Effect of charged and non-ionic membrane additives on physicochemical properties and stability of niosomes

Reassembly of the vesicular structure of niosomes after their destruction in a mechanical field

This paper presents, for the first time, evidence for vesicle destruction and payload loss at the stage of purification of niosome dispersions by centrifugation, an important operation in the assembly of vesicular materials. The ability of niosomes of different compositions to reassemble, i.e., to restore the vesicular structure after destruction in the field of centrifugal forces, was demonstrated by dynamic light scattering and fluorescence spectroscopy. The kinetics of reassembly of vesicular structures is determined by the strength of the centrifugal field and the composition of niosomes. In contrast to ternary compositions, where particle size and modality are essentially unchanged after redispersion of the precipitate resulting from centrifugation, niosome dispersions containing anionic dicetyl phosphate includes micron-sized particles after redispersion, which vary in size over a wide range throughout the observation period. The reassembly process is complicated by the presence of charge on the surface of the niosomes. Elastic niosomes - ethosomes have been synthesised which, due to the high deformability of the shells, are less susceptible to destruction in the centrifugal field and retain the contents of the aqueous core. Using the "energy landscape" approximation, it is shown that vesicular structures assembled during hydration and reassembled after their centrifugation occupy different positions in the energetic pathway of their preparation. The results obtained should also be taken into account when determining the entrapment efficiency, since this procedure uses centrifugation to separate the load. It is important to note that the physical stability of niosomes, which is usually considered in terms of the functional activity of particles, is manifest and should be considered at the material preparation stage.

Composition, preparation methods, and applications of nanoniosomes as codelivery systems: a review of emerging therapies with emphasis on cancer

Nanoniosome-based drug codelivery systems have become popular therapeutic instruments, demonstrating tremendous promise in cancer therapy, infection treatment, and other therapeutic domains. An emerging form of vesicular nanocarriers, niosomes are self-assembling vesicles composed of nonionic surfactants, along with cholesterol or other amphiphilic molecules. This comprehensive review focuses on how nanosystems may aid in making anticancer and antibacterial pharmaceuticals more stable and soluble. As malleable nanodelivery instruments, the composition, types, preparation procedures, and variables affecting the structure and stability of niosomes are extensively investigated. In addition, the advantages of dual niosomes for combination therapy and the administration of multiple medications simultaneously are highlighted. Along with categorizing niosomal drug delivery systems, a comprehensive analysis of various preparation techniques, including thin-layer injection, ether injection, and microfluidization, is provided. Dual niosomes for cancer treatment are discussed in detail regarding the codelivery of two medications and the codelivery of a drug with organic, plant-based bioactive compounds or gene agents. In addition, niogelosomes and metallic niosomal carriers for targeted distribution are discussed. The review also investigates the simultaneous delivery of bioactive substances and gene agents, including siRNA, microRNA, shRNA, lncRNA, and DNA. Additional sections discuss the use of dual niosomes for cutaneous drug delivery and treating leishmanial infections, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The study concludes by delineating the challenges and potential routes for nanoniosome-based pharmaceutical codelivery systems, which will be useful for nanomedicine practitioners and researchers.

Niosomes: Composition, Formulation Techniques, and Recent Progress as Delivery Systems in Cancer Therapy

Niosomes are vesicular nanocarriers, biodegradable, relatively non-toxic, stable, and inexpensive, that provide an alternative for lipid-solid carriers (e.g., liposomes). Niosomes may resolve issues related to the instability, fast degradation, bioavailability, and insolubility of different drugs or natural compounds. Niosomes can be very efficient potential systems for the specific delivery of anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antibacterial molecules. This review aims to present an overview of their composition, the most common formulation techniques, as well as of recent utilizations as delivery systems in cancer therapy.

Niosomes: A Smart Drug Delivery System for Brain Targeting

Niosomes are lipid-based nanovesicles that have the potential to act as drug-delivery vehicles for a variety of agents. They are effective drug delivery systems for both ASOs and AAV vectors, with advantages such as improved stability, bioavailability, and targeted administration. In the context of brain-targeted drug delivery, niosomes have been investigated as a drug delivery system for brain targeting, but more research is needed to optimize their formulation to improve their stability and release profile and address the challenges of scale-up and commercialization. Despite these challenges, several applications of niosomes have demonstrated the potential of novel nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery to the brain. This review briefly overviews the current use of niosomes in treating brain disorders and diseases.

The Utilization of Plant-Material-Loaded Vesicular Drug Delivery Systems in the Management of Pulmonary Diseases

Medicinal plants have been utilized to treat a variety of conditions on account of the bioactive properties that they contain. Most bioactive constituents from plants are of limited effectiveness, due to poor solubility, limited permeability, first-pass metabolism, efflux transporters, chemical instability, and food-drug interactions However, when combined with vesicular drug delivery systems (VDDS), herbal medicines can be delivered at a predetermined rate and can exhibit site-specific action. Vesicular drug delivery systems are novel pharmaceutical formulations that make use of vesicles as a means of encapsulating and transporting drugs to various locations within the body; they are a cutting-edge method of medication delivery that combats the drawbacks of conventional drug delivery methods. Drug delivery systems offer promising strategies to overcome the bioavailability limitations of bioactive phytochemicals. By improving their solubility, protecting them from degradation, enabling targeted delivery, and facilitating controlled release, drug delivery systems can enhance the therapeutic efficacy of phytochemicals and unlock their full potential in various health conditions. This review explores and collates the application of plant-based VDDS with the potential to exhibit protective effects against lung function loss in the interest of innovative and effective treatment and management of respiratory illnesses.

Formulation and characterization of lamotrigine nasal insert targeted brain for enhanced epilepsy treatment

Lamotrigine. (LMT) is a triazine drug has an antiepileptic effect but with low water solubility, dissolution rate and thus therapeutic effect. Spanlastics are nano-vesicular carriers' act as site-specific drug delivery system. Intranasal route could direct the drug from nose to brain and provide a faster and more specific therapeutic effect. Therefore, this study aimed to upload lamotrigine onto nano-vesicles using spanlastic nasal insert delivery for effective epilepsy treatment via overcoming lamotrigine's low solubility and improving its bioavailability. Lamtrigine-loaded nano-spanlastic vesicles were prepared by ethanol injection method. To study different formulation factor's effect on formulations characters; particle size (PS), Zeta potential (ZP), polydispersity index (PDI), entrapment efficiency percentage (EE%) and LMT released amount after 6 h (Q6h); 2^1 and 3^1 full factorial designs were employed. Optimized formula was loaded in lyophilized nasal inserts formulation which were characterized for LMT release and mucoadhesion. Pharmacokinetics studies in plasma and brain were performed on rats to investigate drug targeting efficiency. The optimal nano-spanlastic formulation (F4; containing equal Span 60 amount (100 mg) and edge activator; Tween 80) exhibited nano PS (174.2 nm), high EE% (92.75%), and Q6h > 80%. The prepared nasal inserts (S4) containing 100 mg HPMC has a higher mucoadhesive force (9319.5 dyne/cm²) and dissolution rate (> 80% within 10 min) for rapid in vivo bio-distribution. In vivo studies showed considerable improvement brain and plasma's rate and extent absorption after intranasal administration indicating a high brain targeting efficiency. The results achieved indicate that nano-spanlastic nasal-inserts offer a promising LMT brain targeting in order to maximize its antiepileptic effect.

