Prevalence of Opioid-Induced Adrenal Insufficiency in Patients Taking Chronic Opioids

Transdermal Fentanyl Patch Effectiveness in Postoperative PainManagement in Orthopedic Patients: Literature Review

Controlling pain after major orthopedic surgery may be challenging, and it is related to delayed recovery, the development of chronic pain, and analgesic dependence. It is well known that effective postoperative pain control can reduce hospital stays by ensuring a more rapid rehabilitation,thereby decreasing the overall costs. Despite the development of analgesics, the use of opioids and their derivates remains the cornerstone of treatment for patients with acute moderate-to-severe pain in association with general or regional anesthesia. To reduce the risk of side effects and opioid addiction, considering the alarming epidemiological reports in relation to opioid abuse, combined analgesic methods are used, in addition to lower dosages or different forms of administration, such as transdermal administration. Fentanyl transdermal patches appear to be effective in controlling postoperative pain as part of multimodal analgesic regimens in knee and hip surgery, shoulder arthroplasty, traumatic fractures, and one-day surgery; this treatment has fewer associated side effects and can be safely used even in patients with renal impairment. It is also recommended for postoperative pain management in combination with a femoral-sciatic nerve block during foot and ankle surgery.

Exogenous Opioids and the Human Endocrine System: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement

The use and misuse of opioids are a growing global problem. Although the effects of these drugs on the human endocrine system have been studied for decades, attention on their related clinical consequences, particularly on the hypothalamic-pituitary system and bone health, has intensified over recent years. This Statement appraises research data related to the impact of opioids on the gonadal and adrenal function. Whereas hypogonadism is well recognized as a side effect of opioids, the significance of their inhibitory actions on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system and the occurrence of clinically relevant adrenal insufficiency is not fully elucidated. The often-inconsistent results of studies investigating how opioids affect the secretion of GH, prolactin, arginine vasopressin, and oxytocin are assessed. The accumulating evidence of opioid actions on bone metabolism and their negative sequelae on bone mineral density and risk of fracture are also reviewed. In each section, available data on diagnostic and management approaches for opioid endocrine sequelae are described. This Statement highlights a plethora of gaps in research associated with the effects and clinical consequences of opioids on the endocrine system. It is anticipated that addressing these gaps will improve the care of people using or misusing opioids worldwide. The Statement is not intended to serve as a guideline or dictate treatment decisions.

Adrenal insufficiency - causes and laboratory diagnosis

Adrenal insufficiency (AI) manifests as a clinical syndrome arising from either the direct impairment of adrenal glands, leading to primary AI characterized by deficiencies in glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids, or adrenal cortex atrophy due to diminished adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation, a consequence of hypothalamic and/or pituitary damage, resulting in secondary AI. The diagnosis of AI is based on clinical assessment and biochemical tests, including basal hormone level measurements and stimulation tests. In evaluating the results of laboratory tests, it is necessary to consider factors that may influence both pre-analytical and analytical phases, as well as the chosen methodology. Correct diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency and timely initiation of suitable replacement therapy are paramount. These steps are crucial not only for managing the condition but also to avert potentially life-threatening adrenal crises.

Opioid-Induced Adrenal Insufficiency

This case report describes a woman in her 40s with opioid use disorder receiving methadone who was admitted for extended antibiotic treatment for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and was subesequently diagnosed with opioid-induced adrenal insufficiency.

Diagnosis and management of secondary adrenal crisis

Adrenal crisis (AC) is a life threatening acute adrenal insufficiency (AI) episode which can occur in patients with primary AI but also secondary AI (SAI), tertiary AI (TAI) and iatrogenic AI (IAI). In SAI, TAI and IAI, AC may develop when the HPA axis is unable to mount an adequate glucocorticoid response to severe stress due to pituitary or hypothalamic disruption. It manifests as an acute deterioration in multi-organ homeostasis that, if untreated, leads to shock and death. Despite the availability of effective preventive strategies, its prevalence is increasing in patients with SAI, TAI and IAI due to more frequent exogenous steroid administration, pituitary immune-related effects of immune checkpoint inhibitors and opioid use in pain management. The delayed diagnosis of acute AI which remains infrequently suspected increases the risk of AC. Its main precipitating factors are infections, emotional distress, surgery, cessation or reduction in GC doses, pituitary infarction or surgical cure of endogenous Cushing's syndrome. In patients not known previously to have SAI/TAI/IAI, recognition of its symptoms, signs, and biochemical abnormalities can be challenging and cause delay in proper diagnosis and therapy. Effective therapy of AC is rapid intravenous administration of hydrocortisone (initial bolus of 100 mg followed by 200 mg/24 h as continuous infusion or bolus of 50 mg every 6 h) and 0.9% saline. In diagnosed patients, preventive education in sick-day rules adjustment of glucocorticoid replacement and hydrocortisone parenteral self-administration must be performed repeatedly by trained health care providers. Strategies to improve the adequate preventive education in patients at risk for secondary AI should be promoted in collaboration with various medical specialist societies and patients support associations.

