Endothelin signalling in iridophore development and stripe pattern formation of zebrafish

Distinct genetic origins of eumelanin levels and barring patterns in cichlid fishes

Pigment patterns are incredibly diverse across vertebrates and are shaped by multiple selective pressures from predator avoidance to mate choice. A common pattern across fishes, but for which we know little about the underlying mechanisms, is repeated melanic vertical bars. To understand the genetic factors that modify the level or pattern of vertical barring, we generated a genetic cross of 322 F2 hybrids between two cichlid species with distinct barring patterns, Aulonocara koningsi and Metriaclima mbenjii. We identify 48 significant quantitative trait loci that underlie a series of seven phenotypes related to the relative pigmentation intensity, and four traits related to patterning of the vertical bars. We find that genomic regions that generate variation in the level of eumelanin produced are largely independent of those that control the spacing of vertical bars. Candidate genes within these intervals include novel genes and those newly-associated with vertical bars, which could affect melanophore survival, fate decisions, pigment biosynthesis, and pigment distribution. Together, this work provides insights into the regulation of pigment diversity, with direct implications for an animal's fitness and the speciation process.

Endothelin signaling in development

Since the discovery of endothelin 1 (EDN1) in 1988, the role of endothelin ligands and their receptors in the regulation of blood pressure in normal and disease states has been extensively studied. However, endothelin signaling also plays crucial roles in the development of neural crest cell-derived tissues. Mechanisms of endothelin action during neural crest cell maturation have been deciphered using a variety of in vivo and in vitro approaches, with these studies elucidating the basis of human syndromes involving developmental differences resulting from altered endothelin signaling. In this Review, we describe the endothelin pathway and its functions during the development of neural crest-derived tissues. We also summarize how dysregulated endothelin signaling causes developmental differences and how this knowledge may lead to potential treatments for individuals with gene variants in the endothelin pathway.

Genetics and biology of coloration in reptiles: the curious case of the Lemon Frost geckos

Although there are more than 10,000 reptile species, and reptiles have historically contributed to our understanding of biology, genetics research into class Reptilia has lagged compared with other animals. Here, we summarize recent progress in genetics of coloration in reptiles, with a focus on the leopard gecko, Eublepharis macularius. We highlight genetic approaches that have been used to examine variation in color and pattern formation in this species as well as to provide insights into mechanisms underlying skin cancer. We propose that their long breeding history in captivity makes leopard geckos one of the most promising emerging reptilian models for genetic studies. More broadly, technological advances in genetics, genomics, and gene editing may herald a golden era for studies of reptile biology.

Transcriptomic profiling of tissue environments critical for post-embryonic patterning and morphogenesis of zebrafish skin

Pigment patterns and skin appendages are prominent features of vertebrate skin. In zebrafish, regularly patterned pigment stripes and an array of calcified scales form simultaneously in the skin during post-embryonic development. Understanding the mechanisms that regulate stripe patterning and scale morphogenesis may lead to the discovery of fundamental mechanisms that govern the development of animal form. To learn about cell types and signaling interactions that govern skin patterning and morphogenesis, we generated and analyzed single-cell transcriptomes of skin from wild-type fish as well as fish having genetic or transgenically induced defects in squamation or pigmentation. These data reveal a previously undescribed population of epidermal cells that express transcripts encoding enamel matrix proteins, suggest hormonal control of epithelial-mesenchymal signaling, clarify the signaling network that governs scale papillae development, and identify a critical role for the hypodermis in supporting pigment cell development. Additionally, these comprehensive single-cell transcriptomic data representing skin phenotypes of biomedical relevance should provide a useful resource for accelerating the discovery of mechanisms that govern skin development and homeostasis.

Distinct genetic origins of eumelanin intensity and barring patterns in cichlid fishes

Pigment patterns are incredibly diverse across vertebrates and are shaped by multiple selective pressures from predator avoidance to mate choice. A common pattern across fishes, but for which we know little about the underlying mechanisms, is repeated melanic vertical bars. In order to understand genetic factors that modify the level or pattern of vertical barring, we generated a genetic cross of 322 F2 hybrids between two cichlid species with distinct barring patterns, Aulonocara koningsi and Metriaclima mbenjii. We identify 48 significant quantitative trait loci that underlie a series of seven phenotypes related to the relative pigmentation intensity, and four traits related to patterning of the vertical bars. We find that genomic regions that generate variation in the level of eumelanin produced are largely independent of those that control the spacing of vertical bars. Candidate genes within these intervals include novel genes and those newly-associated with vertical bars, which could affect melanophore survival, fate decisions, pigment biosynthesis, and pigment distribution. Together, this work provides insights into the regulation of pigment diversity, with direct implications for an animal's fitness and the speciation process.

Genetic mapping and molecular mechanism behind color variation in the Asian vine snake

BACKGROUND

Reptiles exhibit a wide variety of skin colors, which serve essential roles in survival and reproduction. However, the molecular basis of these conspicuous colors remains unresolved.

