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Lenzini L, Caroccia B, Seccia TM, Rossi GP. Peptidergic G Protein-Coupled Receptor Regulation of Adrenal Function: Bench to Bedside and Back. Endocr Rev 2022; 43:1038-1050. [PMID: 35436330 DOI: 10.1210/endrev/bnac011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
An altered secretion of adrenocortical and adrenomedullary hormones plays a role in the clinical syndromes of primary aldosteronism (PA), Cushing, and pheochromocytoma. Moreover, an altered production of adrenocortical hormones and/or an abnormal release of factors by the adrenal medulla are involved in several other diseases, including high blood pressure, congestive heart failure, liver cirrhosis, nephrotic syndrome, primary reninism, renovascular hypertension, Addison disease, Bartter, Gitelman, and virilization syndromes. Understanding the regulation of adrenal function and the interactions between adrenal cortex and medulla is, therefore, the prerequisite for mechanistic understanding of these disorders. Accumulating evidence indicates that the modulation of adrenal hormone biosynthesis is a process far more complex than originally thought, as it involves several factors, each cooperating with the other. Moreover, the tight vascular and neural interconnections between the adrenal cortex and medulla underlie physiologically relevant autocrine/paracrine interactions involving several peptides. Besides playing a pathophysiological role in common adrenal diseases, these complex mechanisms could intervene also in rare diseases, such as pheochromocytoma concomitant with adrenal Cushing or with PA, and PA co-occurring with Cushing, through mechanisms that remain to be fully understood at the molecular levels. Heterodimerization of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) induced by peptide signaling is a further emerging new modulatory mechanism capable of finely tuning adrenal hormones synthesis and release. In this review we will examine current knowledge on the role of peptides that act via GPCRs in the regulation of adrenal hormone secretion with a particular focus on autocrine-paracrine signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livia Lenzini
- Emergency Medicine Unit, Center for blood pressure disorders -Regione Veneto and Specialized Center of Excellence for Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension, Department of Medicine-DIMED, University of Padua, 35126 Padua, Italy
| | - Brasilina Caroccia
- Emergency Medicine Unit, Center for blood pressure disorders -Regione Veneto and Specialized Center of Excellence for Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension, Department of Medicine-DIMED, University of Padua, 35126 Padua, Italy
| | - Teresa Maria Seccia
- Emergency Medicine Unit, Center for blood pressure disorders -Regione Veneto and Specialized Center of Excellence for Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension, Department of Medicine-DIMED, University of Padua, 35126 Padua, Italy
| | - Gian Paolo Rossi
- Emergency Medicine Unit, Center for blood pressure disorders -Regione Veneto and Specialized Center of Excellence for Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension, Department of Medicine-DIMED, University of Padua, 35126 Padua, Italy
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2
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Ito R, Morita M, Nakano T, Sato I, Yokoyama A, Sugawara A. The establishment of a novel high-throughput screening system using RNA-guided genome editing to identify chemicals that suppress aldosterone synthase expression. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2021; 534:672-679. [PMID: 33220920 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Aldosterone is synthesized in the adrenal by the aldosterone synthase CYP11B2. Although the control of CYP11B2 expression is important to maintain the mineral homeostasis, its overexpression induced by the depolarization-induced calcium (Ca2+) signaling activation has been reported to increase the synthesis of aldosterone in primary aldosteronism (PA). The drug against PA focused on the suppression of CYP11B2 expression has not yet been developed, since the molecular mechanism of CYP11B2 transcriptional regulation activated via Ca2+ signaling remains unclear. To address the issue, we attempted to reveal the mechanism of the transcriptional regulation of CYP11B2 using chemical screening. We generated a cell line by inserting Nanoluc gene as a reporter into CYP11B2 locus in H295R adrenocortical cells using the CRSPR/Cas9 system, and established the high-throughput screening system using the cell line. We then identified 9 compounds that inhibited the CYP11B2 expression induced by potassium-mediated depolarization from the validated compound library (3399 compounds). Particularly, tacrolimus, an inhibitor of phosphatase calcineurin, strongly suppressed the CYP11B2 expression even at 10 nM. These results suggest that the system is effective in identifying drugs that suppress the depolarization-induced CYP11B2 expression. Our screening system may therefore be a useful tool for the development of novel medicines against PA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Ito
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Masanobu Morita
- Department of Environmental Medicine and Molecular Toxicology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Taichi Nakano
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Ikuko Sato
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Atsushi Yokoyama
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Akira Sugawara
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan.
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3
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Guagliardo NA, Klein PM, Gancayco CA, Lu A, Leng S, Makarem RR, Cho C, Rusin CG, Breault DT, Barrett PQ, Beenhakker MP. Angiotensin II induces coordinated calcium bursts in aldosterone-producing adrenal rosettes. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1679. [PMID: 32245948 PMCID: PMC7125102 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15408-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Aldosterone-producing zona glomerulosa (zG) cells of the adrenal gland arrange in distinct multi-cellular rosettes that provide a structural framework for adrenal cortex morphogenesis and plasticity. Whether this cyto-architecture also plays functional roles in signaling remains unexplored. To determine if structure informs function, we generated mice with zG-specific expression of GCaMP3 and imaged zG cells within their native rosette structure. Here we demonstrate that within the rosette, angiotensin II evokes periodic Cav3-dependent calcium events that form bursts that are stereotypic in form. Our data reveal a critical role for angiotensin II in regulating burst occurrence, and a multifunctional role for the rosette structure in activity-prolongation and coordination. Combined our data define the calcium burst as the fundamental unit of zG layer activity evoked by angiotensin II and highlight a novel role for the rosette as a facilitator of cell communication.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter M Klein
- Departments of Pharmacology, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | | | - Adam Lu
- Departments of Pharmacology, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Sining Leng
- Division of Endocrinology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Chelsea Cho
- Departments of Pharmacology, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Craig G Rusin
- Department of Pediatrics-Cardiology, Baylor College of Medicine, and Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - David T Breault
- Division of Endocrinology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Mark P Beenhakker
- Departments of Pharmacology, Charlottesville, VA, USA.
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA.
