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Marinò M, Latrofa F, Menconi F, Chiovato L, Vitti P. Role of genetic and non-genetic factors in the etiology of Graves' disease. J Endocrinol Invest 2015; 38:283-94. [PMID: 25421156 DOI: 10.1007/s40618-014-0214-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2014] [Accepted: 11/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In spite of the advancements in understanding the pathogenic mechanisms of Graves' disease (GD), its ultimate cause remains elusive. The majority of investigators agree that GD is likely a multifactorial disease, due to a complex interplay of genetic and non-genetic factors that lead to the loss of immune tolerance to thyroid antigens and to the initiation of a sustained autoimmune reaction. Twin and family studies support a role of genetic factors, among which the HLA complex, CD40, CTLA-4, PTPN22, FCRL3, thyroglobulin, and the TSH receptor may be involved. Among non-genetic factors, iodine, infections, psychological stress, gender, smoking, thyroid damage, vitamin D, selenium, immune modulating agents, and periods of immune reconstitution may contribute the development of the diseases. Here we review in detail the respective role of genetic and non-genetic factors in the etiology of GD, taking advantage of the great bulk of data generated especially over the past 30 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Marinò
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University Of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.
- Endocrinology Unit, University Hospital of Pisa, Via Paradisa 2, 56124, Pisa, Italy.
| | - F Latrofa
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University Of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
- Endocrinology Unit, University Hospital of Pisa, Via Paradisa 2, 56124, Pisa, Italy
| | - F Menconi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University Of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
- Endocrinology Unit, University Hospital of Pisa, Via Paradisa 2, 56124, Pisa, Italy
| | - L Chiovato
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Therapy, University of Pavia, Fondazione Salvatore Maugeri IRCCS, Pavia, Italy
| | - P Vitti
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University Of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
- Endocrinology Unit, University Hospital of Pisa, Via Paradisa 2, 56124, Pisa, Italy
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Ishido N, Inoue N, Watanabe M, Hidaka Y, Iwatani Y. The relationship between skewed X chromosome inactivation and the prognosis of Graves' and Hashimoto's diseases. Thyroid 2015; 25:256-61. [PMID: 25338305 PMCID: PMC4322037 DOI: 10.1089/thy.2014.0318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITDs) predominantly develop in females. One of two X chromosomes is randomly inactivated by methylation in each female cell, but it has been reported that skewed X chromosome inactivation (XCI) may be associated with the development of autoimmune diseases. To clarify the significance of skewed XCI in the prognosis and development of AITD, we investigated the proportion of skewed XCI in female patients with AITD. METHODS We analyzed the degree of XCI skewing in 120 female patients with AITD (77 patients with Graves' disease [GD] and 43 patients with Hashimoto's disease [HD]) and 49 female controls in DNA from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). We performed XCI analysis by digesting inactive DNA with a methylation-sensitive restriction enzyme (HpaII) followed by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay for the polymorphic CAG repeat of the androgen receptor gene and electrophoresis of the PCR products. RESULTS The proportion of skewed XCI (≥65% skewing) was not significantly different between AITD patients and control subjects but was higher in patients with intractable GD (66.7%) than those with GD in remission (25.0%, p=0.0033) and control subjects (32.6%, p=0.0038). When the cutoff value for XCI skewing was relaxed, the proportion of skewed XCI (≥60% skewing) was higher in patients with severe HD (76.5%) than in those with mild HD (41.2%, p=0.0342). CONCLUSIONS Skewed XCI is related to the prognosis of AITD, particularly the intractability of GD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoko Ishido
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Division of Health Sciences, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Naoya Inoue
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Division of Health Sciences, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Mikio Watanabe
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Division of Health Sciences, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yoh Hidaka
- Department of Laboratory Medicine; Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Iwatani
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Division of Health Sciences, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