RESULTS

We investigate color morph-enriched Asian vine snakes (Ahaetulla prasina), to explore the mechanism underpinning color variations. Transmission electron microscopy imaging and metabolomics analysis indicates that chromatophore morphology (mainly iridophores) is the main basis for differences in skin color. Additionally, we assemble a 1.77-Gb high-quality chromosome-anchored genome of the snake. Genome-wide association study and RNA sequencing reveal a conservative amino acid substitution (p.P20S) in SMARCE1, which may be involved in the regulation of chromatophore development initiated from neural crest cells. SMARCE1 knockdown in zebrafish and immunofluorescence verify the interactions among SMARCE1, iridophores, and tfec, which may determine color variations in the Asian vine snake.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reveals the genetic associations of color variation in Asian vine snakes, providing insights and important resources for a deeper understanding of the molecular and genetic mechanisms related to reptilian coloration.

Cell Fate Decisions in the Neural Crest, from Pigment Cell to Neural Development

The neural crest shows an astonishing multipotency, generating multiple neural derivatives, but also pigment cells, skeletogenic and other cell types. The question of how this process is controlled has been the subject of an ongoing debate for more than 35 years. Based upon new observations of zebrafish pigment cell development, we have recently proposed a novel, dynamic model that we believe goes some way to resolving the controversy. Here, we will firstly summarize the traditional models and the conflicts between them, before outlining our novel model. We will also examine our recent dynamic modelling studies, looking at how these reveal behaviors compatible with the biology proposed. We will then outline some of the implications of our model, looking at how it might modify our views of the processes of fate specification, differentiation, and commitment.

Genetics of white color and iridophoroma in "Lemon Frost" leopard geckos

The squamates (lizards and snakes) are close relatives of birds and mammals, with more than 10,000 described species that display extensive variation in a number of important biological traits, including coloration, venom production, and regeneration. Due to a lack of genomic tools, few genetic studies in squamates have been carried out. The leopard gecko, Eublepharis macularius, is a popular companion animal, and displays a variety of coloration patterns. We took advantage of a large breeding colony and used linkage analysis, synteny, and homozygosity mapping to investigate a spontaneous semi-dominant mutation, “Lemon Frost”, that produces white coloration and causes skin tumors (iridophoroma). We localized the mutation to a single locus which contains a strong candidate gene, SPINT1, a tumor suppressor implicated in human skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) and over-proliferation of epithelial cells in mice and zebrafish. Our work establishes the leopard gecko as a tractable genetic system and suggests that a tumor suppressor in melanocytes in humans can also suppress tumor development in iridophores in lizards.

The squamates (lizards and snakes) comprise a diverse group of reptiles, with more than 10,000 described species that display extensive variation in a number of important biological traits, including coloration. In this manuscript, we used quantitative genetics and genomics to map the mutation underlying white coloration in the Lemon Frost morph of the common leopard gecko, Eublepharis macularius. Lemon Frost geckos have increased white body coloration with brightened yellow and orange areas. This morph also displays a high incidence of iridophoroma, a tumor of white-colored cells. We obtained phenotype information and DNA samples from geckos in a large breeding colony and used genome sequencing and genetic linkage analysis to localize the Lemon Frost mutation to a single locus. This locus contains a strong candidate gene, SPINT1, a tumor suppressor implicated in human skin cutaneous melanoma. Together with other recent advances, our work brings reptiles into the modern genetics era.

Variation on a theme: pigmentation variants and mutants of anemonefish

Pigmentation patterning systems are of great interest to understand how changes in developmental mechanisms can lead to a wide variety of patterns. These patterns are often conspicuous, but their origins remain elusive for many marine fish species. Dismantling a biological system allows a better understanding of the required components and the deciphering of how such complex systems are established and function. Valuable information can be obtained from detailed analyses and comparisons of pigmentation patterns of mutants and/or variants from normal patterns. Anemonefishes have been popular marine fish in aquaculture for many years, which has led to the isolation of several mutant lines, and in particular color alterations, that have become very popular in the pet trade. Additionally, scattered information about naturally occurring aberrant anemonefish is available on various websites and image platforms. In this review, the available information on anemonefish color pattern alterations has been gathered and compiled in order to characterize and compare different mutations. With the global picture of anemonefish mutants and variants emerging from this, such as presence or absence of certain phenotypes, information on the patterning system itself can be gained.

P-Glycoprotein Inhibitor Tariquidar Plays an Important Regulatory Role in Pigmentation in Larval Zebrafish

Zebrafish has emerged as a powerful model in studies dealing with pigment development and pathobiology of pigment diseases. Due to its conserved pigment pattern with established genetic background, the zebrafish is used for screening of active compounds influencing melanophore, iridophore, and xanthophore development and differentiation. In our study, zebrafish embryos and larvae were used to investigate the influence of third-generation noncompetitive P-glycoprotein inhibitor, tariquidar (TQR), on pigmentation, including phenotype effects and changes in gene expression of chosen chromatophore differentiation markers. Five-day exposure to increasing TQR concentrations (1 µM, 10 µM, and 50 µM) resulted in a dose-dependent augmentation of the area covered with melanophores but a reduction in the area covered by iridophores. The observations were performed in three distinct regions-the eye, dorsal head, and tail. Moreover, TQR enhanced melanophore renewal after depigmentation caused by 0.2 mM 1-phenyl-2-thiourea (PTU) treatment. qPCR analysis performed in 56-h post-fertilization (hpf) embryos demonstrated differential expression patterns of genes related to pigment development and differentiation. The most substantial findings include those indicating that TQR had no significant influence on leukocyte tyrosine kinase, GTP cyclohydrolase 2, tyrosinase-related protein 1, and forkhead box D3, however, markedly upregulated tyrosinase, dopachrome tautomerase and melanocyte inducing transcription factor, and downregulated purine nucleoside phosphorylase 4a. The present study suggests that TQR is an agent with multidirectional properties toward pigment cell formation and distribution in the zebrafish larvae and therefore points to the involvement of P-glycoprotein in this process.

