Optimized formulation was found to be F8 with EE = 79.49%, VS = 237.68 nm, ZP = 40.9 mV, PDI = 0.325, R = 75.28%, Jss = 333.45 ng cm⁻² h⁻¹ and DI = 6.5 with spherical self-closed non-aggregated vesicles and non-superimposed bands of its components in the FTIR.

Conclusion

Overall results showed that bilosome incorporation of metformin HCL improved permeation and offered a new nano-carrier for active transdermal delivery.

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Formulation and Evaluation of Topical Nano-Lipid-Based Delivery of Butenafine: In Vitro Characterization and Antifungal Activity

The present research work was designed to prepare butenafine (BN)-loaded bilosomes (BSs) by the thin-film hydration method. BN is a sparingly water-soluble drug having low permeability and bioavailability. BSs are lipid-based nanovesicles used to entrap water-insoluble drugs for enhanced permeation across the skin. BSs were prepared by the thin-film hydration method and optimized by the Box-Behnken design (BBD) using lipid (A), span 60 (B), and sodium deoxycholate (C) as independent variables. The selected formulation (BN-BSo) was converted into the gel using Carbopol 940 as a gelling agent. The prepared optimized gel (BN-BS-og) was further evaluated for the gel characterization, drug release, drug permeation, irritation, and anti-fungal study. The optimized bilosomes (BN-BSo) showed a mean vesicle size of 215 ± 6.5 nm and an entrapment efficiency of 89.2 ± 1.5%. The DSC study showed that BN was completely encapsulated in the BS lipid matrix. BN-BSog showed good viscosity, consistency, spreadability, and pH. A significantly (p < 0.05) high release (81.09 ± 4.01%) was achieved from BN-BSo compared to BN-BSog (65.85 ± 4.87%) and pure BN (17.54 ± 1.37 %). The permeation study results revealed that BN-BSo, BN-BSog, and pure BN exhibited 56.2 ± 2.7%, 39.2 ± 2.9%, and 16.6 ± 2.3%. The enhancement ratio of permeation flux was found to be 1.4-fold and 3.4-fold for the BN-BS-og and pure BN dispersion. The HET-CAM study showed that BN-BSog was found to be nonirritant as the score was found within the limit. The antifungal study revealed a significant (p < 0.05) enhanced antifungal activity against C. albicans and A. niger. The findings of the study revealed that BS is an important drug delivery system for transdermal delivery.

Magnesium ascorbyl phosphate vesicular carriers for topical delivery; preparation, in-vitro and ex-vivo evaluation, factorial optimization and clinical assessment in melasma patients

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is an antioxidant that is widely used in cosmetics in skincare products. Due to the excessive low stability of ascorbic acid in cosmetic formulations, the stabilized ascorbic acid derivative, magnesium ascorbyl phosphate (MAP) was formulated as vesicular carriers; ethosomes and niosomes. The aim was to deliver MAP at the intended site of action, the skin, for sufficient time with enhanced permeation to get an effective response. Ethosomes were formulated using a full 3² factorial design to study ethanol and phospholipid concentration effect on ethosomes properties. Niosomes were formulated using 2³ factorial designs to study the effect of surfactant type, surfactant concentration and cholesterol concentration on niosomes properties. The prepared formulations were evaluated for their Entrapment efficiency, particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential and % drug permeated. The optimized ethosomal and niosomal formulations were incorporated into carbopol gel and evaluated for their permeation, skin retention and stability. A comparative split-face clinical study was done between the ethosomal and niosomal formulations for melasma treatment using Antera 3 D^® camera. The optimized ethosomal and niosomal gels showed comparable controlled permeation and higher skin retention over their ethosomes and niosomes formulations respectively. Magnesium ascorbyl phosphate ethosomal gel showed clinically and statistically significant melanin level decrease after one month while MAP niosomal gel showed clinically and statistically significant melanin level decrease after six months. A combination of MAP ethosomes and niosomes could be promising skincare formulations for melasma and hyperpigmentation short and long-term treatment.