Iatrogenic adrenal insufficiency in adults

Iatrogenic adrenal insufficiency (IAI) is the most common form of adrenal insufficiency in adult patients, although its overall exact prevalence remains unclear. IAI is associated with adverse clinical outcomes, including adrenal crisis, impaired quality of life and increased mortality; therefore, it is imperative that clinicians maintain a high index of suspicion in patients at risk of IAI to facilitate timely diagnosis and appropriate management. Herein, we review the major causes, clinical consequences, diagnosis and care of patients with IAI. The management of IAI, particularly glucocorticoid-induced (or tertiary) adrenal insufficiency, can be particularly challenging, and the provision of adequate glucocorticoid replacement must be balanced against minimizing the cardiometabolic effects of excess glucocorticoid exposure and optimizing recovery of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. We review current treatment strategies and their limitations and discuss developments in optimizing treatment of IAI. This comprehensive Review aims to aid clinicians in identifying who is at risk of IAI, how to approach screening of at-risk populations and how to treat patients with IAI, with a focus on emergency management and prevention of an adrenal crisis.

Opioid-induced adrenal insufficiency: diagnostic and management considerations

The dramatic rise in opioid use over the last two decades has led to a surge in their harmful health effects. Lesser known among clinicians is the impact of opioids on the endocrine system, especially with regard to cortisol. Opioids can suppress the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and may result in clinically significant adrenal insufficiency, especially in those treated at higher doses and for a longer time. A high clinical suspicion is necessary in this population for early diagnosis of opioid-induced adrenal insufficiency (OAI). Diagnosis of OAI is challenging, as the symptoms are often vague and overlap with those due to opioid use or the underlying pain disorder. Traditional assays to diagnose adrenal insufficiency have not been widely studied in this population, and more investigation is needed to determine how opioids might affect assay results. Once a diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency has been made, glucocorticoid replacement in the form of hydrocortisone is likely the mainstay of treatment, and effort should be made to taper down opioids where possible. Cortisol levels should be retested periodically, with the goal of stopping glucocorticoid replacement once the HPA axis has recovered. In this review, we provide context for diagnostic challenges in OAI, suggest diagnostic tools for this population based on available data, and offer recommendations for the management of this disorder. There is a paucity of literature in this field; given the widespread use of opioids in the general population, more investigation into the effects of opioids on the HPA axis is sorely needed.

Real world evidence supports waking salivary cortisone as a screening test for adrenal insufficiency

OBJECTIVE

Worldwide, adults and children are at risk of adrenal insufficiency largely due to infectious diseases and adrenal suppression from use of anti-inflammatory glucocorticoids. Home waking salivary cortisone is an accurate screening test for adrenal insufficiency, it has potential to reduce costs, and patients prefer it to the adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) (synacthen) stimulation test. We carried out a service evaluation of home waking salivary cortisone in clinical care to identify implementation barriers.

DESIGN, PATIENTS AND MEASUREMENTS

Service evaluation in a centre where 212 patients referred for adrenal insufficiency had a waking salivary cortisone. Problems encountered during testing were recorded and patient feedback, via focus groups, collected.

RESULTS

From all patients providing a waking salivary cortisone 55% had a normal test, 23% adrenal suppression, and 22% an equivocal result requiring a clinical centre ACTH stimulation test. The median (interquartile range [IQR]) for the time of the saliva sample was 07:40 (07:00-08:40). The median (IQR) days between collection and (i) delivery to local laboratory was 1 (0.25-2) day; (ii) reporting by local laboratory was 13 (11-18) days. Patients considered the test is "easy to do" and preferred it to the inpatient ACTH stimulation test. The principal challenge to clinical implementation was results reporting to clinicians due to delays at the local laboratory.

CONCLUSIONS

This service evaluation provides real-world evidence that home waking salivary cortisone is an effective, practical screening test for adrenal insufficiency. It identified key barriers to testing implementation that need to be addressed when introducing the test to a health service.