In situ differentiation of iridophore crystallotypes underlies zebrafish stripe patterning

Skin color patterns are ubiquitous in nature, impact social behavior, predator avoidance, and protection from ultraviolet irradiation. A leading model system for vertebrate skin patterning is the zebrafish; its alternating blue stripes and yellow interstripes depend on light-reflecting cells called iridophores. It was suggested that the zebrafish’s color pattern arises from a single type of iridophore migrating differentially to stripes and interstripes. However, here we find that iridophores do not migrate between stripes and interstripes but instead differentiate and proliferate in-place, based on their micro-environment. RNA-sequencing analysis further reveals that stripe and interstripe iridophores have different transcriptomic states, while cryogenic-scanning-electron-microscopy and micro-X-ray diffraction identify different crystal-arrays architectures, indicating that stripe and interstripe iridophores are different cell types. Based on these results, we present an alternative model of skin patterning in zebrafish in which distinct iridophore crystallotypes containing specialized, physiologically responsive, organelles arise in stripe and interstripe by in-situ differentiation.

The skin of zebrafish is patterned by alternating blue stripes and yellow interstripes which arises from guanine crystal-containing cells called iridophores that reflect light. Here the authors track iridophores and see that they do not migrate between stripes and interstripes, but instead differentiate and proliferate in place based on their micro-environment.

Genetics and Evolution of Mammalian Coat Pigmentation

The diversity of mammalian coat colors, and their potential adaptive significance, have long fascinated scientists as well as the general public. The recent decades have seen substantial improvement in our understanding of their genetic bases and evolutionary relevance, revealing novel insights into the complex interplay of forces that influence these phenotypes. At the same time, many aspects remain poorly known, hampering a comprehensive understanding of these phenomena. Here we review the current state of this field and indicate topics that should be the focus of additional research. We devote particular attention to two aspects of mammalian pigmentation, melanism and pattern formation, highlighting recent advances and outstanding challenges, and proposing novel syntheses of available information. For both specific areas, and for pigmentation in general, we attempt to lay out recommendations for establishing novel model systems and integrated research programs that target the genetics and evolution of these phenotypes throughout the Mammalia.

Evolution of the endothelin pathway drove neural crest cell diversification

Neural crest cells (NCCs) are migratory, multipotent embryonic cells that are unique to vertebrates and form an array of clade-defining adult features. The evolution of NCCs has been linked to various genomic events, including the evolution of new gene-regulatory networks^1,2, the de novo evolution of genes³ and the proliferation of paralogous genes during genome-wide duplication events⁴. However, conclusive functional evidence linking new and/or duplicated genes to NCC evolution is lacking. Endothelin ligands (Edns) and endothelin receptors (Ednrs) are unique to vertebrates^3,5,6, and regulate multiple aspects of NCC development in jawed vertebrates^7-10. Here, to test whether the evolution of Edn signalling was a driver of NCC evolution, we used CRISPR-Cas9 mutagenesis¹¹ to disrupt edn, ednr and dlx genes in the sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus. Lampreys are jawless fishes that last shared a common ancestor with modern jawed vertebrates around 500 million years ago¹². Thus, comparisons between lampreys and gnathostomes can identify deeply conserved and evolutionarily flexible features of vertebrate development. Using the frog Xenopus laevis to expand gnathostome phylogenetic representation and facilitate side-by-side analyses, we identify ancient and lineage-specific roles for Edn signalling. These findings suggest that Edn signalling was activated in NCCs before duplication of the vertebrate genome. Then, after one or more genome-wide duplications in the vertebrate stem, paralogous Edn pathways functionally diverged, resulting in NCC subpopulations with different Edn signalling requirements. We posit that this new developmental modularity facilitated the independent evolution of NCC derivatives in stem vertebrates. Consistent with this, differences in Edn pathway targets are associated with differences in the oropharyngeal skeleton and autonomic nervous system of lampreys and modern gnathostomes. In summary, our work provides functional genetic evidence linking the origin and duplication of new vertebrate genes with the stepwise evolution of a defining vertebrate novelty.

A quantitative modelling approach to zebrafish pigment pattern formation

Pattern formation is a key aspect of development. Adult zebrafish exhibit a striking striped pattern generated through the self-organisation of three different chromatophores. Numerous investigations have revealed a multitude of individual cell-cell interactions important for this self-organisation, but it has remained unclear whether these known biological rules were sufficient to explain pattern formation. To test this, we present an individual-based mathematical model incorporating all the important cell-types and known interactions. The model qualitatively and quantitatively reproduces wild type and mutant pigment pattern development. We use it to resolve a number of outstanding biological uncertainties, including the roles of domain growth and the initial iridophore stripe, and to generate hypotheses about the functions of leopard. We conclude that our rule-set is sufficient to recapitulate wild-type and mutant patterns. Our work now leads the way for further in silico exploration of the developmental and evolutionary implications of this pigment patterning system.