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4
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Recent insights into sodium and potassium handling by the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron: a review of the relevant physiology. J Nephrol 2020; 33:431-445. [DOI: 10.1007/s40620-019-00684-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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5
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Sancho Cantus D, Santiesteban López N, Cuerda Ballester M, Solera Gómez S, de la Rubia Ortí JE. Stress in Parkinson's disease. Cortisol and amylase biomarkers. Systematic review. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.sedeng.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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6
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El estrés en la enfermedad de Parkinson. Biomarcadores cortisol y amilasa. Revisión sistemática. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.sedene.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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7
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Meyer DJ, Gatto C, Artigas P. Na/K Pump Mutations Associated with Primary Hyperaldosteronism Cause Loss of Function. Biochemistry 2019; 58:1774-1785. [PMID: 30811176 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.9b00051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Primary hyperaldosteronism (Conn's syndrome), a common cause of secondary hypertension, is frequently produced by unilateral aldosterone-producing adenomas that carry mutations in ion-transporting genes, including ATP1A1, encoding the Na/K pump's α1 subunit. Whether Na/K pump mutant-mediated inward currents are required to depolarize the cell and increase aldosterone production remains unclear, as such currents were observed in four out of five mutants described so far. Here, we use electrophysiology and uptake of the K+ congener 86Rb+, to characterize the effects of eight additional Na/K pump mutations in transmembrane segments TM1 (delM102-L103, delL103-L104, and delM102-I106), TM4 (delI322-I325 and I327S), and TM9 (delF956-E961, delF959-E961, and delE960-L964), expressed in Xenopus oocytes. All deletion mutants induced abnormal inward currents of different amplitudes at physiological voltages, while I327S lacked such currents. A detailed functional characterization revealed that I327S significantly reduces intracellular Na+ affinity without altering affinity for external K+. 86Rb+-uptake experiments show that I327S dramatically impairs function under physiological concentrations of Na+ and K+. Since Na/K pumps in the adrenal cortex may be formed by association of α1 with β3 instead of β1 subunits, we evaluated whether G99R (another mutant without inward currents when associated with β1) would show inward currents when associated with β3. We found that the kinetic characteristics of either mutant or wild-type α1β3 pumps expressed in Xenopus oocytes to be indistinguishable from those of α1β1 pumps. The observed functional consequences of each hyperaldosteronism mutant point to the loss of Na/K pump function as the common feature of all mutants, which is sufficient to induce hyperaldosteronism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan J Meyer
- Department of Cell Physiology and Molecular Biophysics, Center for Membrane Protein Research , Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center , Lubbock , Texas 79430 , United States
| | - Craig Gatto
- School of Biological Sciences , Illinois State University , Normal , Illinois 61790 , United States
| | - Pablo Artigas
- Department of Cell Physiology and Molecular Biophysics, Center for Membrane Protein Research , Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center , Lubbock , Texas 79430 , United States
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8
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Seccia TM, Caroccia B, Gomez-Sanchez EP, Gomez-Sanchez CE, Rossi GP. The Biology of Normal Zona Glomerulosa and Aldosterone-Producing Adenoma: Pathological Implications. Endocr Rev 2018; 39:1029-1056. [PMID: 30007283 PMCID: PMC6236434 DOI: 10.1210/er.2018-00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The identification of several germline and somatic ion channel mutations in aldosterone-producing adenomas (APAs) and detection of cell clusters that can be responsible for excess aldosterone production, as well as the isolation of autoantibodies activating the angiotensin II type 1 receptor, have rapidly advanced the understanding of the biology of primary aldosteronism (PA), particularly that of APA. Hence, the main purpose of this review is to discuss how discoveries of the last decade could affect histopathology analysis and clinical practice. The structural remodeling through development and aging of the human adrenal cortex, particularly of the zona glomerulosa, and the complex regulation of aldosterone, with emphasis on the concepts of zonation and channelopathies, will be addressed. Finally, the diagnostic workup for PA and its subtyping to optimize treatment are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa M Seccia
- Department of Medicine-DIMED, University of Padua, Padua PD, Italy
| | | | - Elise P Gomez-Sanchez
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, G.V. (Sonny) Montgomery VA Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi
| | - Celso E Gomez-Sanchez
- Division of Endocrinology, G.V. (Sonny) Montgomery VA Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi.,University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi
| | - Gian Paolo Rossi
- Department of Medicine-DIMED, University of Padua, Padua PD, Italy
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9
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Noro E, Yokoyama A, Kobayashi M, Shimada H, Suzuki S, Hosokawa M, Takehara T, Parvin R, Shima H, Igarashi K, Sugawara A. Endogenous Purification of NR4A2 (Nurr1) Identified Poly(ADP-Ribose) Polymerase 1 as a Prime Coregulator in Human Adrenocortical H295R Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19051406. [PMID: 29738496 PMCID: PMC5983848 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19051406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 05/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Aldosterone is synthesized in zona glomerulosa of adrenal cortex in response to angiotensin II. This stimulation transcriptionally induces expression of a series of steroidogenic genes such as HSD3B and CYP11B2 via NR4A (nuclear receptor subfamily 4 group A) nuclear receptors and ATF (activating transcription factor) family transcription factors. Nurr1 belongs to the NR4A family and is regarded as an orphan nuclear receptor. The physiological significance of Nurr1 in aldosterone production in adrenal cortex has been well studied. However, coregulators supporting the Nurr1 function still remain elusive. In this study, we performed RIME (rapid immunoprecipitation mass spectrometry of endogenous proteins), a recently developed endogenous coregulator purification method, in human adrenocortical H295R cells and identified PARP1 as one of the top Nurr1-interacting proteins. Nurr1-PARP1 interaction was verified by co-immunoprecipitation. In addition, both siRNA knockdown of PARP1 and treatment of AG14361, a specific PARP1 inhibitor suppressed the angiotensin II-mediated target gene induction in H295R cells. Furthermore, PARP1 inhibitor also suppressed the aldosterone secretion in response to the angiotensin II. Together, these results suggest PARP1 is a prime coregulator for Nurr1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Noro
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Atsushi Yokoyama
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Makoto Kobayashi
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Hiroki Shimada
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Susumu Suzuki
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Mari Hosokawa
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Tomohiro Takehara
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Rehana Parvin
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Hiroki Shima
- Department of Biochemistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Kazuhiko Igarashi
- Department of Biochemistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Akira Sugawara
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
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10
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The angiotensin type 2 receptor in the human adrenocortical zona glomerulosa and in aldosterone-producing adenoma: low expression and no functional role. Clin Sci (Lond) 2018; 132:627-640. [PMID: 29436482 DOI: 10.1042/cs20171593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Revised: 02/03/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The angiotensin II (Ang II) type 2 receptor (AT2R) and the angiotensin-(1-7) (Ang-(1-7)) receptor (MasR) play a cardiovascular protective role by counter-regulating Ang II type 1 receptor (AT1R)-mediated effects, but whether this involves blunting of adrenocortical hormone secretion is unknown. We investigated the presence of AT1R, AT2R, and MasR in aldosterone-producing adenoma (APA), a condition featuring hyperaldosteronism, and in APA-adjacent tissue. The effect of Compound 21 (C21), an AT2R agonist, on CYP11B1 (cortisol synthase) and CYP11B2 (aldosterone synthase) gene expression in NCI-H295R and HAC15 cell lines, and in APA and APA-adjacent tissue, was also assessed using the AT1R antagonist irbesartan to ascertain the specificity of C21 effect. We found that the AT1R, AT2R, and MasR were expressed in APA and APA-adjacent tissue, albeit heterogeneously. The gene expression of AT1R and AT2R was lower, and that of the MasR higher in APAs than in APA-adjacent tissue. In steroid-producing NCI-H295R and HAC15 cell lines, and in APA and APA-adjacent tissue, C21 was ineffective at nanomolar concentrations, but increased CYP11B1 and CYP11B2 gene expression at micromolar concentrations through AT1R, as this effect was blunted by irbesartan. The scant expression of the AT2R, along with the lack of any effect of C21 at low concentrations on CYP11B2, do not support the contention that the protective arm of renin-angiotensin system (RAS) blunts aldosterone synthase in the normal adrenal cortex and primary aldosteronism.