Long-Term Opiate Therapy-Induced Secondary Adrenal Insufficiency: A Distinct Differential Diagnosis That Should Be Considered

Pain management with opioid medication is associated with several side effects. Opioid-induced adrenal insufficiency by suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is one of them that needs to be considered. The possible effects of opioid use on adrenal function are addressed in this case report. This is a case of a 21-year-old female patient with sickle cell disease who started, for the last year, on extended-release morphine sulfate 45mg daily in an attempt to control the severity of her pain and frequent admission with the vaso-occlusive crisis. She presented with a sepsis-like presentation and received vasopressor, empiric antibiotics, and glucocorticoid. She experienced low blood pressure and low blood glucose after weaning off of steroids. A diagnosis of secondary adrenal insufficiency was established after comprehensive reevaluation and confirmed by morning cortisol value and ACTH stimulation test. Her long-term use of opioids was considered the underlying cause of her secondary adrenal insufficiency after the exclusion of other causes and the normal pituitary gland on the brain magnetic resonance image. She received maintenance hydrocortisone. On follow-up, the patient showed effective improvement, and her adrenal function recovered after discontinuation of the morphine over the following six months. In conclusion, OIAI is an under-recognized condition of adrenal insufficiency secondary to long-term exposure to opioids. OIAI can cause symptoms and may result in potentially life-threatening adrenal crises, but it can be managed. A direct detrimental impact on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland mostly causes the suppression of cortisol secretion by opioids. Understanding how to diagnose and treat OIAI is crucial, particularly since opioids are widely used. To determine the frequency and clinical importance of opioid-induced adrenal insufficiency and if hormone replacement therapy is necessary, more research is required.

Multivariable Model to Predict an ACTH Stimulation Test to Diagnose Adrenal Insufficiency Using Previous Test Results

Context

The adrenocorticotropin hormone stimulation test (AST) is used to diagnose adrenal insufficiency, and is often repeated in patients when monitoring recovery of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Objective

To develop and validate a prediction model that uses previous AST results with new baseline cortisol to predict the result of a new AST.

Methods

This was a retrospective, longitudinal cohort study in patients who had undergone at least 2 ASTs, using polynomial regression with backwards variable selection, at a Tertiary UK adult endocrinology center. Model was developed from 258 paired ASTs over 5 years in 175 adults (mean age 52.4 years, SD 16.4), then validated on data from 111 patients over 1 year (51.8, 17.5) from the same center, data collected after model development. Candidate prediction variables included previous test baseline adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH), previous test baseline and 30-minute cortisol, days between tests, and new baseline ACTH and cortisol used with calculated cortisol/ACTH ratios to assess 8 candidate predictors. The main outcome measure was a new test cortisol measured 30 minutes after Synacthen administration.

Results

Using 258 sequential ASTs from 175 patients for model development and 111 patient tests for model validation, previous baseline cortisol, previous 30-minute cortisol and new baseline cortisol were superior at predicting new 30-minute cortisol (R2 = 0.71 [0.49-0.93], area under the curve [AUC] = 0.97 [0.94-1.0]) than new baseline cortisol alone (R2 = 0.53 [0.22-0.84], AUC = 0.88 [0.81-0.95]).

Conclusion

Results of a previous AST can be objectively combined with new early-morning cortisol to predict the results of a new AST better than new early-morning cortisol alone. An online calculator is available at https://endocrinology.shinyapps.io/sheffield_sst_calculator/ for external validation.

Metabolic profiles associated with opioid use and opioid use disorder: a narrative review of the literature

Purpose of Review

Opioid use disorder (OUD) is a chronic, relapsing condition that is epidemic in the USA. OUD is associated with serious adverse consequences, including higher incarceration rates, impaired medical and mental health, and overdose-related fatalities. Several medications with demonstrated clinical efficacy in reducing opioid use are approved to treat OUD. However, there is evidence that medications for OUD cause metabolic impairments, which raises concerns over the long-term metabolic health of individuals recovering from OUD. Here, we summarize the scientific literature on the metabolic effects of the use of opioids, including medications for treating OUD.

Recent Findings

Our findings showed lower body weight and adiposity, and better lipid profiles in individuals with OUD. In individuals with diabetes mellitus, opioid use was associated with lower blood glucose levels. In contrast, among individuals without underlying metabolic conditions, opioids promoted insulin resistance. Treatment of OUD patients with the agonists methadone or buprenorphine caused weight gain, increased liking and intake of sugar, and impaired lipid profile and glucose metabolism, whereas treatment with the antagonist naltrexone demonstrated evidence for reduced sweet preferences.

Summary

Our findings highlighted a gap in knowledge regarding the safety of medications for OUD. Further research is needed to determine how best to reduce the risk of metabolic disorder in the treatment of OUD with opioid agonists versus antagonists.