Zebrafish Pigment Pattern Formation: Insights into the Development and Evolution of Adult Form

Vertebrate pigment patterns are diverse and fascinating adult traits that allow animals to recognize conspecifics, attract mates, and avoid predators. Pigment patterns in fish are among the most amenable traits for studying the cellular basis of adult form, as the cells that produce diverse patterns are readily visible in the skin during development. The genetic basis of pigment pattern development has been most studied in the zebrafish, Danio rerio. Zebrafish adults have alternating dark and light horizontal stripes, resulting from the precise arrangement of three main classes of pigment cells: black melanophores, yellow xanthophores, and iridescent iridophores. The coordination of adult pigment cell lineage specification and differentiation with specific cellular interactions and morphogenetic behaviors is necessary for stripe development. Besides providing a nice example of pattern formation responsible for an adult trait of zebrafish, stripe-forming mechanisms also provide a conceptual framework for posing testable hypotheses about pattern diversification more broadly. Here, we summarize what is known about lineages and molecular interactions required for pattern formation in zebrafish, we review some of what is known about pattern diversification in Danio, and we speculate on how patterns in more distant teleosts may have evolved to produce a stunningly diverse array of patterns in nature.

Endothelin signalling mediates experience-dependent myelination in the CNS

Experience and changes in neuronal activity can alter CNS myelination, but the signalling pathways responsible remain poorly understood. Here we define a pathway in which endothelin, signalling through the G protein-coupled receptor endothelin receptor B and PKC epsilon, regulates the number of myelin sheaths formed by individual oligodendrocytes in mouse and zebrafish. We show that this phenotype is also observed in the prefrontal cortex of mice following social isolation, and is associated with reduced expression of vascular endothelin. Additionally, we show that increasing endothelin signalling rescues this myelination defect caused by social isolation. Together, these results indicate that the vasculature responds to changes in neuronal activity associated with experience by regulating endothelin levels, which in turn affect the myelinating capacity of oligodendrocytes. This pathway may be employed to couple the metabolic support function of myelin to activity-dependent demand and also represents a novel mechanism for adaptive myelination.

The identification of genes involved in the evolution of color patterns in fish

The genetic basis of morphological variation, both within and between species, provides a major topic in evolutionary biology. Teleost fish produce most elaborate color patterns, and among the more than 20000 species a number have been chosen for more detailed analyses because they are suitable to study particular aspects of color pattern evolution. In several fish species, color variants and pattern variants have been collected, transcriptome analyses have been carried out, and the recent advent of gene editing tools, such as CRISPR/Cas9, has allowed the production of mutants. Covering mostly the literature from the last three years, we discuss the cellular basis of coloration and the identification of loci involved in color pattern differences between sister species in cichlids and Danio species, in which cis-regulatory changes seem to prevail.

News from the endothelin-3/EDNRB signaling pathway: Role during enteric nervous system development and involvement in neural crest-associated disorders

The endothelin system is a vertebrate-specific innovation with important roles in regulating the cardiovascular system and renal and pulmonary processes, as well as the development of the vertebrate-specific neural crest cell population and its derivatives. This system is comprised of three structurally similar 21-amino acid peptides that bind and activate two G-protein coupled receptors. In 1994, knockouts of the Edn3 and Ednrb genes revealed their crucial function during development of the enteric nervous system and melanocytes, two neural-crest derivatives. Since then, human and mouse genetics, combined with cellular and developmental studies, have helped to unravel the role of this signaling pathway during development and adulthood. In this review, we will summarize the known functions of the EDN3/EDNRB pathway during neural crest development, with a specific focus on recent scientific advances, and the enteric nervous system in normal and pathological conditions.

ALKALs are in vivo ligands for ALK family receptor tyrosine kinases in the neural crest and derived cells

Neuroblastoma is a pediatric tumor arising from the neural crest. Dysregulation of the receptor tyrosine kinase ALK has been linked to neuroblastoma, making it important to understand its function in native conditions. In zebrafish, a related receptor—Ltk—is also expressed in neural crest and regulates development of specific pigment cells—iridophores. Ligands activating human ALK were recently identified as the ALKAL proteins (FAM150, AUG) by biochemical means. Our data show that this ligand–receptor pair functions in vivo in the neural crest of zebrafish to drive development of iridophores. Removal of Ltk or all three zebrafish ALKALs results in larvae completely lacking these cells. Using Drosophila and human cell lines, we show evolutionary conservation of this important interaction.

Mutations in anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) are implicated in somatic and familial neuroblastoma, a pediatric tumor of neural crest-derived tissues. Recently, biochemical analyses have identified secreted small ALKAL proteins (FAM150, AUG) as potential ligands for human ALK and the related leukocyte tyrosine kinase (LTK). In the zebrafish Danio rerio, DrLtk, which is similar to human ALK in sequence and domain structure, controls the development of iridophores, neural crest-derived pigment cells. Hence, the zebrafish system allows studying Alk/Ltk and Alkals involvement in neural crest regulation in vivo. Using zebrafish pigment pattern formation, Drosophila eye patterning, and cell culture-based assays, we show that zebrafish Alkals potently activate zebrafish Ltk and human ALK driving downstream signaling events. Overexpression of the three DrAlkals cause ectopic iridophore development, whereas loss-of-function alleles lead to spatially distinct patterns of iridophore loss in zebrafish larvae and adults. alkal loss-of-function triple mutants completely lack iridophores and are larval lethal as is the case for ltk null mutants. Our results provide in vivo evidence of (i) activation of ALK/LTK family receptors by ALKALs and (ii) an involvement of these ligand–receptor complexes in neural crest development.