Flexosomes as a promising nanoplatform for enhancing tolnaftate ocular delivery: Formulation, in vitro characterization, statistical optimization, ex vivo and microbial in vivo studies

The eye is a complex organ with a unique physiology and anatomy. Using novel nanosystems is expected to enhance ocular drug permeation and retention. Hence, this work aimed to study the potential of flexosomes as an ocular delivery system to enhance the corneal permeation and antifungal activity of Tolnaftate (TOL). Different flexosomes formulae were formulated using ethanol injection method, employing a 31.22 full factorial design. The studied formulation variables were: X1: amount of stearyl amine, X2: hydration volume and X3: type of edge activator. Encapsulation efficiency, particle size and zeta potential were selected as dependent variables. FX5 was selected as the optimal TOL flexosomes and showed encapsulation efficiency of 66.08 ± 11.38%, particle size of 154.99 ± 29.11 nm and zeta potential of 42.95 ± 0.64 mV. FX5 was subjected to further ex vivo and in vivo studies which showed that TOL flux was significantly increased through FX5 compared to TOL suspension. Draize test and histopatholoigal tests assured that FX5 is safe to be used for eye.. The in vivo fungal susceptibility testing using Aspergillus niger demonstrated the superior and more durable antifungal activity of FX5 than TOL suspension. Hence, FX5 can be considered as promising nanocarrier for safe and efficient ocular TOL delivery.

Exploring the use of niosomes in cosmetics for efficient dermal drug delivery

Dermal drug delivery has emerged as a promising alternative to traditional methods of drug administration due to its non-invasive nature and ease of use. However, the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of the skin, presents a significant barrier to drug penetration. Niosomes, self-assembled vesicular structures composed of nonionic surfactants and cholesterol, have been extensively investigated as a means of overcoming this barrier and improving the efficacy of dermal drug delivery. This review summarizes the current state of research on the use of niosomes in dermal drug delivery in cosmetics, with a particular focus on their formulation, characterization, and application in the delivery of various drug classes. The review highlights the advantages of niosomes over conventional drug delivery methods, including improved solubility and stability of drugs, controlled release, and enhanced skin permeation. The review also discusses the challenges associated with niosome-based drug delivery, such as their complex formulation and optimization, and the need for further studies on their long-term safety and toxicity.

Niosome as an Effective Nanoscale Solution for the Treatment of Microbial Infections

Numerous disorders go untreated owing to a lack of a suitable drug delivery technology or an appropriate therapeutic moiety, particularly when toxicities and side effects are a major concern. Treatment options for microbiological infections are not fulfilled owing to significant adverse effects or extended therapeutic options. Advanced therapy options, such as active targeting, may be preferable to traditional ways of treating infectious diseases. Niosomes can be defined as microscopic lamellar molecules formed by a mixture of cholesterol, nonionic surfactants (alkyl or dialkyl polyglycerol ethers), and sometimes charge-inducing agents. These molecules comprise both hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties of varying solubilities. In this review, several pathogenic microbes such as Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Plasmodium, Leishmania, and Candida spp. have been evaluated. Also, the development of a proper niosomal formulation for the required application was discussed. This review also reviews that an optimal formulation is dependent on several aspects, including the choice of nonionic surfactant, fabrication process, and fabrication parameters. Finally, this review will give information on the effectiveness of niosomes in treating acute microbial infections, the mechanism of action of niosomes in combating microbial pathogens, and the advantages of using niosomes over other treatment modalities.

Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)-Based Nanoniosome for Enhanced in vitro Delivery and Anticancer Activity of Thymol

Introduction

There is an unmet need to develop potent therapeutics against cancer with minimal side effects and systemic toxicity. Thymol (TH) is an herbal medicine with anti-cancer properties that has been investigated scientifically. This study shows that TH induces apoptosis in cancerous cell lines such as MCF-7, AGS, and HepG2. Furthermore, this study reveals that TH can be encapsulated in a Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-coated niosome (Nio-TH/PVA) to enhance its stability and enable its controlled release as a model drug in the cancerous region.

Materials and Methods

TH-loaded niosome (Nio-TH) was fabricated and optimized using Box-Behnken method and the size, polydispersity index (PDI) and entrapment efficiency (EE) were characterized by employing DLS, TEM and SEM, respectively. Additionally, in vitro drug release and kinetic studies were performed. Cytotoxicity, antiproliferative activity, and the mechanism were assessed by MTT assay, quantitative real-time PCR, flow cytometry, cell cycle, caspase activity evaluation, reactive oxygen species investigation, and cell migration assays.

Results

This study demonstrated the exceptional stability of Nio-TH/PVA at 4 °C for two months and its pH-dependent release profile. It also showed its high toxicity on cancerous cell lines and high compatibility with HFF cells. It revealed the modulation of Caspase-3/Caspase-9, MMP-2/MMP-9 and Cyclin D/ Cyclin E genes by Nio-TH/PVA on the studied cell lines. It confirmed the induction of apoptosis by Nio-TH/PVA in flow cytometry, caspase activity, ROS level, and DAPI staining assays. It also verified the inhibition of metastasis by Nio-TH/PVA in migration assays.

Conclusion

Overall, the results of this study revealed that Nio-TH/PVA may effectively transport hydrophobic drugs to cancer cells with a controlled-release profile to induce apoptosis while exhibiting no detectable side effects due to their biocompatibility with normal cells.

Current advances in nanodrug delivery systems for malaria prevention and treatment

Malaria is a life-threatening, blood-borne disease with over two hundred million cases throughout the world and is more prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa than anywhere else in the world. Over the years, several treatment agents have been developed for malaria; however, most of these active pharmaceutical ingredients exhibit poor aqueous solubility and low bioavailability and may result in drug-resistant parasites, thus increasing malaria cases and eventually, deaths. Factors such as these in therapeutics have led to a better appreciation of nanomaterials. The ability of nanomaterials to function as drug carriers with a high loading capacity and targeted drug delivery, good biocompatibility, and low toxicity renders them an appealing alternative to conventional therapy. Nanomaterials such as dendrimers and liposomes have been demonstrated to be capable of enhancing the efficacy of antimalarial drugs. This review discusses the recent development of nanomaterials and their benefits in drug delivery for the potential treatment of malaria.