Unexplained Hypercalcemia: A Clue to Adrenal Insufficiency

Hypercalcemia secondary to adrenal insufficiency is a rare condition, but it must be recognized and treated promptly to prevent complications such as kidney damage, bone loss, and cardiac arrhythmias. The co-occurrence of hypercalcemia and adrenal insufficiency can be seen in some rare conditions such as sarcoidosis, however, hypercalcemia as a direct consequence of adrenal insufficiency is well documented in the literature but seldom recognized and often remains underdiagnosed. Symptoms of hypercalcemia in this setting include fatigue, weakness, nausea, vomiting, constipation, abdominal pain, confusion, and dehydration. Treatment typically involves correcting the underlying adrenal insufficiency with hormone replacement therapy, along with measures to lower calcium levels in the blood, such as hydration. In this article, we report the case of a patient presenting with hypercalcemia secondary to adrenal insufficiency.

A Closer Look at Opioid-Induced Adrenal Insufficiency: A Narrative Review

Among several opioid-associated endocrinopathies, opioid-associated adrenal insufficiency (OIAI) is both common and not well understood by most clinicians, particularly those outside of endocrine specialization. OIAI is secondary to long-term opioid use and differs from primary adrenal insufficiency. Beyond chronic opioid use, risk factors for OIAI are not well known. OIAI can be diagnosed by a variety of tests, such as the morning cortisol test, but cutoff values are not well established and it is estimated that only about 10% of patients with OIAI will ever be properly diagnosed. This may be dangerous, as OIAI can lead to a potentially life-threatening adrenal crisis. OIAI can be treated and for patients who must continue opioid therapy, it can be clinically managed. OIAI resolves with opioid cessation. Better guidance for diagnosis and treatment is urgently needed, particularly in light of the fact that 5% of the United States population has a prescription for chronic opioid therapy.

Home Waking Salivary Cortisone to Screen for Adrenal Insufficiency

BACKGROUND: Worldwide, adults and children are at risk of adrenal insufficiency as a result of adrenal suppression from use of anti-inflammatory glucocorticoids and opiates, as well as infectious diseases. The adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) stimulation test is the reference standard for diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency but requires clinic attendance and venesection. Salivary cortisone reflects free serum cortisol, and samples can be collected at home and posted to a laboratory. We tested whether home waking salivary cortisone level could be used to screen for adrenal insufficiency. METHODS: A prospective, diagnostic accuracy study was performed in patients at high risk of adrenal insufficiency. Patients collected a home salivary sample on waking and then attended the clinical facility for an ACTH stimulation test. Salivary cortisone was measured by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Receiver-operating characteristic curves were computed, and positive and negative predictive values were calculated. RESULTS: Two hundred twenty patients were recruited. As measured by an ACTH stimulation test, the prevalence of adrenal insufficiency was 44%. The area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve for waking salivary cortisone as a predictor of adrenal insufficiency was 0.95 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.92 to 0.97). Cutoffs to ensure a minimum of 95% sensitivity and specificity gave a negative predictive value of 96% (95% CI, 90 to 99) and a positive predictive value of 95% (95% CI, 87 to 99) to exclude and confirm adrenal insufficiency, respectively. Waking salivary cortisone data provided information similar to that of an ACTH stimulation test in 70% of participants. Eighty-three percent of patients preferred home salivary collection to clinic attendance. CONCLUSIONS: Home waking salivary cortisone sampling has accuracy for the diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency similar to that of a standard ACTH stimulation test. Patients found the at-home test to be more convenient than the hospital-based test. (Funded by the National Institute for Health Research.)

The Changing Epidemiology of Adrenal Insufficiency: Iatrogenic Factors Predominate

Context

Adrenal insufficiency (AI)-related morbidity persists despite efforts to minimize its effect. Reasons for this are unknown and warrant examination.

Objective

This work aimed to investigate trends in AI hospitalizations and glucocorticoid (GC) replacement therapy use.

Methods

Data on hospitalizations for a principal diagnosis of AI and prescriptions for short-acting GCs between 2000 and 2019 were extracted from national repositories. Age-standardized admission and prescription rates were calculated using census data. Rates were compared over time overall and according to age, sex, and disease subtype.

Results

AI admissions increased by 62.0%, from 36.78/million to 59.59/million (trend P < .0001). Adrenal crisis (AC) admissions also increased, by 90.1% (from 10.73/million to 20.40/million; trend, P < .00001). These increases were more pronounced in the second decade. Prescriptions for short-acting GCs also increased (by 67.2%, from 2198.36/million in 2000/2001 to 3676.00/million in 2017/2018). Females had higher average admission rates and a greater increase in admission rates than males. Increased AI admissions were found in all age groups among females but only in men aged 70+ yrs. Secondary AI (SAI) admission rates increased by 91.7%, whereas admission rates for primary AI (PAI) remained unchanged.

Conclusion

The prevalence of AI and hospitalizations for this disorder (including ACs) have increased since 2000, with a greater increase occurring after 2010. Admission rates for SAI increased but PAI admissions remained stable. Possible causes include immunotherapies for malignancy, increased cranial imaging detecting pituitary tumors and their subsequent treatment, and increased use of low-dose, short-acting GC-replacement therapy.