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Lee JY, Choi JY, Choi YH, Hyun SH, Moon SH, Jang SJ, Choe YS, Lee KH, Kim BT. Diffuse thyroid uptake incidentally found on 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in subjects without cancer history. Korean J Radiol 2013; 14:501-9. [PMID: 23690721 PMCID: PMC3655308 DOI: 10.3348/kjr.2013.14.3.501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2012] [Accepted: 12/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective We investigated the clinical significance of incidental diffuse thyroid uptake (DTU) on 18F-FDG PET in subjects without a history of cancer. Materials and Methods This study included 2062 studies from adults who underwent 18F-FDG PET as a cancer screening program. Subjects were divided into the following two groups: with (group I) or without (group II) DTU. The presence of DTU and the thyroid visual grading score were compared with thyroid function tests, serum anti-microsomal antibody (AMA) levels, and the presence of diffuse parenchymal change (DPC) on ultrasonography (USG). Results DTU was found in 6.6% of the scans (137/2062). Serum thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and AMA levels were significantly higher in group I than in group II. Increased AMA level (55.1%) and DPC (48.7%) were more frequently found in group I (p < 0.001). The proportion of subjects with any abnormal results in serum free thyroxine, triiodothyronine, TSH, or AMA levels or DPC on USG was significantly higher in group I than in group II (71.5% vs. 10.6%, p < 0.001), and was significantly and gradually increased according to the visual grading score group (0 vs. 1-2 vs. 3-4 = 10.6% vs. 58.5% vs. 90.9%, p < 0.001). TSH and is AMA levels were significantly increased according to the visual grading score. Conclusion The presence or degree of incidental DTU on 18F-FDG PET is closely correlated with increased serum AMA and TSH levels, and the presence of DPC on USG. Therefore, the most plausible pathological cause of DTU may be cell damage by an autoimmune mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Young Lee
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University, Seongnam 463-712, Korea
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Chu X, Shen M, Xie F, Miao XJ, Shou WH, Liu L, Yang PP, Bai YN, Zhang KY, Yang L, Hua Q, Liu WD, Dong Y, Wang HF, Shi JX, Wang Y, Song HD, Chen SJ, Chen Z, Huang W. An X chromosome-wide association analysis identifies variants in GPR174 as a risk factor for Graves' disease. J Med Genet 2013; 50:479-85. [PMID: 23667180 PMCID: PMC3686253 DOI: 10.1136/jmedgenet-2013-101595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Background Graves’ disease is a female preponderant autoimmune illness and the contribution of the X chromosome to its risk has long been appreciated. However, no X-linked susceptibility loci have been indentified from recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Methods We re-examined the X chromosome data from our recent GWAS for Graves’ disease by including males that were previously excluded from the X chromosome analyses. The data were analysed using logistic regression analysis including sex as a covariate, and an additive method assuming X chromosome inactivation, implemented in snpMatrix. Results A cluster of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) at Xq21.1 was found showing association with genome-wide significance, among which rs3827440 was a non-synonymous SNP of GPR174 (Plogistic regression=
9.52×10−8; PsnpMatrix=4.60×10−9; OR=1.76, 95% CI 1.45 to 2.13). The association was reproduced in an independent sample collection set including 4564 Graves’ disease cases and 3968 sex matched controls (combined Plogistic regression=5.53×10−21; combined PsnpMatrix=4.26×10−22; OR=1.69, 95% CI 1.53 to 1.86). Notably, GPR174 was widely expressed in immune related tissues and rs3827440 genotypes were associated with distinct mRNA levels (p=0.002). GPR174 did not show sex biased gene expression in our expression analysis. Resequencing study suggested the contribution of some rare variants in the GPR174 gene region to disease risk with a collapsing p value of 1.16×10−3. Conclusions The finding of an X-linked risk locus for Graves’ disease expands our understanding of the role of the X chromosome in disease susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xun Chu
- Department of Genetics, Chinese National Human Genome Center, Bldg. 1, 250 BiBo Road, Shanghai 201203, China
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Zhao SX, Liu W, Zhan M, Song ZY, Yang SY, Xue LQ, Pan CM, Gu ZH, Liu BL, Wang HN, Liang L, Liang J, Zhang XM, Yuan GY, Li CG, Chen MD, Chen JL, Gao GQ, Song HD. A refined study of FCRL genes from a genome-wide association study for Graves' disease. PLoS One 2013; 8:e57758. [PMID: 23505439 PMCID: PMC3591391 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0057758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/24/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
To pinpoint the exact location of the etiological variant/s present at 1q21.1 harboring FCRL1-5 and CD5L genes, we carried out a refined association study in the entire FCRL region in 1,536 patients with Graves' disease (GD) and 1,516 sex-matched controls by imputation analysis, logistic regression, and cis-eQTL analysis. Among 516 SNPs with P<0.05 in the initial GWAS scan, the strongest signals associated with GD and correlated to FCRL3 expression were located at a cluster of SNPs including rs7528684 and rs3761959. And the allele-specific effects for rs3761959 and rs7528684 on FCRL3 expression level revealed that the risk alleles A of rs3761959 and C of rs7528684 were correlated with the elevated expression level of FCRL3 whether in PBMCs or its subsets, especially in CD19(+) B cells and CD8(+) T subsets. Next, the combined analysis with 5,300 GD cases and 4,916 control individuals confirmed