Design of transfersomal nanocarriers of nystatin for combating vulvovaginal candidiasis; A different prospective

The objective of this study was to prepare and evaluate Nystatin (NYS) loaded transfersomes to achieve better treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis. Nystatin transferosomes were formulated utilizing thin film hydration method. A 3² full factorial design was employed to evaluate the effect of different formulation variables. Two independent variables were chosen; the ratio between lecithin surfactant (X₁) was set at three levels (10-40), and the type of surfactants (X₂) was set at three levels (Span 60, Span 85 and Pluronic F-127). The dependent responses were; entrapment efficiency (Y₁: EE %), vesicles size (Y₂: VS) and release rate (Y₃: RR). Design Expert® software was utilized to statistically optimize formulation variables. The vesicles revealed high NYS encapsulation efficiency ranging from 97.35 ± 0.03 to 98.01 ± 0.20% whereas vesicle size ranged from 194.8 ± 20.42 to 400.8 ± 42.09 nm. High negative zeta potential values indicated good stability of the prepared formulations. NYS release from transfersomes was biphasic and the release pattern followed Higuchi's model. The optimized formulation (F7) exhibited spherical morphology under transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In-vitro and in-vivo antifungal efficiency studies revealed that the optimized formula F7 exhibited significant eradication of candida infestation in comparison to free NYS. The results revealed that the developed NYS transfersomes could be a promising drug delivery system to enhance antifungal efficacy of NYS.

Potentiality of Melittin-Loaded Niosomal Vesicles Against Vancomycin-Intermediate Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcal Skin Infection

Background

Staphylococcus aureus is an important human pathogen, especially causing skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs). Over the decades, the infections caused by antibiotic-resistant strains have often become life-threatening. Consequently, exploration and development of competent approaches to combat these serious circumstances are urgently required.

Methods

The antibacterial activity of melittin (Mel) on S. aureus, methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and clinical isolates of vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (VISA) was investigated by minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and time-killing assays. The localization of Mel on the bacterial cell was visualized by confocal laser scanning microscopy and its effect on the membrane was indicated based on propidium iodide uptake. The non-ionic surfactant vesicle (NISV) or niosome nanocarrier was established for Mel loading (Mel-loaded NISV) by the thin-film hydration method. Physicochemical and in vitro biological properties of Mel-loaded NISVs were characterized. The cellular uptake of Mel-loaded NISVs was evaluated by holotomography analysis. In addition, an ex vivo study was conducted on a porcine ear skin model to assess the permeation ability of Mel-loaded NISVs and their potential to inhibit bacterial skin infection.

Results

The effective inhibitory activity of Mel on skin pathogens was demonstrated. Among the tested strains, VISA was most susceptible to Mel. Regarding to its function, Mel targeted the bacterial cell envelope and disrupted cell membrane integrity. Mel-loaded NISVs were successfully fabricated with a nano-size of 120-200 nm and entrapment efficiency of greater than 90%. Moreover, Mel-loaded NISVs were taken up and accumulated in the intracellular space. Meanwhile, Mel was released and distributed throughout the cytosol and nucleus. Mel-loaded NISVs efficiently inhibited the growth of bacteria, particularly MRSA and VISA. Importantly, they not only penetrated epidermal and dermal skin layers, but also reduced the bacterial growth in infected skin.

Conclusion

Mel-loaded NISVs have a great potential to exhibit antibacterial activity. Therapeutic application of Mel-loaded NISVs could be further developed as an alternative platform for the treatment of skin infection via dermal and transdermal delivery.