Zebrafish as a Model Organism for the Development of Drugs for Skin Cancer

Skin cancer, which includes melanoma and squamous cell carcinoma, represents the most common type of cutaneous malignancy worldwide, and its incidence is expected to rise in the near future. This condition derives from acquired genetic dysregulation of signaling pathways involved in the proliferation and apoptosis of skin cells. The development of animal models has allowed a better understanding of these pathomechanisms, with the possibility of carrying out toxicological screening and drug development. In particular, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) has been established as one of the most important model organisms for cancer research. This model is particularly suitable for live cell imaging and high-throughput drug screening in a large-scale fashion. Thanks to the recent advances in genome editing, such as the clustered regularly-interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) methodologies, the mechanisms associated with cancer development and progression, as well as drug resistance can be investigated and comprehended. With these unique tools, the zebrafish represents a powerful platform for skin cancer research in the development of target therapies. Here, we will review the advantages of using the zebrafish model for drug discovery and toxicological and phenotypical screening. We will focus in detail on the most recent progress in the field of zebrafish model generation for the study of melanoma and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), including cancer cell injection and transgenic animal development. Moreover, we will report the latest compounds and small molecules under investigation in melanoma zebrafish models.

Koi Fish-Scale Iridophore Cells Orient Guanine Crystals to Maximize Light Reflection

Fish-scale iridophore cells deposit guanine crystals and assemble them into multilayer reflectors to produce silvery reflectance. The crystal orientation controls the reflective properties of the fish scales, but little is known about the degree of orientation of the guanine crystals and whether this orientation is pre-determined at the level of an individual cell. Koi fish-scale-attached iridophores, iridophores on regenerated scales, and cultured iridophores were examined by using light microscopy and synchrotron micro-X-ray diffraction. More than 95 % of the thin {100} guanine crystal plates in the iridophores of the mature and regenerated scales are oriented parallel to the scale surface and perpendicular to the direction of the incoming light. More than 70 % of the crystals in cultured iridophore cells are also in this orientation. The crystals are elongated and within each cell on the mature scale and in the cultured cells the long morphological axes are well aligned with the long axis of the iridophore. In contrast to the cultured iridophores, in the mature scale the iridophore cells are co-aligned with each other. Cultured iridophores are flexible and motile, and azimuthal crystal orientations vary as the cells move. We conclude that iridophore cells function as independent units and that the control over crystal orientation is pre-determined at the individual cell level in the direction that is essential for function, namely, exposing the large reflecting crystal surface to light.

Gain-of-function mutations in Aqp3a influence zebrafish pigment pattern formation through the tissue environment

The development of the pigmentation pattern in zebrafish is a tightly regulated process that depends on both the self-organizing properties of pigment cells and extrinsic cues from other tissues. Many of the known mutations that alter the pattern act cell-autonomously in pigment cells, and our knowledge about external regulators is limited. Here, we describe novel zebrafish mau mutants, which encompass several dominant missense mutations in Aquaporin 3a (Aqp3a) that lead to broken stripes and short fins. A loss-of-function aqp3a allele, generated by CRISPR-Cas9, has no phenotypic consequences, demonstrating that Aqp3a is dispensable for normal development. Strikingly, the pigment cells from dominant mau mutants are capable of forming a wild-type pattern when developing in a wild-type environment, but the surrounding tissues in the mutants influence pigment cell behaviour and interfere with the patterning process. The mutated amino acid residues in the dominant alleles line the pore surface of Aqp3a and influence pore permeability. These results demonstrate an important effect of the tissue environment on pigment cell behaviour and, thereby, on pattern formation.

Summary: Dominant mutations in the water channel Aquaporin 3a cause defective pigment patterning in zebrafish, due at least in part to an effect of the mutant tissue environment on the pigment cells.

Nkx2.5 regulates endothelin converting enzyme-1 during pharyngeal arch patterning

In gnathostomes, dorsoventral (D-V) patterning of neural crest cells (NCC) within the pharyngeal arches is crucial for the development of hinged jaws. One of the key signals that mediate this process is Endothelin-1 (EDN1). Loss of EDN1 binding to the Endothelin-A receptor (EDNRA) results in loss of EDNRA signaling and subsequent facial birth defects in humans, mice and zebrafish. A rate-limiting step in this crucial signaling pathway is the conversion of immature EDN1 into a mature active form by Endothelin converting enzyme-1 (ECE1). However, surprisingly little is known about how Ece1 transcription is induced or regulated. We show here that Nkx2.5 is required for proper craniofacial development in zebrafish and acts in part by upregulating ece1 expression. Disruption of nkx2.5 in zebrafish embryos results in defects in both ventral and dorsal pharyngeal arch-derived elements, with changes in ventral arch gene expression consistent with a disruption in Ednra signaling. ece1 mRNA rescues the nkx2.5 morphant phenotype, indicating that Nkx2.5 functions through modulating Ece1 expression or function. These studies illustrate a new function for Nkx2.5 in embryonic development and provide new avenues with which to pursue potential mechanisms underlying human facial disorders.