FCRL3 was a susceptibility gene of GD in Chinese Han populations, and rs3761959 and rs7528684 met the genome-wide association significance level (P(combined) = 2.27×10(-12) and 7.11×10(-13), respectively). Moreover, the haplotypes with the risk allele A of rs3761959 and risk allele C of rs7528684 were associated with GD risk. Finally, our epigenetic analysis suggested the disease-associated C allele of rs7528684 increased affinity for NF-KB transcription factor. Above data indicated that FCRL3 gene and its proxy SNP rs7528684 may be involved in the pathogenesis of GD by excessive inhibiting B cell receptor signaling and the impairment of suppressing function of Tregs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang-Xia Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Molecular Medicine Center, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University (SJTU) School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Department of Endocrinology, Shanghai Institute of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to SJTU School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Molecular Medicine Center, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University (SJTU) School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ming Zhan
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Molecular Medicine Center, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University (SJTU) School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhi-Yi Song
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Molecular Medicine Center, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University (SJTU) School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shao-Ying Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Molecular Medicine Center, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University (SJTU) School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Li-Qiong Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Molecular Medicine Center, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University (SJTU) School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Chun-Ming Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Molecular Medicine Center, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University (SJTU) School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhao-Hui Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Molecular Medicine Center, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University (SJTU) School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Center for Systems Biomedicine, SJTU, Shanghai, China
| | - Bing-Li Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Molecular Medicine Center, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University (SJTU) School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hai-Ning Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Molecular Medicine Center, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University (SJTU) School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Liming Liang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Jun Liang
- Department of Endocrinology, The Central Hospital of Xuzhou Affiliated to Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xiao-Mei Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Hospital Affiliated to Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui Province, China
| | - Guo-Yue Yuan
- Department of Endocrinology, The Hospital Affiliated to Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Chang-Gui Li
- Department of Endocrinology, Gout Laboratory, Medical School Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong Province, China
| | - Ming-Dao Chen
- Department of Endocrinology, Shanghai Institute of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to SJTU School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jia-Lun Chen
- Department of Endocrinology, Shanghai Institute of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to SJTU School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Guan-Qi Gao
- Department of Endocrinology, Linyi People’s Hospital, Linyi, Shandong Province, China
| | - Huai-Dong Song
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Molecular Medicine Center, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiaotong University (SJTU) School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Department of Endocrinology, Shanghai Institute of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to SJTU School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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Płoski R, Szymański K, Bednarczuk T. The genetic basis of graves' disease. Curr Genomics 2012; 12:542-63. [PMID: 22654555 PMCID: PMC3271308 DOI: 10.2174/138920211798120772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2011] [Revised: 08/05/2011] [Accepted: 08/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The presented comprehensive review of current knowledge about genetic factors predisposing to Graves’ disease (GD) put emphasis on functional significance of observed associations. In particular, we discuss recent efforts aimed at refining diseases associations found within the HLA complex and implicating HLA class I as well as HLA-DPB1 loci. We summarize data regarding non-HLA genes such as PTPN22, CTLA4, CD40, TSHR and TG which have been extensively studied in respect to their role in GD. We review recent findings implicating variants of FCRL3 (gene for FC receptor-like-3 protein), SCGB3A2 (gene for secretory uteroglobin-related protein 1- UGRP1) as well as other unverified possible candidate genes for GD selected through their documented association with type 1 diabetes mellitus: Tenr–IL2–IL21, CAPSL (encoding calcyphosine-like protein), IFIH1(gene for interferon-induced helicase C domain 1), AFF3, CD226 and PTPN2. We also review reports on association of skewed X chromosome inactivation and fetal microchimerism with GD. Finally we discuss issues of genotype-phenotype correlations in GD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafał Płoski