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11
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Regulation of aldosterone production by ion channels: From basal secretion to primary aldosteronism. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2018; 1864:871-881. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2017.12.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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12
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Aragao-Santiago L, Gomez-Sanchez CE, Mulatero P, Spyroglou A, Reincke M, Williams TA. Mouse Models of Primary Aldosteronism: From Physiology to Pathophysiology. Endocrinology 2017; 158:4129-4138. [PMID: 29069360 PMCID: PMC5711388 DOI: 10.1210/en.2017-00637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Primary aldosteronism (PA) is a common form of endocrine hypertension that is characterized by the excessive production of aldosterone relative to suppressed plasma renin levels. PA is usually caused by either a unilateral aldosterone-producing adenoma or bilateral adrenal hyperplasia. Somatic mutations have been identified in several genes that encode ion pumps and channels that may explain the aldosterone excess in over half of aldosterone-producing adenomas, whereas the pathophysiology of bilateral adrenal hyperplasia is largely unknown. A number of mouse models of hyperaldosteronism have been described that recreate some features of the human disorder, although none replicate the genetic basis of human PA. Animal models that reproduce the genotype-phenotype associations of human PA are required to establish the functional mechanisms that underlie the endocrine autonomy and deregulated cell growth of the affected adrenal and for preclinical studies of novel therapeutics. Herein, we discuss the differences in adrenal physiology across species and describe the genetically modified mouse models of PA that have been developed to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leticia Aragao-Santiago
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Germany
| | - Celso E Gomez-Sanchez
- Endocrinology Division, G.V. (Sonny) Montgomery Veterans Affairs Medical Center and University of Mississippi Medical Center
| | - Paolo Mulatero
- Division of Internal Medicine and Hypertension, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Italy
| | - Ariadni Spyroglou
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Germany
| | - Martin Reincke
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Germany
| | - Tracy Ann Williams
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Germany
- Division of Internal Medicine and Hypertension, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Italy
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13
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Ito R, Sato I, Tsujita T, Yokoyama A, Sugawara A. A ubiquitin-proteasome inhibitor bortezomib suppresses the expression of CYP11B2, a key enzyme of aldosterone synthesis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2017; 489:21-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2017.05.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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14
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Yao J, McHedlishvili D, McIntire WE, Guagliardo NA, Erisir A, Coburn CA, Santarelli VP, Bayliss DA, Barrett PQ. Functional TASK-3-Like Channels in Mitochondria of Aldosterone-Producing Zona Glomerulosa Cells. Hypertension 2017. [PMID: 28630209 DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.116.08871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Ca2+ drives aldosterone synthesis in the cytosolic and mitochondrial compartments of the adrenal zona glomerulosa cell. Membrane potential across each of these compartments regulates the amplitude of the Ca2+ signal; yet, only plasma membrane ion channels and their role in regulating cell membrane potential have garnered investigative attention as pathological causes of human hyperaldosteronism. Previously, we reported that genetic deletion of TASK-3 channels (tandem pore domain acid-sensitive K+ channels) from mice produces aldosterone excess in the absence of a change in the cell membrane potential of zona glomerulosa cells. Here, we report using yeast 2-hybrid, immunoprecipitation, and electron microscopic analyses that TASK-3 channels are resident in mitochondria, where they regulate mitochondrial morphology, mitochondrial membrane potential, and aldosterone production. This study provides proof of principle that mitochondrial K+ channels, by modulating inner mitochondrial membrane morphology and mitochondrial membrane potential, have the ability to play a pathological role in aldosterone dysregulation in steroidogenic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junlan Yao
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (J.Y., D.M., W.E.M., N.A.G., D.A.B., P.Q.B.) and Psychology (A.E.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville; Silverback Therapeutics, Inc, Seattle, WA (C.A.C.); and Department of Neuroscience, Merck & Co, Inc, West point, PA (V.P.S.)
| | - David McHedlishvili
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (J.Y., D.M., W.E.M., N.A.G., D.A.B., P.Q.B.) and Psychology (A.E.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville; Silverback Therapeutics, Inc, Seattle, WA (C.A.C.); and Department of Neuroscience, Merck & Co, Inc, West point, PA (V.P.S.)
| | - William E McIntire
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (J.Y., D.M., W.E.M., N.A.G., D.A.B., P.Q.B.) and Psychology (A.E.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville; Silverback Therapeutics, Inc, Seattle, WA (C.A.C.); and Department of Neuroscience, Merck & Co, Inc, West point, PA (V.P.S.)
| | - Nick A Guagliardo
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (J.Y., D.M., W.E.M., N.A.G., D.A.B., P.Q.B.) and Psychology (A.E.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville; Silverback Therapeutics, Inc, Seattle, WA (C.A.C.); and Department of Neuroscience, Merck & Co, Inc, West point, PA (V.P.S.)
| | - Alev Erisir
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (J.Y., D.M., W.E.M., N.A.G., D.A.B., P.Q.B.) and Psychology (A.E.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville; Silverback Therapeutics, Inc, Seattle, WA (C.A.C.); and Department of Neuroscience, Merck & Co, Inc, West point, PA (V.P.S.)
| | - Craig A Coburn
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (J.Y., D.M., W.E.M., N.A.G., D.A.B., P.Q.B.) and Psychology (A.E.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville; Silverback Therapeutics, Inc, Seattle, WA (C.A.C.); and Department of Neuroscience, Merck & Co, Inc, West point, PA (V.P.S.)
| | - Vincent P Santarelli
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (J.Y., D.M., W.E.M., N.A.G., D.A.B., P.Q.B.) and Psychology (A.E.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville; Silverback Therapeutics, Inc, Seattle, WA (C.A.C.); and Department of Neuroscience, Merck & Co, Inc, West point, PA (V.P.S.)
| | - Douglas A Bayliss
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (J.Y., D.M., W.E.M., N.A.G., D.A.B., P.Q.B.) and Psychology (A.E.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville; Silverback Therapeutics, Inc, Seattle, WA (C.A.C.); and Department of Neuroscience, Merck & Co, Inc, West point, PA (V.P.S.)
| | - Paula Q Barrett
- From the Departments of Pharmacology (J.Y., D.M., W.E.M., N.A.G., D.A.B., P.Q.B.) and Psychology (A.E.), University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville; Silverback Therapeutics, Inc, Seattle, WA (C.A.C.); and Department of Neuroscience, Merck & Co, Inc, West point, PA (V.P.S.).
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Yang T, Zhang HL, Liang Q, Shi Y, Mei YA, Barrett PQ, Hu C. Small-Conductance Ca2+-Activated Potassium Channels Negatively Regulate Aldosterone Secretion in Human Adrenocortical Cells. Hypertension 2016; 68:785-95. [PMID: 27432863 DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.116.07094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Aldosterone, which plays a key role in maintaining water and electrolyte balance, is produced by zona glomerulosa cells of the adrenal cortex. Autonomous overproduction of aldosterone from zona glomerulosa cells causes primary hyperaldosteronism. Recent clinical studies have highlighted the pathological role of the KCNJ5 potassium channel in primary hyperaldosteronism. Our objective was to determine whether small-conductance Ca(2+)-activated potassium (SK) channels may also regulate aldosterone secretion in human adrenocortical cells. We found that apamin, the prototypic inhibitor of SK channels, decreased membrane voltage, raised intracellular Ca(2+) and dose dependently increased aldosterone secretion from human adrenocortical H295R cells. By contrast, 1-Ethyl-2-benzimidazolinone, an agonist of SK channels, antagonized apamin's action and decreased aldosterone secretion. Commensurate with an increase in aldosterone production, apamin increased mRNA expression of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and aldosterone synthase that control the early and late rate-limiting steps in aldosterone biosynthesis, respectively. In addition, apamin increased angiotensin II-stimulated aldosterone secretion, whereas 1-Ethyl-2-benzimidazolinone suppressed both angiotensin II- and high K(+)-stimulated production of aldosterone in H295R cells. These findings were supported by apamin-modulation of basal and angiotensin II-stimulated aldosterone secretion from acutely prepared slices of human adrenals. We conclude that SK channel activity negatively regulates aldosterone secretion in human adrenocortical cells. Genetic association studies are necessary to determine whether mutations in SK channel subtype 2 genes may also drive aldosterone excess in primary hyperaldosteronism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Yang
- From the Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science (T.Y., Q.L., Y.-A.M., C.H.) and Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College (H.-L.Z.), Fudan University, China; Department of Urology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, China (H.-L.Z.); and Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville (Y.S., P.Q.B.)