Membrane Fabrication and Modification by Atomic Layer Deposition: Processes and Applications in Water Treatment and Gas Separation

Membrane-based separation processes are part of most water purification plants worldwide. Industrial separation applications, primarily water purification and gas separation, can be improved with novel membranes or modification to existing ones. Atomic layer deposition (ALD) is an emerging technique that is proposed to upgrade certain kinds of membranes independent of their chemistry and morphology. ALD deposits thin, defect-free, angstrom-scale, and uniform coating layers on a substrate's surface by reacting with gaseous precursors. The surface-modifying effects of ALD are described in the present review, followed by a description of various types of inorganic and organic barrier films and how these can be used in combination with ALD. The role of ALD in membrane fabrication and modification is categorized into different membrane-based groups according to the treated medium, i.e., water or gas. In all membrane types, the ALD-based direct deposition of inorganic materials, mainly metal oxides, on the membrane surface can improve antifouling, selectivity, permeability, and hydrophilicity. Therefore, the ALD technique can broaden the applications of membranes to the treatment of emerging contaminants in water and air. Finally, the advancement, limitations, and challenges of ALD-based membrane fabrication and modification are compared to provide a comprehensive guideline for developing next-generation membranes with improved filtration and separation performance.

Nanospanlastics as a Novel Approach for Improving the Oral Delivery of Resveratrol in Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Endotoxicity in Mice

Purpose

Resveratrol (RSV) is a natural polyphenolic compound that has numerous biological effects. Owing to its poor bioavailability, only trace concentrations of RSV could be found at the site of action. Therefore, the present study was aimed at developing RSV-loaded nanospanlastics to improve its oral delivery and therapeutic activity.

Methods

RSV-loaded nanospanlastics were prepared using the thin film hydration technique. The developed formulations were characterized via vesicular size (VS), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP) measurements, fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy analysis and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In vitro release profile was carried out using dialysis bag diffusion technique. In vivo study was carried out using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endotoxicity model in mice to evaluate the formulations activity.

Results

The results revealed the successful development of RSV-loaded nanospanlastics which exhibited EE% ranging from 45 to 85%, particle sizes ranging from 260.5 to 794.3 nm; negatively charged zeta potential (≤ − 20 mV) and TEM revealed their spherical shape. An in vitro release study showed biphasic pattern with sustained release of drug up to 24 h. In vivo results showed the superiority of RSV-loaded nanospanlastics over conventional niosomes in attenuating serum levels of liver and kidney functions (aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), and creatinine) in LPS-induced endotoxic mice. Furthermore, both of them suppressed the elevated oxidative stress and inflammatory markers (malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), and interleukin-1beta (IL-1β)) estimated in the liver and kidney tissues. However, the nanospanlastics showed a prevalence effect over conventional niosomes in kidney measurements and the histopathological examinations.

Conclusions

These findings reveal the potential of nanospanlastics in improving the oral delivery and therapeutic efficacy of RSV.

Formulation and characterisation of lacidipine niosomal gel for transdermal delivery

The present study aimed to enhance the transdermal delivery of lacidipine by niosomal vesicles. Lacidipine niosomes were generated using the ultrasonic method, and Span 60 was used as a nonionic surfactant. Formulations were prepared containing Span 60 and cholesterol in 1:1 and 2:1 ratios, respectively, with essential oils added at increasing concentrations. The formulated niosomes had nano-vesicles with entrapment efficiency ranging from 75.81% to 91.25% and in-vitro drug release ranging from 80.61% to 89.81%. The optimal formulation was selected based on particle size, entrapment efficiency and in-vitro drug release. Optical microscopy and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy studies revealed a spherical shape of the niosomal vesicles. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffraction studies confirmed complete encapsulation of the drug in the niosomal vesicles. The optimized formulation was also incorporated into a gel base, which was then evaluated for appearance, pH, viscosity, spreadability, in vitro drug release and stability. Overall, the results indicated that the developed niosomal lacidipine vesicles may provide an alternative to existing delivery systems for this drug.

Enhanced anti-biofilm activity of the minocycline-and-gallium-nitrate using niosome wrapping against Acinetobacter baumannii in C57/BL6 mouse pneumonia model

Acinetobacter baumannii is a worldwide health issue in terms of its high antibiotic resistance and ability to form biofilms. Nanoparticles (NPs) with high biocompatibility, high penetrating ability, and low medication dose can successfully treat the antibiotic-resistant infections. In this research, the anti-biofilm activity of niosomes containing minocycline and gallium nitrate (GaN) against A. baumannii biofilm was determined. In order to improve their anti-biofilm properties, minocycline and GaN were encapsulated in niosomes as biocompatible drug carriers. The niosomes' size, zeta potential, shape, stability, drug entrapment efficacy, drug release pattern and antibacterial activity were assessed. Several clinical samples were isolated from the lungs of patients hospitalized at Loghman hospital, Tehran, Iran. The biofilm formation of most lethal clinical isolates of A. baumannii was analyzed. The pneumonia model was generated by intranasally administering A. baumannii suspension to anesthetized mice whose immune systems was compromised twice by cyclophosphamide. Lung infection of the mouse with A. baumannii was confirmed using PCR. After treatment, the lungs were excised under sterile conditions and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) to determine histological symptoms, inflammation and intercellular secretions. The niosomes contained minocycline and GaN had an average size of 230 nm and a zeta potential of -40 mV, respectively. The percentage of drug entrapment and delayed drug release was both high in niosomal formulations. Niosomes containing minocycline and GaN dispersed 1, 3 and 5 day old biofilms. The mice given the combination of two compounds required less time to be treated than the animals given the single medication (minocycline). The minocycline& GaN-loaded niosomes could be considered as promising candidates to treat the infections caused by A. baumannii biofilm.

Global Trends of Cosmeceutical in Nanotechnology: A Review

Nanotechnology suggests different innovative solutions to augment the worth of cosmetic products through the targeted delivery of content that manifests scientific innovation in research and development. Different nanosystems, like liposomes, niosomes, microemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanoform lipid carriers, nanoemulsions, and nanospheres, are employed in cosmetics. These nanosystems exhibit various innovative cosmetic functions, including site-specific targeting, controlled content release, more stability, improved skin penetration and enhanced entrapment efficiency of loaded compounds. Thus, cosmeceuticals are assumed as the highest-progressing fragment of the personal care industries that have progressed drastically over the years. In recent decades, cosmetic science has widened the origin of its application in different fields. Nanosystems in cosmetics are beneficial in treating different conditions like hyperpigmentation, wrinkles, dandruff, photoaging and hair damage. This review highlights the different nanosystems used in cosmetics for the targeted delivery of loaded content and commercially available formulations. Moreover, this review article has delineated different patented nanocosmetic formulation nanosystems and future aspects of nanocarriers in cosmetics.