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Biostructure, Medical University of Warsaw, Poland
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Rapoport B, Williams RW, Chen CR, McLachlan SM. Immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region genes contribute to the induction of thyroid-stimulating antibodies in recombinant inbred mice. Genes Immun 2010; 11:254-63. [PMID: 20407472 PMCID: PMC4108286 DOI: 10.1038/gene.2010.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2009] [Revised: 11/11/2009] [Accepted: 11/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Graves' hyperthyroidism is an autoimmune disease occurring spontaneously in humans and caused by autoantibodies that stimulate the thyrotropin receptor. In mice, inducing Graves'-like hyperthyroidism requires in vivo expression of the thyrotropin receptor using plasmid or adenovirus vectors. However, mice with different genetic backgrounds vary markedly in their susceptibility to induced hyperthyroidism. Further, in some strains major disparities exist between the induction of hyperthyroidism and detection of thyroid-stimulating antibodies. To break tolerance, virtually all Graves' mouse models involve immunization with human thyrotropin-receptor DNA and the standard thyroid-stimulating antibody bioassay uses cells expressing the human thyrotropin receptor. We hypothesized, and now report, that disparities between hyperthyroidism and thyroid-stimulating antibody bioactivity are explained, at least in part, by differential antibody recognition of the human vs the mouse thyrotropin receptor. The genetic basis for these species differences was explored using genotyped, recombinant-inbred mouse strains. We report that loci in the immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region as well as in the major histocompatibility complex region contribute in a strain-specific manner to the development of antibodies specific for the human or the mouse thyrotropin receptor. The novel finding of a role for immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region gene involvement in thyroid-stimulating antibody epitopic specificity provides potential insight into genetic susceptibility in human Graves' disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basil Rapoport
- Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute and UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Robert W. Williams
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis TN
| | - Chun-Rong Chen
- Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute and UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Sandra M. McLachlan
- Autoimmune Disease Unit, Cedars-Sinai Research Institute and UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA
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Brix TH, Hansen PS, Kyvik KO, Hegedüs L. Preliminary evidence of a noncausal association between the X-chromosome inactivation pattern and thyroid autoimmunity: a twin study. Eur J Hum Genet 2009; 18:254-7. [PMID: 19789576 DOI: 10.1038/ejhg.2009.156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
An increased frequency of skewed X-chromosome inactivation (XCI) is found in clinically overt autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) compared with controls. Whether skewed XCI is involved in the pathogenesis of autoantibodies to thyroid peroxidase (TPOAb) in euthyroid subjects is unknown. To examine the impact of XCI on the serum concentration of TPOAb, we studied whether within-cohort and within-twin-pair differences in XCI are associated with differences in serum concentrations of TPOAb. A total of 318 euthyroid female twin individuals distributed in 159 pairs were investigated. XCI was determined by PCR analysis of a polymorphic CAG repeat in the first exon of the androgen receptor gene. TPOAb concentrations were measured using a solid-phase time-resolved fluoroimmunometric assay. Overall (within cohort), there was a significant association between XCI and serum concentrations of TPOAb; regression coefficient (beta)=1.45 (95% confidence interval, 0.52-2.38), P=0.003. The association remained significant in the within-pair analysis; beta=1.74 (0.79-2.69), P<0.001. The relationship was nonsignificant within the 82 monozygotic pairs (beta=0.57 (-0.78-1.92), P=0.405), whereas the association was significant in the 77 dizygotic pairs (beta=2.17 (0.81-3.53), P=0.002). This preliminary finding of a significant association between TPOAb concentrations and XCI within cohort and within dizygotic but not within monozygotic twin pairs may indicate that XCI per se does not have a major role in the pathogenesis of TPOAb. More likely, XCI and TPOAb are influenced by shared genetic determinants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Heiberg Brix
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark.