| | - Hai-Liang Zhang
- From the Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science (T.Y., Q.L., Y.-A.M., C.H.) and Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College (H.-L.Z.), Fudan University, China; Department of Urology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, China (H.-L.Z.); and Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville (Y.S., P.Q.B.)
| | - Qingnan Liang
- From the Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science (T.Y., Q.L., Y.-A.M., C.H.) and Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College (H.-L.Z.), Fudan University, China; Department of Urology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, China (H.-L.Z.); and Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville (Y.S., P.Q.B.)
| | - Yingtang Shi
- From the Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science (T.Y., Q.L., Y.-A.M., C.H.) and Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College (H.-L.Z.), Fudan University, China; Department of Urology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, China (H.-L.Z.); and Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville (Y.S., P.Q.B.)
| | - Yan-Ai Mei
- From the Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science (T.Y., Q.L., Y.-A.M., C.H.) and Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College (H.-L.Z.), Fudan University, China; Department of Urology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, China (H.-L.Z.); and Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville (Y.S., P.Q.B.)
| | - Paula Q Barrett
- From the Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science (T.Y., Q.L., Y.-A.M., C.H.) and Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College (H.-L.Z.), Fudan University, China; Department of Urology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, China (H.-L.Z.); and Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville (Y.S., P.Q.B.)
| | - Changlong Hu
- From the Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science (T.Y., Q.L., Y.-A.M., C.H.) and Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College (H.-L.Z.), Fudan University, China; Department of Urology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, China (H.-L.Z.); and Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville (Y.S., P.Q.B.).
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Gallo-Payet N. 60 YEARS OF POMC: Adrenal and extra-adrenal functions of ACTH. J Mol Endocrinol 2016; 56:T135-56. [PMID: 26793988 DOI: 10.1530/jme-15-0257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) plays a pivotal role in homeostasis and stress response and is thus the major component of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. After a brief summary of ACTH production from proopiomelanocortin (POMC) and on ACTH receptor properties, the first part of the review covers the role of ACTH in steroidogenesis and steroid secretion. We highlight the mechanisms explaining the differential acute vs chronic effects of ACTH on aldosterone and glucocorticoid secretion. The second part summarizes the effects of ACTH on adrenal growth, addressing its role as either a mitogenic or a differentiating factor. We then review the mechanisms involved in steroid secretion, from the classical Cyclic adenosine monophosphate second messenger system to various signaling cascades. We also consider how the interaction between the extracellular matrix and the cytoskeleton may trigger activation of signaling platforms potentially stimulating or repressing the steroidogenic potency of ACTH. Finally, we consider the extra-adrenal actions of ACTH, in particular its role in differentiation in a variety of cell types, in addition to its known lipolytic effects on adipocytes. In each section, we endeavor to correlate basic mechanisms of ACTH function with the pathological consequences of ACTH signaling deficiency and of overproduction of ACTH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Gallo-Payet
- Division of EndocrinologyDepartment of Medicine, Faculté de médecine et des sciences de la santé, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada Division of EndocrinologyDepartment of Medicine, Faculté de médecine et des sciences de la santé, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
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17
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Barrett PQ, Guagliardo NA, Klein PM, Hu C, Breault DT, Beenhakker MP. Role of voltage-gated calcium channels in the regulation of aldosterone production from zona glomerulosa cells of the adrenal cortex. J Physiol 2016; 594:5851-5860. [PMID: 26845064 DOI: 10.1113/jp271896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Zona glomerulosa cells (ZG) of the adrenal gland constantly integrate fluctuating ionic, hormonal and paracrine signals to control the synthesis and secretion of aldosterone. These signals modulate Ca2+ levels, which provide the critical second messenger to drive steroid hormone production. Angiotensin II is a hormone known to modulate the activity of voltage-dependent L- and T-type Ca2+ channels that are expressed on the plasma membrane of ZG cells in many species. Because the ZG cell maintains a resting membrane voltage of approximately -85 mV and has been considered electrically silent, low voltage-activated T-type Ca2+ channels are assumed to provide the primary Ca2+ signal that drives aldosterone production. However, this view has recently been challenged by human genetic studies identifying somatic gain-of-function mutations in L-type CaV 1.3 channels in aldosterone-producing adenomas of patients with primary hyperaldosteronism. We provide a review of these assumptions and challenges, and update our understanding of the state of the ZG cell in a layer in which native cellular associations are preserved. This updated view of Ca2+ signalling in ZG cells provides a unifying mechanism that explains how transiently activating CaV 3.2 channels can generate a significant and recurring Ca2+ signal, and how CaV 1.3 channels may contribute to the Ca2+ signal that drives aldosterone production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Q Barrett
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22947, USA
| | - Nick A Guagliardo
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22947, USA
| | - Peter M Klein
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22947, USA
| | - Changlong Hu
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - David T Breault
- Division of Endocrinology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Mark P Beenhakker
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22947, USA.