Development and In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of an Antineoplastic Copper(II) Compound (Casiopeina III-ia) Loaded in Nonionic Vesicles Using Quality by Design

In recent decades, the interest in metallodrugs as therapeutic agents has increased. Casiopeinas are copper-based compounds that have been evaluated in several tumor cell lines. Currently, casiopeina III-ia (CasIII-ia) is being evaluated in phase I clinical trials. The aim of the present work is to develop a niosome formulation containing CasIII-ia for intravenous administration through a quality-by-design (QbD) approach. Risk analysis was performed to identify the factors that may have an impact on CasIII-ia encapsulation. The developed nanoformulation optimized from the experimental design was characterized by spectroscopy, thermal analysis, and electronic microscopy. In vitro drug release showed a burst effect followed by a diffusion-dependent process. The niosomes showed physical stability for at least three months at 37 °C and 75% relative humidity. The in vitro test showed activity of the encapsulated CasIII-ia on a metastatic breast cancer cell line and the in vivo test of nanoencapsulated CasIII-ia maintained the activity of the free compound, but showed a diminished toxicity. Therefore, the optimal conditions obtained by QbD may improve the scaling-up process.

Novel spirooxindole based benzimidazole scaffold: In vitro, nanoformulation and in vivo studies on anticancer and antimetastatic activity of breast adenocarcinoma

The present work provided in vitro anticancer investigation of novel spirooxindole based benzimidazole scaffold SP1 and its nanoformulation with in vivo evaluation of anticancer and antimetastatic activity as potential drug for breast adenocarcinoma. The synthesized compound SP1 exhibited potent growth inhibitory efficacy against four types of human cancer (breast, prostate, colon and lung) cell lines with IC₅₀ = 2.4, 3.4, 7.24 and 7.81 µM and selectivity index 5.79, 4.08, 1.93 and 1.78 respectively. Flow cytometric analysis illustrated that SP1 exhibited high apoptotic effect on all tested cancer cell lines (38.22-52.3 %). The mode of action of this promising compound was declared by its ability to upregulate the gene expression of p21 (2.29-3.91 folds) with suppressing cyclin D (1.9-8.93 folds) and NF-κB (1.26-1.44 fold) in the treated cancer cells. Also, it enhanced the protein expression of apoptotic marker p53 and moderate binding affinity for MDM2 (K_D;7.94 μM). Notwithstanding these promising impressive findings, its selectivity against cancer cell lines and safety on normal cells were improved by nanoformulation. Therefore, SP1 was formulated as ultra-flexible niosomal nanovesicles (transethoniosomes). The ultra-deformability is attributable to the synergism between ethanol and edge activators in improving the flexibility of the nanovesicular membrane. F8 exhibited high deformability index (DI) of (23.48 ± 1.4). It was found that % SP1 released from the optimized transethoniosomal formula (F8) after 12 h (Q_12h) was 84.17 ± 1.29 % and its entrapment efficiency (%EE) was 76.48 ± 1.44 %. Based upon the very encouraging and promising in vitro results, an in vivo study was carried out in female Balb/c mice weighing (15-25 g). SP1 did halt the proliferation of breast cancer cells as well as suppressed the metastasis in other organs like liver, lung and heart.

Current Advances in Specialised Niosomal Drug Delivery: Manufacture, Characterization and Drug Delivery Applications

Development of nanomaterials for drug delivery has received considerable attention due to their potential for achieving on-target delivery to the diseased area while the surrounding healthy tissue is spared. Safe and efficiently delivered payloads have always been a challenge in pharmaceutics. Niosomes are self-assembled vesicular nanocarriers formed by hydration of a non-ionic surfactant, cholesterol or other molecules that combine to form a versatile drug delivery system with a variety of applications ranging from topical delivery to targeted delivery. Niosomes have advantages similar to those of liposomes with regards to their ability to incorporate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic payloads. Moreover, niosomes have simple manufacturing methods, low production cost and exhibit extended stability, consequently overcoming the major drawbacks associated with liposomes. This review provides a comprehensive summary of niosomal research to date, including the types of niosomes and critical material attributes (CMA) and critical process parameters (CPP) of niosomes and their effects on the critical quality attributes (CQA) of the technology. Furthermore, physical characterisation techniques of niosomes are provided. The review then highlights recent applications of specialised niosomes in drug delivery. Finally, limitations and prospects for this technology are discussed.

Cationically modified inhalable nintedanib niosomes: enhancing therapeutic activity against non-small-cell lung cancer

Aim: This study was designed to develop and test nintedanib-loaded niosomes as inhalable carriers for enhancing its therapeutic efficacy via localized drug accumulation and addressing issues such as low bioavailability and severe toxicity. Methods: Niosomes were prepared by thin-film hydration method and were evaluated for in vitro therapeutic effectiveness in lung cancer cells. Results: The optimized niosomal formulation displayed optimized vesicle size, controlled and extended release of drug, and efficient aerodynamic properties indicating its suitability as an aerosolized formulation. In vitro studies revealed significantly superior cytotoxicity of nintedanib-loaded niosomes which was further validated by 3D spheroids. Conclusion: These findings establish the effectiveness of niosomes as inhalable delivery carriers which could serve as a promising strategy for delivery of nintedanib to treat several lung cancers.

Targeting Colorectal Cancer Cells with Niosomes Systems Loaded with Two Anticancer Drugs Models; Comparative In Vitro and Anticancer Studies

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is considered one of the most commonly diagnosed malignant diseases. Recently, there has been an increased focus on using nanotechnology to resolve most of the limitations in conventional chemotherapy. Niosomes have great advantages that overcome the drawbacks associated with other lipid drug delivery systems. They are simple, cheap, and highly stable nanocarriers. This study investigated the effectiveness of using niosomes with their amphiphilic characteristics in the incorporation of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic anticancer drugs for CRC treatment. Methods: Drug-free niosomes were formulated using a response surface D-optimal factorial design to study the cholesterol molar ratio, surfactant molar ratio and surfactant type effect on the particle size and Z-potential of the prepared niosomes. After numerical and statistical optimization, an optimized formulation having a particle size of 194.4 ± 15.5 nm and a Z-potential of 31.8 ± 1.9 mV was selected to be loaded with Oxaliplatin and Paclitaxel separately in different concentrations. The formulations with the highest entrapment efficiency (EE%) were evaluated for their drug release using the dialysis bag method, in vitro antitumor activity on HT-29 colon cancer cell line and apoptosis activity. Results: Niosomes prepared using d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) at a molar ratio 4, cholesterol (2 molar ratio) and loaded with 1 molar ratio of either Oxaliplatin or Paclitaxel provided nanosized vesicles (278.5 ± 19.7 and 251.6 ± 18.1 nm) with a Z-potential value (32.7 ± 1.01 and 31.69 ± 0.98 mV) with the highest EE% (90.57 ± 2.05 and 93.51 ± 2.97) for Oxaliplatin and Paclitaxel, respectively. These formulations demonstrated up to 48 h drug release and increased the in vitro cytotoxicity and apoptosis efficiency of both drugs up to twice as much as free drugs. Conclusion: These findings suggest that different formulation composition parameters can be adjusted to obtain nanosized niosomal vesicles with an accepted Z-potential. These niosomes could be loaded with either hydrophilic drugs such as Oxaliplatin or hydrophobic drugs such as Paclitaxel. Drug-loaded niosomes, as a unique nanomicellar system, could enhance the cellular uptake of both drugs, resulting in enhanced cytotoxic and apoptosis effects against HT-29 colon cancer cells. Oxaliplatin–niosomes and Paclitaxel–niosomes can be considered promising alternative drug delivery systems with enhanced bioavailability of these two anticancer drugs for colorectal cancer treatment.