Harnessing of Doxylamine Succinate/Pyridoxine Hydrochloride-Dual Laden Bilosomes as a Novel Combinatorial Nanoparadigm for Intranasal Delivery: In Vitro Optimization and In Vivo Pharmacokinetic Appraisal

The present work is concerned with tailoring and appraisal of a novel nano-cargo; bilosomes (BLS) dual laded with doxylamine succinate (DAS) and pyridoxine hydrochloride (PDH), the first treatment option against gestational nausea and vomiting, for intranasal delivery. This bifunctional horizon could surmount constraints of orally-commercialized platforms both in dosage regimen and pharmacokinetic profile. For accomplishing this purpose, DAS/PDH-BLS were elaborated integrating phospholipid, sodium cholate and cholesterol applying thin-film hydration method based on Box-Behnken design. Utilizing Design-Expert® software, the effect of formulation variables on BLS physicochemical features alongside the optimal formulation selection were investigated. Then, the optimum DAS/PDH-BLS formulation was incorporated into a thermally-triggered in situ gelling base. The in vivo pharmacokinetic studies were explored in rats for intranasal DAS/PDH-BLS in situ gel compared with analogous intranasal free in situ gel and oral solution. The optimized BLS disclosed vesicle size of 243.23 nm, ζ potential of -31.33 mV, entrapment efficiency of 59.18 and 41.63%, accumulative % release within 8 h of 63.30 and 85.52% and accumulative permeated amount over 24 h of 347.92 and 195.4 µg/cm² for DAS/PDH, respectively. Following intranasal administration of the inspected BLS in situ gel, pharmacokinetic studies revealed a 1.64- and 2.3-fold increment in the relative bioavailability of DAS and a 1.7- and 3.73-fold increase for PDH compared to the intranasal free in situ gel and oral solution, respectively besides significantly extended mean residence times for both drugs. Thus, the intranasally exploited DAS/PDH-BLS could be deemed as a promising hybrid nanoplatform with fruitful pharmacokinetics and tolerability traits.

Cholesterol-Based Nanovesicles Enhance the In Vitro Cytotoxicity, Ex Vivo Intestinal Absorption, and In Vivo Bioavailability of Flutamide

Critical adverse effects and frequent administration, three times per day, limit the use of flutamide (FLT) as a chemotherapeutic agent in the treatment of prostate cancer. Therefore, our research aimed to develop new cholesterol-based nanovesicles for delivering FLT to malignant cells in an endeavor to maximize its therapeutic efficacy and minimize undesired adverse effects. Draper–Lin small composite design was used to optimize the critical quality attributes of FLT-loaded niosomes and ensure the desired product quality. The influence of the selected four independent variables on mean particle size (Y₁), zeta potential (Y₂), drug entrapment efficiency (Y₃), and the cumulative drug release after 24 h (Y₄) was examined. The optimized nanovesicles were assessed for their in vitro cytotoxicity, ex-vivo absorption via freshly excised rabbit intestine as well as in vivo pharmacokinetics on male rats. TEM confirmed nanovescicles’ spherical shape with bilayer structure. Values of dependent variables were 748.6 nm, −48.60 mV, 72.8% and 72.2% for Y₁, Y₂, Y₃ and Y₄, respectively. The optimized FLT-loaded niosomes exerted high cytotoxic efficacy against human prostate cancer cell line (PC-3) with an IC₅₀ value of 0.64 ± 0.04 µg/mL whilst, it was 1.88 ± 0.16 µg/mL for free FLT. Moreover, the IC₅₀ values on breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) were 0.27 ± 0.07 µg/mL and 4.07 ± 0.74 µg/mL for FLT-loaded niosomes and free FLT, respectively. The permeation of the optimized FLT-loaded niosomes through the rabbit intestine showed an enhancement ratio of about 1.5 times that of the free FLT suspension. In vivo pharmacokinetic study displayed an improvement in oral bioavailability of the optimized niosomal formulation with AUC and C_max values of 741.583 ± 33.557 μg/mL × min and 6.950 ± 0.45 μg/mL compared to 364.536 ± 45.215 μg/mL × min and 2.650 ± 0.55 μg/mL for the oral FLT suspension. With these promising findings, we conclude that encapsulation of FLT in cholesterol-loaded nanovesicles enhanced its anticancer activity and oral bioavailability which endorse its use in the management of prostate cancer.