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18
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Chen AX, Nishimoto K, Nanba K, Rainey WE. Potassium channels related to primary aldosteronism: Expression similarities and differences between human and rat adrenals. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2015; 417:141-8. [PMID: 26375812 PMCID: PMC4646165 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2015.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2014] [Revised: 08/18/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Three potassium channels have been associated with primary aldosteronism (PA) in rodents and humans: KCNK3 (TASK-1), KCNK9 (TASK-3), and KCNJ5 (Kir3.4). Mice with deficiency in Kcnk3 and Kcnk9 have elevated aldosterone production and blood pressure. In humans, adrenal tumors with somatic mutations in KCNJ5 cause PA. However, there are very few reports on the expression patterns of these genes in humans versus rodents. Herein, we compared human and rat mRNA expression (by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and protein levels (by immunohistochemistry) across three tissues (adrenal, brain, heart) and two laser-captured adrenal zones (zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata). Our findings show that expression patterns of KCNK3, KCNK9, and KCNJ5 are inconsistent between rats and humans across both tissues and adrenal zones. Thus, species variation in the expression of PA-related potassium channels indicates an evolutionary divergence in their role in regulating adrenal aldosterone production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew X Chen
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, 1150 W. Medical Center Dr, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, 1150 W. Medical Center Dr, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Koshiro Nishimoto
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, 1150 W. Medical Center Dr, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, 1150 W. Medical Center Dr, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Kazutaka Nanba
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, 1150 W. Medical Center Dr, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, 1150 W. Medical Center Dr, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - William E Rainey
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, 1150 W. Medical Center Dr, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, 1150 W. Medical Center Dr, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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19
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20
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Zamponi GW, Striessnig J, Koschak A, Dolphin AC. The Physiology, Pathology, and Pharmacology of Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels and Their Future Therapeutic Potential. Pharmacol Rev 2015; 67:821-70. [PMID: 26362469 PMCID: PMC4630564 DOI: 10.1124/pr.114.009654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 701] [Impact Index Per Article: 77.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Voltage-gated calcium channels are required for many key functions in the body. In this review, the different subtypes of voltage-gated calcium channels are described and their physiologic roles and pharmacology are outlined. We describe the current uses of drugs interacting with the different calcium channel subtypes and subunits, as well as specific areas in which there is strong potential for future drug development. Current therapeutic agents include drugs targeting L-type Ca(V)1.2 calcium channels, particularly 1,4-dihydropyridines, which are widely used in the treatment of hypertension. T-type (Ca(V)3) channels are a target of ethosuximide, widely used in absence epilepsy. The auxiliary subunit α2δ-1 is the therapeutic target of the gabapentinoid drugs, which are of value in certain epilepsies and chronic neuropathic pain. The limited use of intrathecal ziconotide, a peptide blocker of N-type (Ca(V)2.2) calcium channels, as a treatment of intractable pain, gives an indication that these channels represent excellent drug targets for various pain conditions. We describe how selectivity for different subtypes of calcium channels (e.g., Ca(V)1.2 and Ca(V)1.3 L-type channels) may be achieved in the future by exploiting differences between channel isoforms in terms of sequence and biophysical properties, variation in splicing in different target tissues, and differences in the properties of the target tissues themselves in terms of membrane potential or firing frequency. Thus, use-dependent blockers of the different isoforms could selectively block calcium channels in particular pathologies, such as nociceptive neurons in pain states or in epileptic brain circuits. Of important future potential are selective Ca(V)1.3 blockers for neuropsychiatric diseases, neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease, and resistant hypertension. In addition, selective or nonselective T-type channel blockers are considered potential therapeutic targets in epilepsy, pain, obesity, sleep, and anxiety. Use-dependent N-type calcium channel blockers are likely to be of therapeutic use in chronic pain conditions. Thus, more selective calcium channel blockers hold promise for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald W Zamponi
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada (G.W.Z.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Institute of Pharmacy, Center for Molecular Biosciences, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria (J.S., A.K.); and Department of Neuroscience, Physiology, and Pharmacology, Division of Biosciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom (A.C.D.)
| | - Joerg Striessnig
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada (G.W.Z.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Institute of Pharmacy, Center for Molecular Biosciences, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria (J.S., A.K.); and Department of Neuroscience, Physiology, and Pharmacology, Division of Biosciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom (A.C.D.)
| | - Alexandra Koschak
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada (G.W.Z.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Institute of Pharmacy, Center for Molecular Biosciences, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria (J.S., A.K.); and Department of Neuroscience, Physiology, and Pharmacology, Division of Biosciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom (A.C.D.)
| | - Annette C Dolphin
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada (G.W.Z.); Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Institute of Pharmacy, Center for Molecular Biosciences, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria (J.S., A.K.); and Department of Neuroscience, Physiology, and Pharmacology, Division of Biosciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom (A.C.D.)
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21
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Sepúlveda FV, Pablo Cid L, Teulon J, Niemeyer MI. Molecular aspects of structure, gating, and physiology of pH-sensitive background K2P and Kir K+-transport channels. Physiol Rev 2015; 95:179-217. [PMID: 25540142 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00016.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
K(+) channels fulfill roles spanning from the control of excitability to the regulation of transepithelial transport. Here we review two groups of K(+) channels, pH-regulated K2P channels and the transport group of Kir channels. After considering advances in the molecular aspects of their gating based on structural and functional studies, we examine their participation in certain chosen physiological and pathophysiological scenarios. Crystal structures of K2P and Kir channels reveal rather unique features with important consequences for the gating mechanisms. Important tasks of these channels are discussed in kidney physiology and disease, K(+) homeostasis in the brain by Kir channel-equipped glia, and central functions in the hearing mechanism in the inner ear and in acid secretion by parietal cells in the stomach. K2P channels fulfill a crucial part in central chemoreception probably by virtue of their pH sensitivity and are central to adrenal secretion of aldosterone. Finally, some unorthodox behaviors of the selectivity filters of K2P channels might explain their normal and pathological functions. Although a great deal has been learned about structure, molecular details of gating, and physiological functions of K2P and Kir K(+)-transport channels, this has been only scratching at the surface. More molecular and animal studies are clearly needed to deepen our knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco V Sepúlveda
- Centro de Estudios Científicos, Valdivia, Chile; UPMC Université Paris 06, Team 3, Paris, France; and Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, UMR_S 1138, Paris, France
| | - L Pablo Cid
- Centro de Estudios Científicos, Valdivia, Chile; UPMC Université Paris 06, Team 3, Paris, France; and Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, UMR_S 1138, Paris, France
| | - Jacques Teulon
- Centro de Estudios Científicos, Valdivia, Chile; UPMC Université Paris 06, Team 3, Paris, France; and Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, UMR_S 1138, Paris, France
| | - María Isabel Niemeyer
- Centro de Estudios Científicos, Valdivia, Chile; UPMC Université Paris 06, Team 3, Paris, France; and Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, UMR_S 1138, Paris, France
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22
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Abstract