Safety of Lavender Oil-Loaded Niosomes for In Vitro Culture and Biomedical Applications

(1) Background: Essential oils have long been used as therapeutic agents. Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) oil (LO) is an antispasmodic, anticonvulsant, relaxant, painkilling, and antimicrobial essential oil investigated as a natural substance for biomedical therapies. Nanoparticles have shown significant promise in improving drug delivery and efficacy. Considering these benefits, the aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicity of LO and lavender oil niosomes (LONs) in stem cells and myofibroblast models cultured in vitro. (2) Methods: Adipose tissue-derived stem cells and myometrial cells were cultured with LO or LONs at different concentrations (0, 0.016%, 0.031%, and 0.063%) and toxicity was evaluated with PrestoBlue™ and live/dead assay using calcein and ethidium homodimer. (3) Results: Cell viability was similar to controls in all groups, except in 0.063% LO for myometrial cells, which showed lower viability than the control medium. (4) Conclusion: These results suggest that both LO and LONs are safe for cell culture and may be used for pharmaceutical and biomedical therapies in future applications in regenerative medicine.

Physicochemical and Stability Evaluation of Topical Niosomal Encapsulating Fosinopril/γ-Cyclodextrin Complex for Ocular Delivery

This study aimed to develop a chemically stable niosomal eye drop containing fosinopril (FOS) for lowering intraocular pressure. The effects of cyclodextrin (CD), surfactant types and membrane stabilizer/charged inducers on physiochemical and chemical properties of niosome were evaluated. The pH value, average particle size, size distribution and zeta potentials were within the acceptable range. All niosomal formulations were shown to be slightly hypertonic with low viscosity. Span® 60/dicetyl phosphate niosomes in the presence and absence of γCD were selected as the optimum formulations according to their high %entrapment efficiency and negative zeta potential values as well as controlled release profile. According to ex vivo permeation study, the obtained lowest flux and apparent permeability coefficient values confirmed that FOS/γCD complex was encapsulated within the inner aqueous core of niosome and could be able to protect FOS from its hydrolytic degradation. The in vitro cytotoxicity revealed that niosome entrapped FOS or FOS/γCD formulations were moderate irritation to the eyes. Furthermore, FOS-loaded niosomal preparations exhibited good physical and chemical stabilities especially of those in the presence of γCD, for at least three months under the storage condition of 2–8 °C.

Synthesis and Potential Applications of Lipid Nanoparticles in Medicine

Currently, carriers of active ingredients in the form of particles of a size measured in nanometers are the focus of interest of research centers worldwide. So far, submicrometer emulsions, liposomes, as well as microspheres, and nanospheres made of biodegradable polymers have been used in medicine. Recent studies show particular interest in nanoparticles based on lipids, and at the present time, are even referred to as the "era of lipid carriers". With the passage of time, lipid nanoparticles of the so-called first and second generation, SLN (Solid Lipid Nanoparticles) and nanostructured lipid carriers and NLC (Nanostructured Lipid Carriers), respectively, turned out to be an alternative for all imperfections of earlier carriers. These carriers are characterized by a number of beneficial functional properties, including, among others, structure based on lipids well tolerated by the human body, high stability, and ability to carry hydro- and lipophilic compounds. Additionally, these carriers can enhance the distribution of the drug in the target organ and alter the pharmacokinetic properties of the drug carriers to enhance the medical effect and minimize adverse side effects. This work is focused on the current review of the state-of-the-art related to the synthesis and applications of popular nanoparticles in medicine, with a focus on their use, e.g., in COVID-19 vaccines.

Development of niosomes for encapsulating captopril-quercetin prodrug to combat hypertension

Novel and effective anti-hypertensive agents are required to manage hypertension; therefore, we synthesised a novel antihypertensive drug from captopril and quercetin (cap-que) and explored its antihypertensive potential in a niosomal formulation via molecular hybridisation. The cap-que hybrid was synthesised, and its structure was characterised via NMR, FTIR, and HRMS. Niosomes were then loaded with cap-que using the thin-film hydration method. The particle size, polydispersity index, surface charge and drug entrapment efficiency (EE%) of the formulation were 418.8 ± 4.21 nm, 0.393 ± 0.063, 16.25 ± 0.21 mV, and 87.74 ± 2.82%, respectively. The drug release profile showed a sustained release of the active compound (43 ± 0.09%) from the niosomal formulation, compared to the parent drug (80.7 ± 4.68%), over 24 h. The cell viability study confirmed the biosafety of the formulation. The in vivo study in a rat model showed enhanced antihypertensive activity of the hybrid molecule and niosomal formulation which reduced systolic and diastolic pressure when compared to the individual, bare drugs. The findings of this study concluded that the antihypertensive potential of captopril can be enhanced by its hybridisation with quercetin, followed by niosomal nano drug delivery.

Characterization and distribution of niosomes containing ursolic acid coated with chitosan layer

Background and purpose

Ursolic acid (UA) exhibits anti-hepatocarcinoma and hepatoprotective activities, thus promising as an effective oral cancer therapy. However, its poor solubility and permeability lead to low oral bioavailability. In this study, we evaluated the effect of different ratios of Span^® 60-cholesterol-UA and also chitosan addition on physical characteristics and stability of niosomes to improve oral biodistribution.

Experimental approach

UA niosomes (Nio-UA) were composed of Span^® 60-cholesterol-UA at different molar ratios and prepared by using thin layer hydration method, and then chitosan solution was added into the Nio-UA to prepare Nio-CS-UA.

Findings/Results

The results showed that increasing the UA amount increased the particle size of Nio-UA. However, the higher the UA amount added to niosomes, the lower the encapsulation efficiency. The highest physical stability was achieved by preparing niosomes at a molar ratio of 3:2:10 for Span^® 60, cholesterol, and UA, respectively, with a zeta-potential value of -41.99 mV. The addition of chitosan increased the particle size from 255 nm to 439 nm, as well as the zeta-potential value which increased from -46 mV to -21 mV. Moreover, Nio-UA-CS had relatively higher drug release in PBS pH 6.8 and 7.4 than Nio-UA. In the in vivo study, the addition of chitosan produced higher intensities of coumarin-6-labeled Nio-UA-CS in the liver than Nio-UA.