Microenvironment-derived factors driving metastatic plasticity in melanoma

Cellular plasticity is a state in which cancer cells exist along a reversible phenotypic spectrum, and underlies key traits such as drug resistance and metastasis. Melanoma plasticity is linked to phenotype switching, where the microenvironment induces switches between invasive/MITF^LO versus proliferative/MITF^HI states. Since MITF also induces pigmentation, we hypothesize that macrometastatic success should be favoured by microenvironments that induce a MITF^HI/differentiated/proliferative state. Zebrafish imaging demonstrates that after extravasation, melanoma cells become pigmented and enact a gene expression program of melanocyte differentiation. We screened for microenvironmental factors leading to phenotype switching, and find that EDN3 induces a state that is both proliferative and differentiated. CRISPR-mediated inactivation of EDN3, or its synthetic enzyme ECE2, from the microenvironment abrogates phenotype switching and increases animal survival. These results demonstrate that after metastatic dissemination, the microenvironment provides signals to promote phenotype switching and provide proof that targeting tumour cell plasticity is a viable therapeutic opportunity.

Phenotype switching is a form of plasticity that allows melanoma cancer cells that leave the primary tumour to invade secondary sites, to switch from an invasive to a proliferative state. Here the authors identify EDN3, and its synthetic enzyme ECE2, as a regulator of melanoma plasticity in the microenvironment.

Identification of Mutant Genes and Introgressed Tiger Salamander DNA in the Laboratory Axolotl, Ambystoma mexicanum

The molecular genetic toolkit of the Mexican axolotl, a classic model organism, has matured to the point where it is now possible to identify genes for mutant phenotypes. We used a positional cloning-candidate gene approach to identify molecular bases for two historic axolotl pigment phenotypes: white and albino. White (d/d) mutants have defects in pigment cell morphogenesis and differentiation, whereas albino (a/a) mutants lack melanin. We identified in white mutants a transcriptional defect in endothelin 3 (edn3), encoding a peptide factor that promotes pigment cell migration and differentiation in other vertebrates. Transgenic restoration of Edn3 expression rescued the homozygous white mutant phenotype. We mapped the albino locus to tyrosinase (tyr) and identified polymorphisms shared between the albino allele (tyr a ) and tyr alleles in a Minnesota population of tiger salamanders from which the albino trait was introgressed. tyr a has a 142 bp deletion and similar engineered alleles recapitulated the albino phenotype. Finally, we show that historical introgression of tyr a significantly altered genomic composition of the laboratory axolotl, yielding a distinct, hybrid strain of ambystomatid salamander. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of identifying genes for traits in the laboratory Mexican axolotl.

A gene expression study of dorso-ventrally restricted pigment pattern in adult fins of Neolamprologus meeli, an African cichlid species

Fish color patterns are among the most diverse phenotypic traits found in the animal kingdom. Understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms that control in chromatophore distribution and pigmentation underlying this diversity is a major goal in developmental and evolutionary biology, which has predominantly been pursued in the zebrafish model system. Here, we apply results from zebrafish work to study a naturally occurring color pattern phenotype in the fins of an African cichlid species from Lake Tanganyika. The cichlid fish Neolamprologus meeli displays a distinct dorsal color pattern, with black and white stripes along the edges of the dorsal fin and of the dorsal half of the caudal fin, corresponding with differences in melanophore density. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms controlling the differences in dorsal and ventral color patterning in the fins, we quantitatively assessed the expression of 15 candidate target genes involved in adult zebrafish pigmentation and stripe formation. For reference gene validation, we screened the expression stability of seven widely expressed genes across the investigated tissue samples and identified tbp as appropriate reference. Relative expression levels of the candidate target genes were compared between the dorsal, striped fin regions and the corresponding uniform, grey-colored regions in the anal and ventral caudal fin. Dorso-ventral expression differences, with elevated levels in both white and black stripes, were observed in two genes, the melanosome protein coding gene pmel and in igsf11, which affects melanophore adhesion, migration and survival. Next, we predicted potential shared upstream regulators of pmel and igsf11. Testing the expression patterns of six predicted transcriptions factors revealed dorso-ventral expression difference of irf1 and significant, negative expression correlation of irf1 with both pmel and igsf11. Based on these results, we propose pmel, igsf11 and irf1 as likely components of the genetic mechanism controlling distinct dorso-ventral color patterns in N. meeli fins.

Zebrafish adult pigment stem cells are multipotent and form pigment cells by a progressive fate restriction process: Clonal analysis identifies shared origin of all pigment cell types

Skin pigment pattern formation is a paradigmatic example of pattern formation. In zebrafish, the adult body stripes are generated by coordinated rearrangement of three distinct pigment cell-types, black melanocytes, shiny iridophores and yellow xanthophores. A stem cell origin of melanocytes and iridophores has been proposed although the potency of those stem cells has remained unclear. Xanthophores, however, seemed to originate predominantly from proliferation of embryonic xanthophores. Now, data from Singh et al. shows that all three cell-types derive from shared stem cells, and that these cells generate peripheral neural cell-types too. Furthermore, clonal compositions are best explained by a progressive fate restriction model generating the individual cell-types. The numbers of adult pigment stem cells associated with the dorsal root ganglia remain low, but progenitor numbers increase significantly during larval development up to metamorphosis, likely via production of partially restricted progenitors on the spinal nerves.