Perioperative Evaluation and Management of Patients on Glucocorticoids

Myriad questions regarding perioperative management of patients on glucocorticoids (GCs) continue to be debated including which patients are at risk for adrenal insufficiency (AI), what is the correct dose and duration of supplemental GCs, or are they necessary for everyone? These questions remain partly unanswered due to the heterogeneity and low quality of data, studies with small sample sizes, and the limited number of randomized trials. To date, we know that although all routes of GC administration can result in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis suppression, perioperative adrenal crisis is rare. Correlation between biochemical testing for AI and clinical events is lacking. Some of the current perioperative management recommendations based on daily GC dose and duration of therapy may be difficult to follow in clinical practice. The prospective and retrospective studies consistently report that continuing the daily dose of GCs perioperatively is not associated with a higher risk for adrenal crises in patients with GC-induced AI. Considering that oral GC intake may be unreliable in the early postoperative period, providing the daily GC plus a short course of IV hydrocortisone 25 to 100 mg per day based on the degree of surgical stress seems reasonable. In patients who have stopped GC therapy before surgery, careful assessment of the HPA axis is necessary to avoid an adrenal crisis. In conclusion, our literature review indicates that lower doses and shorter duration of supplemental GCs perioperatively are sufficient to maintain homeostasis. We emphasize the need for well-designed randomized studies on this frequently encountered clinical scenario.

Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels predict weight gain in women with anorexia nervosa

OBJECTIVE

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a serious condition characterized by undernutrition, complicated by endocrine dysregulation, and with few predictors of recovery. Urinary free cortisol (UFC) is a predictor of weight gain, but 24-h urine samples are challenging to collect. We hypothesized that serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), which like cortisol is regulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), would predict weight gain and increases in fat mass in women with AN.

METHODS

We prospectively studied 34 women with AN and atypical AN, mean age 27.4 ± 7.7 years (mean ± SD), who received placebo in a 6-month randomized trial. Baseline DHEAS and 24-h UFC were measured by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. Body composition was assessed at baseline and 6 months by DXA and cross-sectional abdominal CT at L4.

RESULTS

Mean baseline DHEAS level was 173 ± 70 μg/dl (0.7 ± 0.3 times the mean normal range for age) and mean baseline UFC (n = 15) was 20 ± 18 μg/24 h (normal: 0-50 μg/24 h). Higher DHEAS levels predicted weight gain over 6 months (r = 0.61, p < .001). DHEAS levels also predicted increases in fat mass (r = 0.40, p = .03), appendicular lean mass (r = 0.38, p = .04), and abdominal adipose tissue (r = 0.60, p < .001). All associations remained significant after controlling for age, baseline BMI, OCP use, duration of AN, and SSRI/SNRI use. DHEAS levels correlated with UFC (r = 0.61, p = .02).

DISCUSSION

In women with AN, higher serum DHEAS predicts weight gain and increases in fat and muscle mass. Additional studies are needed to confirm these findings and further elucidate the association between DHEAS and weight gain.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

Anorexia nervosa is a severe psychiatric condition, and predictors of weight recovery are needed to improve prognostication and guide therapeutic decision making. While urinary cortisol is a predictor of weight gain, 24-h urine collections are challenging to obtain. Like cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands. As a readily available blood test, DHEAS holds promise as more practical biomarker of weight gain in anorexia nervosa.

[Adverse effects of opioids, antidepressants and anticonvulsants on sex hormones : Often unnoticed but clinically relevant]

Androgen insufficiency under treatment with opioids, antidepressants and anticonvulsants in chronic pain diseases is a side effect with a high prevalence. It can lead to clinical metabolic alterations, adynamia, stress intolerance, anemia or osteoporosis and has a significant impact on the quality of life. Opioids, antidepressants and anticonvulsants affect the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis of sex hormones. A urologist, andrologist or endocrinologist should be involved in the treatment at an early stage. The recommendation of a differential therapeutic selection of certain substances is only indicative and does not meet evidential criteria. The indications for androgen substitution must be individualized and in consideration of the risk-benefit profile. Awareness of this side effect of an otherwise lege artis medicinal pain therapy must be sharpened and compulsory included in the differential diagnostic considerations.