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Huber A, Menconi F, Corathers S, Jacobson EM, Tomer Y. Joint genetic susceptibility to type 1 diabetes and autoimmune thyroiditis: from epidemiology to mechanisms. Endocr Rev 2008; 29:697-725. [PMID: 18776148 PMCID: PMC2583387 DOI: 10.1210/er.2008-0015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) and autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD) frequently occur together within families and in the same individual. The co-occurrence of T1D and AITD in the same patient is one of the variants of the autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 3 [APS3 variant (APS3v)]. Epidemiological data point to a strong genetic influence on the shared susceptibility to T1D and AITD. Recently, significant progress has been made in our understanding of the genetic association between T1D and AITD. At least three genes have been confirmed as major joint susceptibility genes for T1D and AITD: human leukocyte antigen class II, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4), and protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 22. Moreover, the first whole genome linkage study has been recently completed, and additional genes will soon be identified. Not unexpectedly, all the joint genes for T1D and AITD identified so far are involved in immune regulation, specifically in the presentation of antigenic peptides to T cells. One of the lessons learned from the analysis of the joint susceptibility genes for T1D and AITD is that subset analysis is a key to dissecting the etiology of complex diseases. One of the best demonstrations of the power of subset analysis is the CTLA-4 gene in T1D. Although CTLA-4 showed very weak association with T1D, when analyzed in the subset of patients with both T1D and AITD, the genetic effect of CTLA-4 was significantly stronger. Gene-gene and genetic-epigenetic interactions most likely play a role in the shared genetic susceptibility to T1D and AITD. Dissecting these mechanisms will lead to a better understanding of the etiology of T1D and AITD, as well as autoimmunity in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Huber
- Division of Endocrinology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio 45267, USA
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Abstract
Interferon alpha (IFN alpha) is the cornerstone therapeutic agent for chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Prospective studies have shown that up to 15% of HCV patients receiving IFN alpha develop clinical thyroid disease, and up to 40% become thyroid antibody positive. In some cases IFN-induced thyroiditis (IIT) may result in discontinuation of interferon therapy; thus, IIT represents a major clinical problem for hepatitis C patients receiving IFN alpha therapy. Recently, the mechanisms leading to the development of IIT have begun to be unraveled. It is now clear that HCV itself plays a role in the disease. Moreover, recent data suggest the IFN alpha precipitates thyroiditis by both immune modulatory mechanisms and direct thyroid toxic effects. Genetic factors also play a major role in the etiology of IIT. IIT can manifest both as clinical autoimmune thyroiditis (ie, Hashimoto's thyroiditis and Graves' disease) and as nonautoimmune thyroiditis (ie, destructive thyroiditis). Early detection and therapy of these conditions are important to avoid complications of thyroid disease such as cardiac arrhythmias. This article reviews the epidemiology and clinical manifestations of IIT and the mechanisms causing IIT, focusing on the role of HCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaron Tomer
- Division of Endocrinology, Cincinnati VA Medical Center, USA.