Conclusion and implications

It can be concluded that the ratio of Span^® 60-cholesterol-UA highly affected niosomes physical properties. Moreover, the addition of chitosan improved the stability and drug release as well as oral biodistribution of Nio-UA.

Functionalized niosomes as a smart delivery device in cancer and fungal infection

Various diseases remain untreated due to lack of suitable therapeutic moiety or a suitable drug delivery device, especially where toxicities and side effects are the primary reason for concern. Cancer and fungal infections are diseases where treatment schedules are not completed due to severe side effects or lengthy treatment protocols. Advanced treatment approaches such as active targeting and inhibition of angiogenesis may be preferred method for the treatment for malignancy over the conventional method. Niosomes may be a better alternative drug delivery carrier for various therapeutic moieties (either hydrophilic or hydrophobic) and also due to ease of surface modification, non-immunogenicity and economical. Active targeting approach may be done by targeting the receptors through coupling of suitable ligand on niosomal surface. Moreover, various receptors (CD44, folate, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) & Vascular growth factor receptor (VGFR)) expressed by malignant cells have also been reviewed. The preparation of suitable niosomal formulation also requires considerable attention, and its formulation depends upon various factors such as selection of non-ionic surfactant, method of fabrication, and fabrication parameters. A combination therapy (dual drug and immunotherapy) has been proposed for the treatment of fungal infection with special consideration for surface modification with suitable ligand on niosomal surface to sensitize the receptors (C-type lectin receptors, Toll-like receptors & Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors) present on immune cells involved in fungal immunity. Certain gene silencing concept has also been discussed as an advanced alternative treatment for cancer by silencing the mRNA at molecular level using short interfering RNA (si-RNA).

Simulation, In Vitro, and In Vivo Cytotoxicity Assessments of Methotrexate-Loaded pH-Responsive Nanocarriers

In this study, pH-responsive niosomal methotrexate (MTX) modified with ergosterol was prepared for potential anticancer application. The prepared formulation had a size of 176.7 ± 3.4 nm, zeta potential of −31.5 ± 2.6 mV, EE% of 76.9 ± 2.5%, and a pH-responsive behavior in two different pHs (5.4 and 7.4). In-silico evaluations showed that MTX intended to make a strong hydrogen bond with Span 60 compartments involving N2 and O4 atoms in glutamic acid and N7 atom in pteridine ring moieties, respectively. The cytotoxic effects of free and pH-MTX/Nio were assessed against MCF7 and HUVECs. Compared with free MTX, we found significantly lower IC50s when MCF7 cells were treated with niosomal MTX (84.03 vs. 9.464 µg/mL after 48 h, respectively). Moreover, lower cell killing activity was observed for this formulation in normal cells. The pH-MTX/Nio exhibited a set of morphological changes in MCF7 cells observed during cell death. In-vivo results demonstrated that intraperitoneal administration of free MTX (2 mg/kg) after six weeks caused a significant increase in serum blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum creatinine, and serum malondialdehyde (MDA) levels of rats compared to the normal control rats. Treatment with 2 and 4 mg/kg doses of pH-MTX/Nio significantly increased serum BUN, serum creatinine, and serum lipid peroxidation. Still, the safety profile of such formulations in healthy cells/tissues should be further investigated.

Enhanced Antibacterial Activity of Echinacea angustifolia Extract against Multidrug-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae through Niosome Encapsulation

With the increased occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, alternatives to classical antibiotics are urgently needed for treatment of various infectious diseases. Medicinal plant extracts are among the promising candidates due to their bioactive components. The aim of this study was to prepare niosome-encapsulated Echinacea angustifolia extract and study its efficacy against multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae strains. Encapsulation was first optimized by Design of Experiments, followed by the empirical study. The obtained niosomes were further characterized for the size and morphology using dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Spherical niosomes had a diameter of 142.3 ± 5.1 nm, as measured by DLS. The entrapment efficiency (EE%) of E. angustifolia extract reached up to 77.1% ± 0.3%. The prepared niosomes showed a controlled drug release within the tested 72 h and a storage stability of at least 2 months at both 4 and 25 °C. The encapsulated E. angustifolia displayed up to 16-fold higher antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant K.pneumoniae strains, compared to the free extract. Additionally, the niosome exhibited negligible cytotoxicity against human foreskin fibroblasts. We anticipate that the results presented herein could contribute to the preparation of other plant extracts with improved stability and antibacterial activity, and will help reduce the overuse of antibiotics by controlled release of natural-derived drugs.

Development of topical thymoquinone loaded polymer-lipid hybrid vesicular gel: in-vitro and ex-vivo evaluation

Thymoquinone (TH), a naturally occurring moiety shows excellent anticancer properties and in the present study, TH loaded polymer hybrid lipid vesicles (TH PLH) were formulated, and in-vitro cytotoxicity towards breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and MBD-MB 231 cells) was determined. TH PLH was primed by the ethanol spraying method and were characterized for various attributes like particle size, morphology, percentage drug entrapment, elasticity, rheological, zeta potential, etc. The prepared TH PLH Vesicles showed an average particle size from 344.7 ± 3.7 nm to 351.9 ± 2.3 nm and showed very narrow distribution with polydispersity index ranging from 0.245 ± 0.36 to 0.271 ± 0.66. The surface charge on the vesicles was confirmed by zeta potential (þ -21.3 ± 1.08 mV to þ -19.98 ± 3.4 mV). The globular moulded vesicles were in the nano-size range and had high flexibility and an approximately 10-fold increase in elasticity properties. TH PLH Vesicular gel was formulated by means of Carbopol 934 and was evaluated for physical appearance, pH, rheological behaviour, and skin irritation test. Cytotoxicity study reveals paramount inhibition on cells by TH vesicle-loaded gel. These results showed the high potential of TH PLH vesicles for topical anticancer application.

Zolmitriptan Intranasal Spanlastics for Enhanced Migraine Treatment; Formulation Parameters Optimized via Quality by Design Approach

Zolmitriptan is a potent second-generation triptan prescribed for migraine attacks. It suffers low bioavailability (40%) after oral administration due to the hepatic first-pass metabolism. Spanlastics are surfactant-based elastic vesicular drug carrier systems. This study aimed to design and optimize intranasal spanlastic formulations as an alternative approach that directly targets brain delivery, enhancing its bioavailability and avoiding the first-pass effect. The quality by design approach was applied to correlate the formulation parameters (Span 60 and Tween 80 concentrations) and critical quality attributes (entrapment efficiency (EE%) and particle size). Spanlastic formulations were designed based on response surface central composite design and prepared via an ethanol injection method. Designed formulations were characterized by EE% and particle size measurements to select the optimized formula (with a combination of small particle size and high EE%). The optimized formula was further subjected to transmission electron microscopy, zeta potential measurement and ex vivo permeation study. The optimized formulation showed a particle size of 117.5 nm and EE% of 45.65%, with a low percentage of error between the observed and predicted values. Seventy percent of zolmitriptan was permeated through the nasal membrane within 30 min, and it completely permeated within 2 h with a significantly higher steady-state flux compared to plain gel. This study introduced a successful and promising intranasal formulation suitable for further brain delivery analysis.