Approach to the Patient With Glucocorticoid-induced Adrenal Insufficiency

Glucocorticoid-induced adrenal insufficiency is caused by exogenous glucocorticoid suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and is the most prevalent form of adrenal insufficiency. The condition is important to diagnose given the risk of life-threatening adrenal crisis and impact on patients' quality of life. The diagnosis is made with a stimulation test such as the ACTH test. Until now, testing for glucocorticoid-induced adrenal insufficiency has often been based on clinical suspicion rather than routinely but accumulating evidence indicates that a significant number of cases will remain unrecognized. During ongoing oral glucocorticoid treatment or initially after withdrawal, ~50% of patients have adrenal insufficiency, but, outside clinical studies, ≤ 1% of patients have adrenal testing recorded. More than 70% of cases are identified during acute hospital admission, where the diagnosis can easily be missed because symptoms of adrenal insufficiency are nonspecific and overlap those of the underlying and intercurrent conditions. Treatment of severe glucocorticoid-induced adrenal insufficiency should follow the principles for treatment of central adrenal insufficiency. The clinical implications and thus indication to treat mild-moderate adrenal deficiency after glucocorticoid withdrawal has not been established. Also, the indication of adding stress dosages of glucocorticoid during ongoing glucocorticoid treatment remains unclear. In patients with established glucocorticoid-induced adrenal insufficiency, high rates of poor confidence in self-management and delayed glucocorticoid administration in the acute setting with an imminent adrenal crisis call for improved awareness and education of clinicians and patients. This article reviews different facets of glucocorticoid-induced adrenal insufficiency and discusses approaches to the condition in common clinical situations.

Adrenal crises in adolescents and young adults

PURPOSE

Review the literature concerning adrenal insufficiency (AI) and adrenal crisis (AC) in adolescents and young adults.

METHODS

Searches of PubMed identifying relevant reports up to March 2022.

RESULTS

AI is rare disorder that requires lifelong glucocorticoid replacement therapy and is associated with substantial morbidity and occasional mortality among adolescents and young adults. Aetiologies in this age group are more commonly congenital, with acquired causes, resulting from tumours in the hypothalamic-pituitary area and autoimmune adrenalitis among others, increasing with age. All patients with AI are at risk of AC, which have an estimated incidence of 6 to 8 ACs/100 patient years. Prevention of ACs includes use of educational interventions to achieve competency in dose escalation and parenteral glucocorticoid administration during times of physiological stress, such as an intercurrent infection. While the incidence of AI/AC in young children and adults has been documented, there are few studies focussed on the AC occurrence in adolescents and young adults with AI. This is despite the range of developmental, psychosocial, and structural changes that can interfere with chronic disease management during this important period of growth and development.

CONCLUSION

In this review, we examine the current state of knowledge of AC epidemiology in emerging adults; examine the causes of ACs in this age group; and suggest areas for further investigation that are aimed at reducing the incidence and health impact of ACs in these patients.

Adrenal Insufficiency: Investigating Prevalence and Healthcare Utilization Using Administrative Data

Context

Adrenal insufficiency (AI) is an uncommon, life-threatening disorder requiring lifelong treatment with steroid therapy and special attention to prevent adrenal crisis. Little is known about the prevalence of AI in Canada or healthcare utilization rates by these patients.

Objective

We aimed to assess the prevalence and healthcare burden of AI in Alberta, Canada.

Methods

This study used a population-based, retrospective administrative health data approach to identify patients with a diagnosis of AI over a 5-year period and evaluated emergency and outpatient healthcare utilization rates, steroid dispense records, and visit reasons.

Results

The period prevalence of AI was 839 per million adults. Patients made an average of 2.3 and 17.8 visits per year in the emergency department and outpatient settings, respectively. This was 3 to 4 times as frequent as the average Albertan, and only 5% were coded as visits for AI. The majority of patients were dispensed glucocorticoid medications only.

Conclusion

The prevalence of AI in Alberta is higher than published data in other locations. The frequency of visits suggests a significant healthcare burden and emphasizes the need for a strong understanding of this condition across all clinical settings. Our most concerning finding is that 94.3% of visits were not labeled with AI, even though many of the top presenting complaints were consistent with adrenal crisis. Several data limitations were discovered that suggest improvements in the standardization of data submission and coding can expand the yield of future studies using this method.

Opioid-induced adrenal insufficiency in transdermal fentanyl treatment: a revisited diagnosis in clinical setting

Opioids are widely used for treatment of acute and chronic pain. However, opioids have several well-known clinical adverse effects such as constipation, nausea, respiratory depression and drowsiness. Endocrine dysfunctions are also opioid-induced adverse effects but remain under-diagnosed in clinical settings, especially opioid-induced adrenal insufficiency (OIAI). A 46-year-old woman was treated with transdermal fentanyl at a dose of 90-120 mg daily morphine milligram equivalent for non-malignant chronic pain for four years. Fatigue, loss of appetite and decrease in vitality began about two years after starting fentanyl. Subsequently, constipation and abdominal pain appeared and became worse, which led to suspicion of adrenal insufficiency. Clinical diagnosis of OIAI was established based on laboratory findings of secondary adrenal insufficiency, including corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test, clinical history of long-term fentanyl use, and exclusion of other hypothalamic-pituitary diseases. Oral corticosteroid replacement therapy was unable to relieve her abdominal pain and constipation; opioid-rotation and dose-reduction of fentanyl were not feasible because of her persistent pain and severe anxiety. While her clinical course clearly suggested that long-term, relatively high-dose transdermal fentanyl treatment may have contributed to the development of secondary adrenal insufficiency, the symptoms associated with OIAI are generally non-specific and complex. Together with under-recognition of OIAI as a clinical entity, the non-specific, wide range of symptoms can impede prompt diagnosis. Thus, vigilance for early symptoms enabling treatments including corticosteroid replacement therapy is necessary for patients taking long-term and/or high dose opioid treatment.