Aldosterone is a steroid hormone synthesized in and secreted from the outer layer of the adrenal cortex, the zona glomerulosa. Aldosterone is responsible for regulating sodium homeostasis, thereby helping to control blood volume and blood pressure. Insufficient aldosterone secretion can lead to hypotension and circulatory shock, particularly in infancy. On the other hand, excessive aldosterone levels, or those too high for sodium status, can cause hypertension and exacerbate the effects of high blood pressure on multiple organs, contributing to renal disease, stroke, visual loss, and congestive heart failure. Aldosterone is also thought to directly induce end-organ damage, including in the kidneys and heart. Because of the significance of aldosterone to the physiology and pathophysiology of the cardiovascular system, it is important to understand the regulation of its biosynthesis and secretion from the adrenal cortex. Herein, the mechanisms regulating aldosterone production in zona glomerulosa cells are discussed, with a particular emphasis on signaling pathways involved in the secretory response to the main controllers of aldosterone production, the renin-angiotensin II system, serum potassium levels and adrenocorticotrophic hormone. The signaling pathways involved include phospholipase C-mediated phosphoinositide hydrolysis, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate, cytosolic calcium levels, calcium influx pathways, calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases, diacylglycerol, protein kinases C and D, 12-hydroxyeicostetraenoic acid, phospholipase D, mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways, tyrosine kinases, adenylate cyclase, and cAMP-dependent protein kinase. A complete understanding of the signaling events regulating aldosterone biosynthesis may allow the identification of novel targets for therapeutic interventions in hypertension, primary aldosteronism, congestive heart failure, renal disease, and other cardiovascular disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy B Bollag
- Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, Georgia; Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia at Georgia Regents University, Augusta, Georgia
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23
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Abstract
The purpose of this article is to review fundamentals in adrenal gland histophysiology. Key findings regarding the important signaling pathways involved in the regulation of steroidogenesis and adrenal growth are summarized. We illustrate how adrenal gland morphology and function are deeply interconnected in which novel signaling pathways (Wnt, Sonic hedgehog, Notch, β-catenin) or ionic channels are required for their integrity. Emphasis is given to exploring the mechanisms and challenges underlying the regulation of proliferation, growth, and functionality. Also addressed is the fact that while it is now well-accepted that steroidogenesis results from an enzymatic shuttle between mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, key questions still remain on the various aspects related to cellular uptake and delivery of free cholesterol. The significant progress achieved over the past decade regarding the precise molecular mechanisms by which the two main regulators of adrenal cortex, adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) and angiotensin II act on their receptors is reviewed, including structure-activity relationships and their potential applications. Particular attention has been given to crucial second messengers and how various kinases, phosphatases, and cytoskeleton-associated proteins interact to ensure homeostasis and/or meet physiological demands. References to animal studies are also made in an attempt to unravel associated clinical conditions. Many of the aspects addressed in this article still represent a challenge for future studies, their outcome aimed at providing evidence that the adrenal gland, through its steroid hormones, occupies a central position in many situations where homeostasis is disrupted, thus highlighting the relevance of exploring and understanding how this key organ is regulated. © 2014 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 4:889-964, 2014.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Gallo-Payet
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, and Centre de Recherche Clinique Étienne-Le Bel of the Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Sherbrooke (CHUS), Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
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24
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Abstract
Primary aldosteronism (PA) is the most common and curable form of secondary hypertension. It is caused in the majority of cases by either unilateral aldosterone overproduction due to an aldosterone-producing adenoma (APA) or by bilateral adrenal hyperplasia. Recent advances in genome technology have allowed researchers to unravel part of the genetic abnormalities underlying the development of APA and familial hyperaldosteronism. Recurrent somatic mutations in genes coding for ion channels (KCNJ5 and CACNA1D) and ATPases (ATP1A1 and ATP2B3) regulating intracellular ionic homeostasis and cell membrane potential have been identified in APA. Similar germline mutations of KCNJ5 were identified in a severe familial form of PA, familial hyperaldosteronism type 3 (FH3), whereas de novo germline CACNA1D mutations were found in two cases of hyperaldosteronism associated with a complex neurological disorder. These results have allowed a pathophysiological model of APA development to be established. This model involves modifications in intracellular ionic homeostasis and membrane potential, accounting for ∼50% of all tumors, associated with specific gender differences and severity of PA. In this review, we describe the different genetic abnormalities associated with PA and discuss the mechanisms whereby they lead to increased aldosterone production and cell proliferation. We also address some of the foreseeable consequences that genetic knowledge may contribute to improve diagnosis and patient care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria-Christina Zennaro
- INSERMUMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center - PARCC, 56, rue Leblanc, 75015 Paris, FranceUniversity Paris DescartesSorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, FranceAssistance Publique-Hôpitaux de ParisHôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Service de Génétique, Paris, France INSERMUMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center - PARCC, 56, rue Leblanc, 75015 Paris, FranceUniversity Paris DescartesSorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, FranceAssistance Publique-Hôpitaux de ParisHôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Service de Génétique, Paris, France INSERMUMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center - PARCC, 56, rue Leblanc, 75015 Paris, FranceUniversity Paris DescartesSorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, FranceAssistance Publique-Hôpitaux de ParisHôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Service de Génétique, Paris, France
| | - Sheerazed Boulkroun
- INSERMUMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center - PARCC, 56, rue Leblanc, 75015 Paris, FranceUniversity Paris DescartesSorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, FranceAssistance Publique-Hôpitaux de ParisHôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Service de Génétique, Paris, France INSERMUMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center - PARCC, 56, rue Leblanc, 75015 Paris, FranceUniversity Paris DescartesSorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, FranceAssistance Publique-Hôpitaux de ParisHôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Service de Génétique, Paris, France
| | - Fabio Fernandes-Rosa
- INSERMUMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center - PARCC, 56, rue Leblanc, 75015 Paris, FranceUniversity Paris DescartesSorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, FranceAssistance Publique-Hôpitaux de ParisHôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Service de Génétique, Paris, France INSERMUMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center - PARCC, 56, rue Leblanc, 75015 Paris, FranceUniversity Paris DescartesSorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, FranceAssistance Publique-Hôpitaux de ParisHôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Service de Génétique, Paris, France INSERMUMRS_970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center - PARCC, 56, rue Leblanc, 75015 Paris, FranceUniversity Paris DescartesSorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, FranceAssistance Publique-Hôpitaux de ParisHôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Service de Génétique, Paris, France
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25
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Felizola SJA, Maekawa T, Nakamura Y, Satoh F, Ono Y, Kikuchi K, Aritomi S, Ikeda K, Yoshimura M, Tojo K, Sasano H. Voltage-gated calcium channels in the human adrenal and primary aldosteronism. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2014; 144 Pt B:410-6. [PMID: 25151951 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2014.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Revised: 08/15/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Calcium channel blockers can efficiently be used in the treatment of primary aldosteronism (PA) related hypertension, but details on the localization of calcium channel (CC) in the human adrenal and its disorders, including PA, have remained unclear. Therefore, in this study we analyzed the known α subunits of L-, N- and T-type CCs in 74 adrenocortical aldosterone-producing adenomas (APA) and 16 cortisol-producing adenomas (CPA) using quantitative RT-PCR (qPCR). We also examined the status of L-(CaV1.2, CaV1.3), N-(CaV2.2) and T-(CaV3.2) CC subunits in five non-pathological adrenals (NA), five idiopathic hyperaldosteronism (IHA) cases, and 50 APA using immunohistochemistry. After qPCR evaluation, only CaV1.2, CaV1.3, CaV2.2, and CaV3.2 mRNA levels could be detected in APA and CPA. Among those, only CaV3.2 mRNA levels were significantly correlated with plasma aldosterone levels (P=0.0031), CYP11B2 expression levels (P<0.0001) and the presence of KCNJ5 mutations (P=0.0019) in APA. The immunolocalization of CCs in NA and IHA was detected in the zona glomerulosa (ZG), with a predominance of CaV3.2 in APA. These findings suggest that different types of CC can be involved in calcium-related aldosterone biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saulo J A Felizola
- Department of Pathology, Tohoku University Graduate school of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Takashi Maekawa
- Department of Pathology, Tohoku University Graduate school of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Nakamura
- Department of Pathology, Tohoku University Graduate school of Medicine, Sendai, Japan.