Preparation of Casein Biopeptide-Loaded Niosomes by High Shear Homogenization and Their Characterization

The aim of this study was to develop a niosomal system to deliver milk bioactive peptides with potential for enhanced bioavailability. Milk casein was hydrolyzed with Flavourzyme, and the hydrolysates were ultrafiltered to obtain low-molecular-weight peptides with enhanced antioxidant activity. Biopeptide-loaded niosomes were prepared by a high shear homogenization method. Peptide-loaded niosomes exhibited a mean particle size of 37.64 ± 0.98 nm with narrow size distribution (PDI = 24.66 ± 0.008%) and high zeta potential (-23.36 mV). The niosomes encapsulated about 67% of peptides into the vesicles and showed controlled and sustained release under simulated gastrointestinal conditions as compared to free peptides. The antioxidant activity of the peptides was not affected due to their encapsulation into niosomes. Morphology of peptide-loaded niosomes was determined by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy, and the microstructural interactions analyzed by Fourier transform infrared clearly indicated the formation of peptide-loaded niosomes. High-performance liquid chromatography spectra of peptides in the niosomes and the free peptides were similar, thus confirming their entrapment into the niosomes.

Design and Characterization of Spray-Dried Proliposomes for the Pulmonary Delivery of Curcumin

Purpose

The goal was to directly deliver curcumin, a natural polyphenolic anticancer and anti-inflammatory compound, to the lung tissues with minimal systemic exposure through the fabrication of proliposomes, overcoming its poor aqueous solubility and oral bioavailability.

Methods

Nano-spray drying was employed to prepare proliposomes using hydroxypropyl beta-cyclodextrin as a carrier. Lecithin and cholesterol were used as lipids, stearylamine and Poloxamer 188 were added as positive charge inducer and a surfactant, respectively. Different characterization parameters were evaluated like percentage yield, entrapment efficiency, drug loading, aerodynamic particle size, in vitro release besides morphological examination. Cytotoxicity studies on cell line A549 lung tumor cells as well as in vivo lung pharmacokinetic studies were also carried.

Results

The optimized formulations showed superior aerosolization properties coupled their enhanced ability to reach deep lung tissues with a high % of fine particle fraction. Cytotoxicity studies using MTT assay demonstrated enhanced growth inhibitory effect on lung tumor cells A549 and significant reduction of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6 and interleukin-10 compared to the pure drug. Results of lung pharmacokinetic tests confirmed the superiority of proliposomal curcumin over curcumin powder in both, the rate and extent of lung tissue absorption, as well as the mean residence time within the lung tissues.

Conclusion

The pulmonary delivery of curcumin-loaded proliposomes as dry powder provides a direct approach to lung tissues targeting while avoiding the limitations of the oral route and offering a non-invasive alternative to the parenteral one.

Effects of cefazolin-containing niosome nanoparticles against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formed on chronic wounds

The ability of biofilm formation in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) causes significant mortality and morbidity in wound infections. Nanoparticles because of the drug concentration increment at the point of contact of nanoparticles and bacteria, and slower release of the drug at the desired location are considered as proper tools to overcome the therapeutic problem of antimicrobial-resistant infections. This study was aimed to evaluate the anti-biofilm activity of cefazolin-loaded nanoparticles against MRSA isolates. The 27 clinical isolates of MRSA were collected from patients with pressure sores and diabetic ulcers referred to Loghman Hospital in Tehran-Iran. MRSA isolates were detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and biochemical tests. Cefazolin-loaded niosome was synthesized using the thin-film hydration method and were characterized by zeta potential measurement and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The round-shaped cefazolin-loaded niosomes had a diameter of 100 nm and a -63 mV zeta potential. The cefazolin-containing niosomes removed 1, 3, and 5 d old biofilms at the concentration of 128 µg ml-1, 128 µg ml-1, and 256 µg ml-1, respectively. Histological results indicated that BALB/c mice receiving cefazolin-loaded niosomes were treated effectively faster than those treated by cefazolin or untreated group. In conclusion, the cefazolin-loaded niosome could be considered as a promising candidate for the treatment of biofilm-mediated infections of MRSA.

Oral Bioavailability Improvement of Tailored Rosuvastatin Loaded Niosomal Nanocarriers to Manage Ischemic Heart Disease: Optimization, Ex Vivo and In Vivo Studies

Rosuvastatin is an efficient antihyperlipidemic agent; however, being a BCS class II molecule, it shows poor oral bioavailability of < 20%. The present study focused on the improvement of oral bioavailability of rosuvastatin using tailored niosomes. The niosomes were prepared by film hydration method and sonication using cholesterol and Span 40. The Box-Behnken design (BBD) was applied to optimize the size (98 nm) and the entrapment efficacy (77%) of the niosomes by selecting cholesterol at 122 mg, Span 40 at 0.52%, and hydration time at 29.88 min. The transmission electron microscopy image showed spherical shape niosomes with smooth surface without aggregation. The ex vivo intestinal permeability studies showed significant improvement in the rosuvastatin permeation (95.5% after 2 h) using niosomes in comparison to the rosuvastatin suspension (40.1% after 2 h). The in vivo pharmacokinetic parameters in the rat model confirmed the improvement in the oral bioavailability with optimized rosuvastatin loaded niosomes (relative bioavailability = 2.01) in comparison to the rosuvastatin suspension, due to high surface area of niosomes and its lymphatic uptake via transcellular route. In conclusion, the optimized rosuvastatin loaded niosomes offers a promising approach to improve the oral bioavailability of rosuvastatin.