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Chen R, Chen W, Chang C, Tsai C, Tsai F. Interleukin-1-beta gene, but not the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist gene, is associated with Graves' disease. J Clin Lab Anal 2007; 19:133-8. [PMID: 16025481 PMCID: PMC6807985 DOI: 10.1002/jcla.20067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is considered to be involved in the pathogenesis of Graves' disease. The aim of this study was to test whether the IL-1-beta gene promoter region and exon 5 and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) gene intron 2 polymorphisms could be useful genetic markers for susceptibility to Graves' disease. A normal control group of 163 healthy people and another group of 95 patients with Graves' disease were examined. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to analyze the variable number of tandem repeats (VNTRs) at intron 2 of the IL-1Ra gene for the polymorphism. PCR-based restriction analysis was done for the IL-1-beta gene polymorphisms of the promoter region and exon 5 using endonucleases AvaI and TaqI, respectively. We found significantly increased frequencies of the C/C homozygous genotype (chi(2) test, P=0.038; odds ratio (OR)=2.558, 95% confidence interval (CI)=1.205-5.430) and the C allele (chi(2) test, P=0.011; OR=1.589, 95% CI=1.094-2.309) in the IL-1-beta gene promoter (-511 C/T polymorphism) in Graves' disease patients compared to normal controls. There were no significant differences in polymorphisms of IL-1-beta gene exon 5 and IL-1Ra gene intron 2 between the patient and normal control groups. A subgroup analysis also demonstrated no association between the severity of the disease and any polymorphism of IL-1-related genes. We suggest that the IL-1-beta gene promoter polymorphism can be used as a genetic marker for susceptibility to Graves' disease. It is worthwhile to study the cytokine genes further because of the association between cytokines and Graves' disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong‐Hsing Chen
- Department of Medicine, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Wen‐Chi Chen
- Department of Urology, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Genetics, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chwen‐Tzuei Chang
- Department of Medicine, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chang‐Hai Tsai
- Department of Pediatrics, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Taichung Healthcare and Management University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Fuu‐Jen Tsai
- Department of Medical Genetics, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Department of Pediatrics, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
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Abstract
Clonality often defines the diseased state in hematology. Clonal cells are genetically homogenous and derived from the same precursor; their detection is based on genotype or phenotype. Genotypic clonality relies on somatic mutations to mark the clonal population. Phenotypic clonality identifies the clonal population by the expression pattern of surrogate genes that track the clonal process. The most commonly used phenotypic clonality methods are based on the X-chromosome inactivation principle. Clonality detection based on X-chromosome inactivation patterns (XCIP) requires discrimination of the active from the inactive X chromosome and differentiation of each X chromosome's parental origin. Detection methods are based on detection of X-chromosome sequence polymorphisms identified by protein isoforms, transcribed mRNA, and methylation status. Errors in interpreting clonality tests arise from stochastic, genetic, and cell selection pressures on the mechanism of X inactivation. Progressive X-chromosome skewing has recently been suggested by XCIP clonality studies in aging hematopoietic cells. This has led to new insights into the pathophysiology of X-linked and autoimmune disorders. Other research applications include combining XCIP clonality testing with genetic clonality testing to identify clonal populations with yet-to-be-discovered genetic changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- George L Chen
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplant, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA
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Chistiakov DA. Immunogenetics of Hashimoto's thyroiditis. JOURNAL OF AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES 2005; 2:1. [PMID: 15762980 PMCID: PMC555850 DOI: 10.1186/1740-2557-2-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2004] [Accepted: 03/11/2005] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) is an organ-specific T-cell mediated disease. It is a complex disease, with a strong genetic component. To date, significant progress has been made towards the identification and functional characterization of HT susceptibility genes. In this review, we will summarize the recent advances in our understanding of the genetic input to the pathogenesis of HT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitry A Chistiakov
- Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Ch, De Beriotstraat 32, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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Stone JL, Merriman B, Cantor RM, Yonan AL, Gilliam TC, Geschwind DH, Nelson SF. Evidence for sex-specific risk alleles in autism spectrum disorder. Am J Hum Genet 2004; 75:1117-23. [PMID: 15467983 PMCID: PMC1182147 DOI: 10.1086/426034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2004] [Accepted: 09/16/2004] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the genetic aspects of the large sex bias in the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder by monitoring changes in linkage when the family set for an affected sibling pair genome scan is subdivided on the basis of the sex of affected children. This produces a significant excess in the total number of linkage peaks (P=1.3 x 10(-8)) and identifies a major male-specific linkage peak at chromosome 17q11 (P<.01). These results suggest that sexual dichotomy is an important factor in the genetics of autism; the same strategy can be used to explore this possibility in other complex disorders that exhibit significant sex biases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L. Stone
- Departments of Human Genetics and Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles; and Department of Genetics and Development, Columbia University, New York
| | - Barry Merriman
- Departments of Human Genetics and Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles; and Department of Genetics and Development, Columbia University, New York
| | - Rita M. Cantor
- Departments of Human Genetics and Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles; and Department of Genetics and Development, Columbia University, New York
| | - Amanda L. Yonan
- Departments of Human Genetics and Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles; and Department of Genetics and Development, Columbia University, New York
| | - T. Conrad Gilliam
- Departments of Human Genetics and Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles; and Department of Genetics and Development, Columbia University, New York
| | - Daniel H. Geschwind
- Departments of Human Genetics and Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles; and Department of Genetics and Development, Columbia University, New York
| | - Stanley F. Nelson
- Departments of Human Genetics and Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles; and Department of Genetics and Development, Columbia University, New York
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15
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Akamizu T, Hiratani H, Ikegami S, Rich SS, Bowden DW. Association study of autoimmune thyroid disease at 5q23-q33 in Japanese patients. J Hum Genet 2003; 48:236-242. [PMID: 12768441 DOI: 10.1007/s10038-003-0017-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2003] [Accepted: 02/20/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
As part of a genome scan to locate familial Graves' disease (GD) and Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) genes, an autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) susceptibility locus has recently been identified at 5q31-q33 in a Japanese population. We performed an association study using six microsatellite markers located at this locus in a set of 440 unrelated Japanese AITD patients and 218 Japanese controls. We found significant allelic association between AITD and three markers located in 5q23-q33. GD demonstrated significant associations with two of these markers, while HT did not show significant associations with any markers. Further, when patients with GD were stratified according to clinical manifestations, the association was significantly different from the other subgroup of each category. These findings suggest the presence of susceptible genes of AITD, especially distinct subgroups of GD, in or near 5q23-q33.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Akamizu
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, Translational Research Center, Kyoto University Hospital, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan.