| | - Fumitoshi Satoh
- Division of Nephrology, Endocrinology and Vascular Medicine, Tohoku University Hospital, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yoshikiyo Ono
- Division of Nephrology, Endocrinology and Vascular Medicine, Tohoku University Hospital, Sendai, Japan
| | - Kumi Kikuchi
- Division of Nephrology, Endocrinology and Vascular Medicine, Tohoku University Hospital, Sendai, Japan
| | - Shizuka Aritomi
- R&D Planning Department, Ajinomoto Co., Inc., Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Keiichi Ikeda
- Division of Molecular Cell Biology, Core Research Facilities for Basic Sciences, Research Center for Medical Sciences, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Michihiro Yoshimura
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Katsuyoshi Tojo
- Division of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, The Jikei University Kashiwa Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hironobu Sasano
- Department of Pathology, Tohoku University Graduate school of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
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Kuppusamy M, Caroccia B, Stindl J, Bandulik S, Lenzini L, Gioco F, Fishman V, Zanotti G, Gomez-Sanchez C, Bader M, Warth R, Rossi GP. A novel KCNJ5-insT149 somatic mutation close to, but outside, the selectivity filter causes resistant hypertension by loss of selectivity for potassium. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014; 99:E1765-73. [PMID: 25057880 PMCID: PMC4154085 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2014-1927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Understanding the function of the KCNJ5 potassium channel through characterization of naturally occurring novel mutations is key for dissecting the mechanism(s) of autonomous aldosterone secretion in primary aldosteronism. OBJECTIVE We sought for such novel KCNJ5 channel mutations in a large database of patients with aldosterone-producing adenomas (APAs). METHODS We discovered a novel somatic c.446insAAC insertion, resulting in the mutant protein KCNJ5-insT149, in a patient with severe drug-resistant hypertension among 195 consecutive patients with a conclusive diagnosis of APA, 24.6% of whom showed somatic KCNJ5 mutations. By site-directed mutagenesis, we created the mutated cDNA that was transfected, along with KCNJ3 cDNA, in mammalian cells. We also localized CYP11B2 in the excised adrenal gland with immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence using an antibody specific to human CYP11B2. Whole-cell patch clamp recordings, CYP11B2 mRNA, aldosterone measurement, and molecular modeling were performed to characterize the novel KCNJ5-insT149 mutation. RESULTS Compared with wild-type and mock-transfected adrenocortical cells, HAC15 cells expressing the mutant KCNJ5 showed increased CYP11B2 expression and aldosterone secretion. Mammalian cells expressing the mutated KCNJ5-insT149 channel exhibited a strong Na(+) inward current and, in parallel, a substantial rise in intracellular Ca(2+), caused by activation of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels and reduced Ca(2+) elimination by Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchangers, as well as an increased production of aldosterone. CONCLUSIONS This novel mutation shows pathological Na(+) permeability, membrane depolarization, raised cytosolic Ca(2+), and increased aldosterone synthesis. Hence, a novel KCNJ5 channelopathy located after the pore α-helix preceding the selectivity filter causes constitutive secretion of aldosterone with ensuing resistant hypertension in a patient with a small APA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maniselvan Kuppusamy
- Department of Medicine-DIMED (M.K., B.C., L.L., F.G., G.P.R.), Department of Internal Medicine 4, and Department of Biomedical Sciences (G.Z.), University of Padua, 35126 Padua, Italy; Department of Medical Cell Biology (J.S., S.B., R.W.), University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany; Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine (V.F., M.B.), 13092 Berlin, Germany; Division of Endocrinology (C.G.-S.), G. V. (Sonny) Montgomery Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Medicine, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi 39216
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Velarde-Miranda C, Gomez-Sanchez EP, Gomez-Sanchez CE. Regulation of aldosterone biosynthesis by the Kir3.4 (KCNJ5) potassium channel. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2014; 40:895-901. [PMID: 23829355 DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.12151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2013] [Revised: 06/30/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The G-protein-activated inwardly rectifying potassium channel Kir3.4 is expressed in the zona glomerulosa cell membrane and transports potassium out of the cell. Angiotensin II stimulation of aldosterone secretion is mediated, in part, by suppression of the transcription of KCNJ5, the gene coding for Kir3.4, and blocking channel activity. This results in membrane depolarization, mobilization of intracellular calcium, activation of the calcium-calmodulin pathway and increasing gene transcription of steroidogenic enzymes required for aldosterone secretion. In 40-60% of aldosterone-producing adenomas there is a somatic mutation in the region of the KCNJ5 gene that codes for the selectivity filter that decreases potassium selectivity, allowing sodium to leak into the cells, thus depolarizing the membrane and initiating events that result in increased aldosterone synthesis. The mechanism by which mutated KCNJ5 induces cell proliferation and adenoma formation remains unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Velarde-Miranda
- Research and Endocrine Service, GV (Sonny) Montgomery VA Medical Center, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA; Division of Endocrinology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA
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Al-Salameh A, Cohen R, Desailloud R. Overview of the genetic determinants of primary aldosteronism. APPLICATION OF CLINICAL GENETICS 2014; 7:67-79. [PMID: 24817817 PMCID: PMC4012345 DOI: 10.2147/tacg.s45620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Primary aldosteronism is the most common cause of secondary hypertension. The syndrome accounts for 10% of all cases of hypertension and is primarily caused by bilateral adrenal hyperplasia or aldosterone-producing adenoma. Over the last few years, the use of exome sequencing has significantly improved our understanding of this syndrome. Somatic mutations in the KCNJ5, ATP1A1, ATP2B3 or CACNA1D genes are present in more than half of all cases of aldosterone-producing adenoma (~40%, ~6%, ~1% and ~8%, respectively). Germline gain-of-function mutations in KCNJ5 are now known to cause familial hyperaldosteronism type III, and an additional form of genetic hyperaldosteronism has been reported in patients with germline mutations in CACNA1D. These genes code for channels that control ion homeostasis across the plasma membrane of zona glomerulosa cells. Moreover, all these mutations modulate the same pathway, in which elevated intracellular calcium levels lead to aldosterone hyperproduction and (in some cases) adrenal cell proliferation. From a clinical standpoint, the discovery of these mutations has potential implications for patient management. The mutated channels could be targeted by drugs, in order to control hormonal and overgrowth-related manifestations. Furthermore, some of these mutations are associated with high cell turnover and may be amenable to diagnosis via the sequencing of cell-free (circulating) DNA. However, genotype-phenotype correlations in patients harboring these mutations have yet to be characterized. Despite this recent progress, much remains to be done to elucidate the yet unknown mechanisms underlying sporadic bilateral adrenal hyperplasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdallah Al-Salameh
- Service de Diabétologie, Endocrinologie et Maladies Métaboliques, Centre Hospitalier de Creil, Creil, France
| | - Régis Cohen
- Service d'Endocrinologie, Centre Hospitalier de Saint-Denis, Saint-Denis, France
| | - Rachel Desailloud
- Service d'Endocrinologie, Diabétologie et Nutrition, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire d'Amiens, Amiens, France
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Affiliation(s)
- Celso E Gomez-Sanchez
- Endocrine Section, G.V. (Sonny) Montgomery VA Medical Center, and University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi 39216
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Tauber P, Penton D, Stindl J, Humberg E, Tegtmeier I, Sterner C, Beuschlein F, Reincke M, Barhanin J, Bandulik S, Warth R. Pharmacology and pathophysiology of mutated KCNJ5 found in adrenal aldosterone-producing adenomas. Endocrinology 2014; 155:1353-62. [PMID: 24506072 DOI: 10.1210/en.2013-1944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Somatic mutations of the potassium channel KCNJ5 are found in 40% of aldosterone producing adenomas (APAs). APA-related mutations of KCNJ5 lead to a pathological Na(+) permeability and a rise in cytosolic Ca(2+), the latter presumably by depolarizing the membrane and activating voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels. The aim of this study was to further investigate the effects of mutated KCNJ5 channels on intracellular Na(+) and Ca(2+) homeostasis in human adrenocortical NCI-H295R cells. Expression of mutant KCNJ5 led to a 2-fold increase in intracellular Na(+) and, in parallel, to a substantial rise in intracellular Ca(2+). The increase in Ca(2+) appeared to be caused by activation of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels and by an impairment of Ca(2+) extrusion by Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchangers. The mutated KCNJ5 exhibited a pharmacological profile that differed from the one of wild-type channels. Mutated KCNJ5 was less Ba(2+) and tertiapin-Q sensitive but was inhibited by blockers of Na(+) and Ca(2+)-transporting proteins, such as verapamil and amiloride. The clinical use of these drugs might influence aldosterone levels in APA patients with KCNJ5 mutations. This might implicate diagnostic testing of APAs and could offer new therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Tauber