Heterotypic interactions regulate cell shape and density during color pattern formation in zebrafish

The conspicuous striped coloration of zebrafish is produced by cell-cell interactions among three different types of chromatophores: black melanophores, orange/yellow xanthophores and silvery/blue iridophores. During color pattern formation xanthophores undergo dramatic cell shape transitions and acquire different densities, leading to compact and orange xanthophores at high density in the light stripes, and stellate, faintly pigmented xanthophores at low density in the dark stripes. Here, we investigate the mechanistic basis of these cell behaviors in vivo, and show that local, heterotypic interactions with dense iridophores regulate xanthophore cell shape transition and density. Genetic analysis reveals a cell-autonomous requirement of gap junctions composed of Cx41.8 and Cx39.4 in xanthophores for their iridophore-dependent cell shape transition and increase in density in light-stripe regions. Initial melanophore-xanthophore interactions are independent of these gap junctions; however, subsequently they are also required to induce the acquisition of stellate shapes in xanthophores of the dark stripes. In summary, we conclude that, whereas homotypic interactions regulate xanthophore coverage in the skin, their cell shape transitions and density is regulated by gap junction-mediated, heterotypic interactions with iridophores and melanophores.

Summary: The conspicuous pigmentation pattern of zebrafish is produced by three kinds of interacting pigment cells. Here we address the cellular consequences of these interactions in wild-type fish and mutants with altered pigment patterns.

Embryonic expression of endothelins and their receptors in lamprey and frog reveals stem vertebrate origins of complex Endothelin signaling

Neural crest cells (NCCs) are highly patterned embryonic cells that migrate along stereotyped routes to give rise to a diverse array of adult tissues and cell types. Modern NCCs are thought to have evolved from migratory neural precursors with limited developmental potential and patterning. How this occurred is poorly understood. Endothelin signaling regulates several aspects of NCC development, including their migration, differentiation, and patterning. In jawed vertebrates, Endothelin signaling involves multiple functionally distinct ligands (Edns) and receptors (Ednrs) expressed in various NCC subpopulations. To test the potential role of endothelin signaling diversification in the evolution of modern, highly patterned NCC, we analyzed the expression of the complete set of endothelin ligands and receptors in the jawless vertebrate, the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus). To better understand ancestral features of gnathostome edn and ednr expression, we also analyzed all known Endothelin signaling components in the African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis). We found that the sea lamprey has a gnathsotome-like complement of edn and ednr duplicates, and these genes are expressed in patterns highly reminiscent of their gnathostome counterparts. Our results suggest that the duplication and specialization of vertebrate Endothelin signaling coincided with the appearance of highly patterned and multipotent NCCs in stem vertebrates.

Spermidine, but not spermine, is essential for pigment pattern formation in zebrafish

Polyamines are small poly-cations essential for all cellular life. The main polyamines present in metazoans are putrescine, spermidine and spermine. Their exact functions are still largely unclear; however, they are involved in a wide variety of processes affecting cell growth, proliferation, apoptosis and aging. Here we identify idefix, a mutation in the zebrafish gene encoding the enzyme spermidine synthase, leading to a severe reduction in spermidine levels as shown by capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry. We show that spermidine, but not spermine, is essential for early development, organogenesis and colour pattern formation. Whereas in other vertebrates spermidine deficiency leads to very early embryonic lethality, maternally provided spermidine synthase in zebrafish is sufficient to rescue the early developmental defects. This allows us to uncouple them from events occurring later during colour patterning. Factors involved in the cellular interactions essential for colour patterning, likely targets for spermidine, are the gap junction components Cx41.8, Cx39.4, and Kir7.1, an inwardly rectifying potassium channel, all known to be regulated by polyamines. Thus, zebrafish provide a vertebrate model to study the in vivo effects of polyamines.

Summary: We show that the polyamine spermidine, but not spermine, in addition to more general functions during early development, also specifically regulates colour pattern formation in adult zebrafish.

Enteric nervous system development in avian and zebrafish models

Our current understanding of the developmental biology of the enteric nervous system (ENS) and the genesis of ENS diseases is founded almost entirely on studies using model systems. Although genetic studies in the mouse have been at the forefront of this field over the last 20 years or so, historically it was the easy accessibility of the chick embryo for experimental manipulations that allowed the first descriptions of the neural crest origins of the ENS in the 1950s. More recently, studies in the chick and other non-mammalian model systems, notably zebrafish, have continued to advance our understanding of the basic biology of ENS development, with each animal model providing unique experimental advantages. Here we review the basic biology of ENS development in chick and zebrafish, highlighting conserved and unique features, and emphasising novel contributions to our general understanding of ENS development due to technical or biological features.

Homotypic cell competition regulates proliferation and tiling of zebrafish pigment cells during colour pattern formation

The adult striped pattern of zebrafish is composed of melanophores, iridophores and xanthophores arranged in superimposed layers in the skin. Previous studies have revealed that the assembly of pigment cells into stripes involves heterotypic interactions between all three chromatophore types. Here we investigate the role of homotypic interactions between cells of the same chromatophore type. Introduction of labelled progenitors into mutants lacking the corresponding cell type allowed us to define the impact of competitive interactions via long-term in vivo imaging. In the absence of endogenous cells, transplanted iridophores and xanthophores show an increased rate of proliferation and spread as a coherent net into vacant space. By contrast, melanophores have a limited capacity to spread in the skin even in the absence of competing endogenous cells. Our study reveals a key role for homotypic competitive interactions in determining number, direction of migration and individual spacing of cells within chromatophore populations.