Secondary Adrenal Insufficiency: Recent Updates and New Directions for Diagnosis and Management

Secondary adrenal insufficiency is the most common subtype of adrenal insufficiency; it is caused by certain medications and pituitary destruction (pituitary masses, inflammation, or infiltration) and is rarely associated with certain germline variants. In this review, we discuss the etiology, epidemiology, and clinical presentation of secondary adrenal insufficiency and focus on the diagnostic and management challenges. We also review the management of selected special populations of patients and discuss patient-important outcomes associated with secondary adrenal insufficiency.

Cortisol values during the standard-dose cosyntropin stimulation test: Personal experience with Elecsys cortisol II assay

PURPOSE

There has been debate regarding the appropriate cortisol cutoff during the cosyntropin stimulation test (CST) when newer cortisol assays are used. We aimed to evaluate the proper cortisol values during the standard dose CST in patients with normal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis when the Elecsys^® Cortisol II assay from Roche Diagnostics is used.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of patients evaluated for possible adrenal insufficiency using the standard-dose (250 mcg) CST from January 2018 to December 2020 and eventually judged to have a normal HPA axis. All the CSTs were done in the outpatient setting. Evaluation by an endocrinologist, restrictive exclusion criteria including prior glucocorticoid and opioid use, and lack of glucocorticoid treatment for at least 6 months after the CST was used to define normal HPA axis. The results are reported in the median (range).

RESULTS

We identified 63 patients who met the inclusion criteria and were considered to have a normal HPA axis. The median age was 54.7 (27.6-89.1) years; 32 (51%) were female, and 27 (43%) were white. The duration of follow-up after the CST without any glucocorticoid replacement was 13.9 (6.3-43.9) months. Cortisol levels were 21.7 (15.7-29.1) µg/dl and 24.4 (17.9-35.8) µg/dl at 30- and 60-minutes after cosyntropin administration, respectively. The lowest cortisol levels at 30 and 60 minutes for patients with either normal TSH or gonadal axis (n=47) or in whom both axes were normal (n=18) were similar to the ones of the entire cohort.

CONCLUSION

Our study supports using a lower than previously recommended cortisol cutoff value at 30 minutes after Cosyntropin using the Roche Elecsys^® Cortisol II assay. The lowest cortisol levels in our cohort were 15.7 and 17.9 µg/dL at 30 and 60 minutes after the CST, respectively. Therefore, it is essential to consider the time of cortisol draw after cosyntropin administration.

The biochemical diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency with modern cortisol assays: Reappraisal in the setting of opioid exposure and hospitalization

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to (1) examine the diagnosis of opioid-induced adrenal insufficiency, and (2) investigate the diagnostic value of a morning cortisol <83 nmol/L (3 µg/dl) for the diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency, using newer more specific cortisol assays and cut-offs.

DESIGN

Retrospective study (5/2015-10/2020).

PARTICIPANTS

Cohort 1 (N = 75): adults who underwent cosyntropin stimulation testing and opioid exposure for >30 days. Cohort 2 (N = 854): adults, with or without opioid exposure, who had a morning cortisol level measured the same day as stimulation testing.

MEASUREMENTS

Peak cortisol during cosyntropin stimulation testing. Sensitivity and specificity of morning serum cortisol for adrenal insufficiency.

RESULTS

The prevalence of adrenal insufficiency in patients with chronic opioid exposure who underwent cosyntropin stimulation testing was 4.0% using a cortisol cutoff of <405 nmol/L (14.7 µg/dl) versus 19% using the traditional cutoff of <500 nmol/L (18.1 µg/dl). For hospitalized patients with and without opioid-exposure, 14 of 22 (64%) patients with morning cortisol levels of <83 nmol/L (3 µg/dl) passed cosyntropin stimulation testing. A morning cortisol level of <348 nmol/L (12.6 µg/dl) had 100% sensitivity (95% confidence interval: 84.5%-100%) for the diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency.