| | - Hitomi Hiratani
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, Translational Research Center, Kyoto University Hospital, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Satoshi Ikegami
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, Translational Research Center, Kyoto University Hospital, 54 Shogoin-Kawaharacho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Stephen S Rich
- Department of Public Health Science, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, 27157, USA
| | - Donald W Bowden
- Department of Biochemistry, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, 27157, USA
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16
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Atkinson TP, Schäffer AA, Grimbacher B, Schroeder HW, Woellner C, Zerbe CS, Puck JM. An immune defect causing dominant chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis and thyroid disease maps to chromosome 2p in a single family. Am J Hum Genet 2001; 69:791-803. [PMID: 11517424 PMCID: PMC1226065 DOI: 10.1086/323611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2001] [Accepted: 07/31/2001] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe a large family in which a combination of chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis (fungal infections of the skin, nails, and mucous membranes) and thyroid disease segregate as an autosomal dominant trait with reduced penetrance. The family includes (a) four members with both candidiasis and thyroid disease, (b) five members, including one pair of phenotype-concordant MZ twins, with candidiasis only, and (c) three members with thyroid disease only. A whole-genome scan using DNA samples from 20 members of the family identified a candidate linkage region on chromosome 2p. By sampling additional individuals and genotyping supplementary markers, we established linkage to a region of approximately 15 cM bounded by D2S367 and D2S2240 and including seven adjacent markers consistent with linkage. With a penetrance estimate of.8, which was based on pedigree and affected status, the peak two-point LOD score was 3.70 with marker D2S2328, and the peak three-point LOD score was 3.82. This is the first linkage assignment of a dominant locus for mucocutaneous candidiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- T P Atkinson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
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Vaidya B, Imrie H, Perros P, Young ET, Kelly WF, Carr D, Large DM, Toft AD, Kendall-Taylor P, Pearce SH. Evidence for a new Graves disease susceptibility locus at chromosome 18q21. Am J Hum Genet 2000; 66:1710-4. [PMID: 10762555 PMCID: PMC1378028 DOI: 10.1086/302908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/1999] [Accepted: 02/18/2000] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Graves disease (GD) is a common autoimmune thyroid disorder that is inherited as a complex multigenic trait. By using a single microsatellite marker at each locus, we screened the type 1 diabetes loci IDDM4, IDDM5, IDDM6, IDDM8, and IDDM10 and the fucosyltransferase-2 locus for linkage in sib pairs with GD. This showed a two-point nonparametric linkage (NPL) score of 1.57 (P=.06) at the IDDM6 marker D18S41, but NPL scores were <1.0 at the other five loci. Thus, the investigation of the IDDM6 locus was extended by genotyping 11 microsatellite markers spanning 48 cM across chromosome 18q12-q22 in 81 sib pairs affected with autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD). Multipoint analysis, designating all AITD sib pairs as affected, showed a peak NPL score of 3.46 (P=.0003), at the marker D18S487. Designation of only GD cases as affected (74 sib pairs) showed a peak NPL score of 3.09 (P=.001). Linkage to this region has been demonstrated in type 1 diabetes (IDDM6), rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus, which suggests that this locus may have a role in several forms of autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Vaidya
- Department of Endocrinology, School of Clinical Medical Sciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, United Kingdom.
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Tomer Y, Barbesino G, Greenberg DA, Concepcion E, Davies TF. A new Graves disease-susceptibility locus maps to chromosome 20q11.2. International Consortium for the Genetics of Autoimmune Thyroid Disease. Am J Hum Genet 1998; 63:1749-56. [PMID: 9837828 PMCID: PMC1377647 DOI: 10.1086/302146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITDs) include two related disorders, Graves disease (GD) and Hashimoto thyroiditis, in which perturbations of immune regulation result in an immune attack on the thyroid gland. The AITDs are multifactorial and develop in genetically susceptible individuals. However, the genes responsible for this susceptibility remain unknown. Recently, we initiated a whole-genome linkage study of patients with AITD, in order to identify their susceptibility genes. We studied a data set of 53 multiplex, multigenerational AITD families (323 individuals), using highly polymorphic and densely spaced microsatellite markers (intermarker distance <10 cM). Linkage analysis was performed by use of two-point and multipoint parametric methods (classic LOD-score analysis). While studying chromosome 20, we found a locus on chromosome 20q11.2 that was strongly linked to GD. A maximum two-point LOD score of 3.2 was obtained at marker D20S195, assuming a recessive mode of inheritance and a penetrance of.3. The maximum nonparametric LOD score was 2.4 (P=.00043); this score also was obtained at marker D20S195. Multipoint linkage analysis yielded a maximum LOD score of 3.5 for a 6-cM interval between markers D20S195 and D20S107. There was no evidence for heterogeneity in our sample. In our view, these results indicate strong evidence for linkage and suggest the presence of a major GD-susceptibility gene on chromosome 20q11.2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Tomer
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, USA.
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