Fabrication and Appraisal of Simvastatin via Tailored Niosomal Nanovesicles for Transdermal Delivery Enhancement: In Vitro and In Vivo Assessment

Simvastatin (SIM) is a HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor employed in the management of hyperlipidemia. However, its low bioavailability limits its clinical efficacy. The objective of this study was to overcome the poor bioavailability of SIM via the transdermal application of a SIM-loaded niosomal gel. Niosomes loaded with SIM were fabricated by means of the thin-film hydration method and optimized through a 3³-factorial design utilizing Design Expert^® software. The prepared niosomes were evaluated for entrapment efficiency (EE%), zeta potential, vesicle size, and cumulative percentage of drug release. The optimum niosomal formulation was loaded on the gel and evaluated for physical properties such as color, clarity, and homogeneity. It was also evaluated for spreadability, and the cumulative % drug release. The best niosomal gel formula was appraised for ex vivo permeation as well as pharmacokinetic study. The SIM-loaded niosomes showed EE% between 66.7–91.4%, vesicle size between 191.1–521.6 nm, and zeta potential ranged between −0.81–+35.6 mv. The cumulative percentage of drug released was ranged from 55% to 94% over 12 h. SIM-loaded niosomal gels were clear, homogenous, spreadable, and the pH values were within the range of physiological skin pH. Furthermore, about 73.5% of SIM was released within 24 h, whereas 409.5 µg/cm² of SIM passed through the skin over 24 h in the ex vivo permeation study. The pharmacokinetic study revealed higher AUC_0–∞ and Cmax with topical application of SIM-loaded niosomal gel compared to topical SIM gel or oral SIM suspension. The topical application of SIM-loaded niosomal gel ascertained the potential percutaneous delivery of SIM.

Formulation and Optimization of Nanospanlastics for Improving the Bioavailability of Green Tea Epigallocatechin Gallate

The present study aimed to investigate the potential of nanospanlastics for boosting the bioavailability of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). EGCG has valuable effects like anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, and anti-tumorigenesis. Unfortunately, it has a low oral bioavailability due to its limited permeation and poor stability. To overcome these pitfalls, EGCG was fabricated as a nanospanlastic. Nanospanlastics are flexible nanovesicles that are composed of surfactants and edge activators (EAs). EAs improve the deformability of spanlastics by acting as a destabilizing factor of their vesicular membranes. EGCG-loaded spanlastics were prepared by an ethanol injection method, according to 2³ factorial design, to explore the impact of different independent variables on entrapment efficiency (EE%), % drug released after 12 h (Q_12h), and particle size (PS). In vitro characterization, ex vivo intestinal permeation test, and pharmacokinetic study of the optimized formula were performed. A newly developed RP-HPLC technique was adopted for the estimation of EGCG. The optimized formula (F4) demonstrated more prolonged drug release and a significant improvement in the EE%, permeability, deformability and stability than the corresponding niosomes. The pharmacokinetic study investigated that F4 had a more sustained drug release and a higher bioavailability than the conventional niosomes and free drugs. Nanospanlastics could be a promising approach for improving the bioavailability of EGCG.

Development of Provesicular Nanodelivery System of Curcumin as a Safe and Effective Antiviral Agent: Statistical Optimization, In Vitro Characterization, and Antiviral Effectiveness

Curcumin is a natural compound that has many medical applications. However, its low solubility and poor stability could impede its clinical applications. The present study aimed to formulate dry proniosomes to overcome these pitfalls and improve the therapeutic efficacy of Curcumin. Curcumin-loaded proniosomes were fabricated by the slurry method according to 32 factorial design using Design-Expert software to demonstrate the impact of different independent variables on entrapment efficiency (EE%) and % drug released after 12 h (Q12h). The optimized formula (F5) was selected according to the desirability criteria. F5 exhibited good flowability and appeared, after reconstitution, as spherical nanovesicles with EE% of 89.94 ± 2.31% and Q12h of 70.89 ± 1.62%. F5 demonstrated higher stability and a significant enhancement of Q12h than the corresponding niosomes. The docking study investigated the ability of Curcumin to bind effectively with the active site of DNA polymerase of Herpes simplex virus (HSV). The antiviral activity and the safety of F5 were significantly higher than Curcumin. F5 improved the safety of Acyclovir (ACV) and reduced its effective dose that produced a 100% reduction of viral plaques. Proniosomes could be promising stable carriers of Curcumin to be used as a safe and efficient antiviral agent.

The Impact of Surfactant Composition and Surface Charge of Niosomes on the Oral Absorption of Repaglinide as a BCS II Model Drug

Background

Niosomes, bilayer vesicles formed by the self-assembly of nonionic surfactants, are receiving increasing attention as potential oral drug delivery systems but the impact of niosomal formulation parameters on their oral capability has not been studied systematically. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of surfactant composition and surface charge of niosomes in enhancing oral bioavailability of repaglinide (REG) as a BCS II model drug.

Methods

Niosomes (13 formulations) from various nonionic surfactants having HLB in the range of 4–28 (Tweens, Spans, Brijs, Myrj, poloxamer 188, TPGS and Labrasol) were prepared and characterized concerning their loading efficiency, hydrodynamic diameter, zeta potential, drug release profile, and stability. The oral pharmacokinetics of the selected formulations were studied in rats (8 in vivo groups).

Results

The results revealed that type of surfactant markedly affected the in vitro and in vivo potentials of niosomes. The C_max and AUC values of REG after administration of the selected niosomes as well as the drug suspension (as control) were in the order of Tween 80> TPGS> Myrj 52> Brij 35> Span 60≈Suspension. Adding stearyl amine as a positive charge-inducing agent to the Tween 80-based niosomes, resulted in an additional increase in drug absorption and values of AUC and C_max were 3.8- and 4.7-fold higher than the drug suspension, respectively.

Conclusion

Cationic Tween 80-based niosomes may represent a promising platform to develop oral delivery systems for BCS II drugs.

Crosslink among phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/Akt, PTEN and STAT-5A signaling pathways post liposomal galactomannan hepatocellular carcinoma therapy

Liposomal drug-delivery systems (LDDs) provide a promising opportunity to precisely target organs, improve drug bioavailability and reduce systemic toxicity. On the other hand, PI₃K/Akt signaling pathways control various intracellular functions including apoptosis, invasion and cell growth. Hyper activation of PI3K and Akt is detected in some types of cancer that posses defect in PTEN. Tracking the crosstalk between PI3K/Akt, PTEN and STAT 5A signaling pathways, in cancer could result in identifying new therapeutic agents. The current study, identified an over view on PI3K/Akt, PTEN and STAT-5A networks, in addition to their biological roles in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In the current study galactomannan was extracted from Caesalpinia gilliesii seeds then loaded in liposomes. Liposomes were prepared employing phosphatidyl choline and different concentrations of cholesterol. HCC was then induced in Wistar albino rats followed by liposomal galactomannan (700 ± 100 nm) treatment. Liver enzymes as well as antioxidants were assessed and PI3K/Akt, PTEN and STAT-5A gene expression were investigated. The prepared vesicles revealed entrapment efficiencies ranging from 23.55 to 69.17%, and negative zeta potential values. The optimum formulation revealed spherical morphology as well as diffusion controlled in vitro release pattern. Liposomal galactomannan elucidated a significant reduction in liver enzymes and MDA as well as PI3K/Akt, PTEN and STAT 5A gene expression. A significant elevation in GST and GSH were deduced. In conclusion, Liposomal galactomannan revealed a promising candidate for HCC therapy.