CONCLUSION

Applying a cutoff of <405 nmol/L (14.7 µg/dl), opioid-induced adrenal insufficiency is rare. Nearly 1 out of 6 patients would be reclassified as having adrenal insufficiency applying the guideline-recommended cutoff of <500 nmol/L (18.1 µg/dl). Serum morning cortisol <83 nmol/L (3 µg/dl) is not a valid diagnostic test for adrenal insufficiency in hospitalized patients, whether or not receiving opioids.

Rethinking the management of immune checkpoint inhibitor-related adrenal insufficiency in cancer patients during the COVID-19 pandemic

Introduction

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is currently a major pandemic challenge, and cancer patients are at a heightened risk of severity and mortality from this infection. In recent years, immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) use to treat multiple cancers has increased in oncology, but equally has raised the question of whether ICI therapy and its side-effects is harmful or beneficial during this pandemic.

Methods

A combination of published literature in PubMed between January 2010 and December 2020, recommended guidelines in non-cancer patients, and clinical experience was utilized to outline recommendations on glucocorticoid timing and dosing regimens in ICI-treated patients presenting with AI during this COVID-19 pandemic.

Results

The potential immune interaction between ICIs and COVID-19 require major consideration because these agents act at the intersection between effective cancer immunotherapy and increasing patient susceptibility, severity and complications from the SARS-CoV-2 sepsis. Furthermore, ICI use can induce autoimmune adrenal insufficiency (AI) that further increases infection susceptibility. Thus, ICI-treated cancer patients with AI may be at greater risk of COVID-19 infection. Glucocorticoids are the cornerstone for replacement therapy, and for treatment and mitigation of adrenal crisis and relief of mass effects in ICI-related hypophysitis. High-dose glucocorticoids have also been used with cytotoxic chemotherapy as part of cancer treatment, and iatrogenic AI may arise after glucocorticoid discontinuation that increases the risk of adrenal crisis. Furthermore, in patients who develop the "long COVID-19" syndrome, when to discontinue glucocorticoid therapy becomes crucial to avoid unnecessary prolongation of therapy and the development of iatrogenic hypercortisolemia.

Conclusion

During the COVID-19 pandemic, much of cancer care have been impacted and an important clinical question is how to optimally manage ICI-related AI during these unprecedented times. Herein, we suggest practical recommendations on the timing and dosing regimens of glucocorticoids in different clinical scenarios of ICI-treated cancer patients presenting with AI during this COVID-19 pandemic.

Adrenal insufficiency

Adrenal insufficiency (AI) is a condition characterized by an absolute or relative deficiency of adrenal cortisol production. Primary AI (PAI) is rare and is caused by direct adrenal failure. Secondary AI (SAI) is more frequent and is caused by diseases affecting the pituitary, whereas in tertiary AI (TAI), the hypothalamus is affected. The most prevalent form is TAI owing to exogenous glucocorticoid use. Symptoms of AI are non-specific, often overlooked or misdiagnosed, and are related to the lack of cortisol, adrenal androgen precursors and aldosterone (especially in PAI). Diagnosis is based on measurement of the adrenal corticosteroid hormones, their regulatory peptide hormones and stimulation tests. The goal of therapy is to establish a hormone replacement regimen that closely mimics the physiological diurnal cortisol secretion pattern, tailored to the patient's daily needs. This Primer provides insights into the epidemiology, mechanisms and management of AI during pregnancy as well as challenges of long-term management. In addition, the importance of identifying life-threatening adrenal emergencies (acute AI and adrenal crisis) is highlighted and strategies for prevention, which include patient education, glucocorticoid emergency cards and injection kits, are described.

Therapy options for adrenal insufficiency and recommendations for the management of adrenal crisis

Adrenal insufficiency (AI) is a life-threatening condition requiring life-long glucocorticoid (GC) substitution therapy, as well as stress adaptation to prevent adrenal crises. The number of individuals with primary and secondary adrenal insufficiency in Europe is estimated to be 20-50/100.000. A growing number of AI cases are due to side effects of GC treatment used in different treatment strategies for cancer and to immunotherapy in cancer treatment. The benefit of hormone replacement therapy is evident but long-term adverse effects may arise due to the non-physiological GC doses and treatment regimens used. Given multiple GC replacement formulations available comprising short-acting, intermediate, long-acting and novel modified-release hydrocortisone as well as subcutaneous formulations, this review offers a concise summary on the latest therapeutic improvements for treatment of AI and prevention of adrenal crises. As availability of various glucocorticoid formulations and access to expert centers across Europe varies widely, European Reference Networks on rare endocrine conditions aim at harmonizing treatment and ensure access to specialized patient care for individual case-by-case treatment decisions. To improve the availability across Europe to cost effective oral and parenteral formulations of hydrocortisone will save lives.