Simulation, In Vitro, and In Vivo Cytotoxicity Assessments of Methotrexate-Loaded pH-Responsive Nanocarriers

In this study, pH-responsive niosomal methotrexate (MTX) modified with ergosterol was prepared for potential anticancer application. The prepared formulation had a size of 176.7 ± 3.4 nm, zeta potential of −31.5 ± 2.6 mV, EE% of 76.9 ± 2.5%, and a pH-responsive behavior in two different pHs (5.4 and 7.4). In-silico evaluations showed that MTX intended to make a strong hydrogen bond with Span 60 compartments involving N2 and O4 atoms in glutamic acid and N7 atom in pteridine ring moieties, respectively. The cytotoxic effects of free and pH-MTX/Nio were assessed against MCF7 and HUVECs. Compared with free MTX, we found significantly lower IC50s when MCF7 cells were treated with niosomal MTX (84.03 vs. 9.464 µg/mL after 48 h, respectively). Moreover, lower cell killing activity was observed for this formulation in normal cells. The pH-MTX/Nio exhibited a set of morphological changes in MCF7 cells observed during cell death. In-vivo results demonstrated that intraperitoneal administration of free MTX (2 mg/kg) after six weeks caused a significant increase in serum blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum creatinine, and serum malondialdehyde (MDA) levels of rats compared to the normal control rats. Treatment with 2 and 4 mg/kg doses of pH-MTX/Nio significantly increased serum BUN, serum creatinine, and serum lipid peroxidation. Still, the safety profile of such formulations in healthy cells/tissues should be further investigated.

Resveratrol-Loaded Vesicular Elastic Nanocarriers Gel in Imiquimod-Induced Psoriasis Treatment: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

This work aimed to develop a new efficient approach for safe treatment of psoriasis. To achieve that, resveratrol-loaded spanlastics(F1-F12) were prepared and evaluated by complete in vitro characterization. The two optimal formulations (F10 and F11) had their particle size in the nano range with high entrapment efficiency and sustainable drug release. These two formulae were incorporated in carbopol 934 gel formulations (G1-G8) with different concentrations of drug and carbopol 934 polymer. G1 and G5 (1% w/w Carbopol 934 gel and 0.1% resveratrol) showed 40.13% ± 2.017% and 73.76% ± 2.46%,8 hours drug release, respectively. Their pH was accepted and non-irritant. At a shear stress of 500 s^-1, G1 and G5 showed a reasonable viscosity of 1048.5 ± 2.12 cps and 954 ± 2.15 cps, respectively. In the in vivo psoriasis study, mice treated by G5 gel showed significant improvement of erythema and scaling compared to positive control group and they maintained healthy skin as shown in histopathological observations. Moreover, this group showed the least changes in mRNA expression of inflammatory cytokines. Concisely, our results suggest that selected carbopol gel of resveratrol-loaded spanlastics could maximize resveratrol topical anti-psoriatic effect.

Vesicular drug delivery for the treatment of topical disorders: current and future perspectives

OBJECTIVES

Vesicular drug delivery has become a useful approach for therapeutic administration of pharmaceutical compounds. Lipid vesicles have found application in membrane biology, immunology, genetic engineering and theragnostics. This review summarizes topical delivery, specifically dermal/transdermal, ocular and transungual, via these vesicles, including future formulation perspectives.

KEY FINDINGS

Liposomes and their subsequent derivatives, viz. niosomes, transferosomes, pharmacososmes and ethosomes, form a significant part of vesicular systems that have been successfully utilized in treating an array of topical disorders. These vesicles are thought to be a safe and effective mode of improving the delivery of lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs.

SUMMARY

Several drug molecules are available for topical disorders. However, physicochemical properties and undesirable toxicity have limited their efficacy. Vesicular delivery systems have the potential to overcome these shortcomings due to properties such as high biocompatibility, simplicity of surface modification and suitability as controlled delivery vehicles. However, incorporating these systems into environmentally responsive dispersants such as hydrogels, ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents may further enhance therapeutic prowess of these delivery systems. Consequently, improved vesicular drug delivery can be achieved by considering combining some of these formulation approaches.