- Medical Cell Biology (P.T., J.S., E.H., I.T., C.S., S.B., R.W.), University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany; Laboratoire de PhysioMédecine Moléculaire (D.P., J.B.), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, and Université de Nice Sophia Antipolis, FRE3472-Laboratoire de PhysioMédecine Moléculaire, 06108 Nice Cedex, France; Laboratories of Excellence, Ion Channel Science and Therapeutics (D.P., J.B.), France; and Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV (F.B., M.R.), Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, 80336 Munich, Germany
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Gomez-Sanchez CE, Oki K. Minireview: potassium channels and aldosterone dysregulation: is primary aldosteronism a potassium channelopathy? Endocrinology 2014; 155:47-55. [PMID: 24248457 PMCID: PMC5398635 DOI: 10.1210/en.2013-1733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Primary aldosteronism is the most common form of secondary hypertension and has significant cardiovascular consequences. Aldosterone-producing adenomas (APAs) are responsible for half the cases of primary aldosteronism, and about half have mutations of the G protein-activated inward rectifying potassium channel Kir3.4. Under basal conditions, the adrenal zona glomerulosa cells are hyperpolarized with negative resting potentials determined by membrane permeability to K(+) mediated through various K(+) channels, including the leak K(+) channels TASK-1, TASK-3, and Twik-Related Potassium Channel 1, and G protein inward rectifying potassium channel Kir3.4. Angiotensin II decreases the activity of the leak K(+) channels and Kir3.4 channel and decreases the expression of the Kir3.4 channel, resulting in membrane depolarization, increased intracellular calcium, calcium-calmodulin pathway activation, and increased expression of cytochrome P450 aldosterone synthase (CYP11B2), the last enzyme for aldosterone production. Somatic mutations of the selectivity filter of the Kir3.4 channel in APA results in loss of selectivity for K(+) and entry of sodium, resulting in membrane depolarization, calcium mobilization, increased CYP11B2 expression, and hyperaldosteronism. Germ cell mutations cause familial hyperaldosteronism type 3, which is associated with adrenal zona glomerulosa hyperplasia, rather than adenoma. Less commonly, somatic mutations of the sodium-potassium ATPase, calcium ATPase, or the calcium channel calcium channel voltage-dependent L type alpha 1D have been found in some APAs. The regulation of aldosterone secretion is exerted to a significant degree by activation of membrane K(+) and calcium channels or pumps, so it is not surprising that the known causes of disorders of aldosterone secretion in APA have been channelopathies, which activate mechanisms that increase aldosterone synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celso E Gomez-Sanchez
- Endocrinology Division (C.E.G.-S.), G. V. (Sonny) Montgomery Veterans Affairs Medical Center and University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi 39216; and Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes (K.O.), Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan
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Nishimoto K, Rainey WE, Bollag WB, Seki T. Lessons from the gene expression pattern of the rat zona glomerulosa. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2013; 371:107-13. [PMID: 23287491 PMCID: PMC3625490 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2012.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 12/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
We recently identified hundreds of transcripts with differential expression in rat zona glomerulosa (zG) and zona fasciculata. Although the genes up-regulated in the zG may be playing important roles in aldosterone production, the relationship between most of these genes and aldosterone production has not been uncovered. Because aldosterone, in the presence of a high sodium diet, is now considered a significant cardiovascular risk factor, in this review we performed gene ontology and pathway analyses on the same microarray data to better define the genes that may influence zG function. Overall, we identified a number of genes that may be involved in aldosterone production through transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), WNT, calcium, potassium, and ACTH signaling pathways. The list of genes we present in the current report may become an important tool for researchers working on primary aldosteronism and aldosterone-related cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koshiro Nishimoto
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Health Sciences University, Augusta, Georgia 30912
- Department of Urology, Tachikawa Hospital, Tokyo 190-8531, Japan
| | - William E. Rainey
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Health Sciences University, Augusta, Georgia 30912
| | - Wendy B. Bollag
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Health Sciences University, Augusta, Georgia 30912
- Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30904
| | - Tsugio Seki
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Health Sciences University, Augusta, Georgia 30912
- Corresponding author: Tsugio Seki, Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Health Sciences University, 1120 15th Street, CA3064, Augusta, GA 30912; Tel., +1-706-721-1321; Fax., +1-706-721-7299
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Sewer MB, Li D. Regulation of adrenocortical steroid hormone production by RhoA-diaphanous 1 signaling and the cytoskeleton. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2013; 371. [PMID: 23186810 PMCID: PMC3926866 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2012.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The production of glucocorticoids and aldosterone in the adrenal cortex is regulated at multiple levels. Biosynthesis of these hormones is initiated when cholesterol, the substrate, enters the inner mitochondrial membrane for conversion to pregnenolone. Unlike most metabolic pathways, the biosynthesis of adrenocortical steroid hormones is unique because some of the enzymes are localized in mitochondria and others in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Although much is known about the factors that control the transcription and activities of the proteins that are required for steroid hormone production, the parameters that govern the exchange of substrates between the ER and mitochondria are less well understood. This short review summarizes studies that have begun to provide insight into the role of the cytoskeleton, mitochondrial transport, and the physical interaction of the ER and mitochondria in the production of adrenocortical steroid hormones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion B Sewer
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0704, USA.
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Matzkin ME, Lauf S, Spinnler K, Rossi SP, Köhn FM, Kunz L, Calandra RS, Frungieri MB, Mayerhofer A. The Ca2+-activated, large conductance K+-channel (BKCa) is a player in the LH/hCG signaling cascade in testicular Leydig cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2013; 367:41-9. [PMID: 23267835 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2012.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2012] [Revised: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In Leydig cells, hormonal stimulation by LH/hCG entails increased intracellular Ca(2+) levels and steroid production, as well as hyperpolarization of the cell membrane. The large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+)-channel (BK(Ca)) is activated by raised intracellular Ca(2+) and voltage and typically hyperpolarizes the cell membrane. Whether BK(Ca) is functionally involved in steroid production of Leydig cells is not known. In order to explore this point we first investigated the localization of BK(Ca) in human and hamster testes and then used a highly specific toxin, the BK(Ca) blocker iberiotoxin (IbTx), to experimentally dissect a role of BK(Ca). Immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR revealed that adult Leydig cells of both species are endowed with these channels. Ontogeny studies in hamsters indicated that BK(Ca) becomes strongly detectable in Leydig cells only after they acquire the ability to produce androgens. Using purified Leydig cells from adult hamsters, membrane potential changes in response to hCG were monitored. HCG hyperpolarized the cell membrane, which was prevented by the selective BK(Ca) blocker IbTx. Steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) mRNA expression and testosterone production were not affected by IbTx under basal conditions but markedly increased when hCG, in submaximal and maximal concentration or when db-cAMP was added to the incubation media. A blocker of K(V)4-channels, expressed by Leydig cells, namely phrixotoxin-2 (PhTx-2) was not effective. In summary, the data reveal BK(Ca) as a crucial part of the signaling cascade of LH/hCG in Leydig cells. The hyperpolarizing effect of BK(Ca) in the Leydig cell membrane appears to set in motion events limiting the production of testosterone evoked by stimulatory endocrine mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Matzkin
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires 1428, Argentina
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