Modelling stripe formation in zebrafish: an agent-based approach

Zebrafish have distinctive black stripes and yellow interstripes that form owing to the interaction of different pigment cells. We present a two-population agent-based model for the development and regeneration of these stripes and interstripes informed by recent experimental results. Our model describes stripe pattern formation, laser ablation and mutations. We find that fish growth shortens the necessary scale for long-range interactions and that iridophores, a third type of pigment cell, help align stripes and interstripes.

Zebrafish stripes as a model for vertebrate colour pattern formation

Colour patterns are prominent features of many animals and have important functions in communication, such as camouflage, kin recognition and mate choice. As targets for natural as well as sexual selection, they are of high evolutionary significance. The molecular mechanisms underlying colour pattern formation in vertebrates are not well understood. Progress in transgenic tools, in vivo imaging and the availability of a large collection of mutants make the zebrafish (Danio rerio) an attractive model to study vertebrate colouration. Zebrafish display golden and blue horizontal stripes that form during metamorphosis as mosaics of yellow xanthophores, silvery or blue iridophores and black melanophores in the hypodermis. Lineage tracing revealed the origin of the adult pigment cells and their individual cellular behaviours during the formation of the striped pattern. Mutant analysis indicated that interactions between all three pigment cell types are required for the formation of the pattern, and a number of cell surface molecules and signalling systems have been identified as mediators of these interactions. The understanding of the mechanisms that underlie colour pattern formation is an important step towards deciphering the genetic basis of variation in evolution.

Gap junctions composed of connexins 41.8 and 39.4 are essential for colour pattern formation in zebrafish

Interactions between all three pigment cell types are required to form the stripe pattern of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio), but their molecular nature is poorly understood. Mutations in leopard (leo), encoding Connexin 41.8 (Cx41.8), a gap junction subunit, cause a phenotypic series of spotted patterns. A new dominant allele, leo^tK3, leads to a complete loss of the pattern, suggesting a dominant negative impact on another component of gap junctions. In a genetic screen, we identified this component as Cx39.4 (luchs). Loss-of-function alleles demonstrate that luchs is required for stripe formation in zebrafish; however, the fins are almost not affected. Double mutants and chimeras, which show that leo and luchs are only required in xanthophores and melanophores, but not in iridophores, suggest that both connexins form heteromeric gap junctions. The phenotypes indicate that these promote homotypic interactions between melanophores and xanthophores, respectively, and those cells instruct the patterning of the iridophores.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.05125.001

The colour patterns that mark an animal's skin, hair, or feathers—called the pigmentation pattern—can be very important for its survival and fitness, helping it to hide from predators or to attract a mate. As a result, there is considerable interest in understanding how genes, proteins, and cells work together to produce the many different pigmentation patterns that exist in the animal world.

Adult zebrafish have a characteristic pigmentation pattern of horizontal dark and light stripes on their bodies and fins. There are three types of pigment cell that create this pattern. Xanthophores and iridophores are found all over the body, and the dark stripes also contain melanophore cells. The silvery, reflective iridophores are the first of the cells to populate the skin, giving rise to the first light stripe. They then form a dense network of cells that breaks up to form the darker stripes. However, iridophores are not required to form stripes in the fins, suggesting that patterning occurs differently in the fins and the body.

Mutations to a gene called leopard, or leo for short, cause spots to form on the skin of the zebrafish in place of the usual stripes. This gene encodes a member of the connexin family of proteins, which form channels in the membranes that surround cells. These channels—known as gap junctions—allow neighbouring cells to communicate with each other. Each gap junction is made up of two half channels, with one half coming from each neighbouring cells. If the two half channels are identical, the gap junction is known as ‘homomeric’; ‘heteromeric’ gap junctions are made from two different half channels, each consisting of a different connexin protein. The connexin encoded by leo is required for both types of gap junction to form between melanophores and xanthophores.

Irion et al. discovered a new mutation to the leo gene that completely disrupts the patterning of the zebrafish. A technique called a genetic screen revealed that the same patterning defects are also seen in the body of zebrafish with mutations to another gene called luchs, which encodes a different connexin protein to the one produced by leo. However, the fins of zebrafish with mutant versions of luchs remain striped.

The findings of Irion et al. suggest that heteromeric gap junctions formed from the connexins produced by leo and luchs are important for xanthophores and melanophores to communicate with each other and so form the stripy patterning seen on the body of the zebrafish. The signals transmitted through the gap junctions may also make the iridophores adopt the looser arrangement that is required for the dark stripes to form. As a next step, it will be important to identify the signals that pass through these gap junctions that allow the cells to communicate with their neighbours and establish the pigmentation pattern.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.05125.002

Origins of adult pigmentation: diversity in pigment stem cell lineages and implications for pattern evolution

Teleosts comprise about half of all vertebrate species and exhibit an extraordinary diversity of adult pigment patterns that function in shoaling, camouflage, and mate choice and have played important roles in speciation. Here, we review studies that have identified several distinct neural crest lineages, with distinct genetic requirements, that give rise to adult pigment cells in fishes. These lineages include post-embryonic, peripheral nerve-associated stem cells that generate black melanophores and iridescent iridophores, cells derived directly from embryonic neural crest cells that generate yellow-orange xanthophores, and bipotent stem cells that generate both melanophores and xanthophores. This complexity in adult chromatophore lineages has implications for our understanding of adult traits, melanoma, and the evolutionary diversification of pigment cell lineages and patterns.

Evolution of endothelin receptors in vertebrates

Endothelin receptors are G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) of the β-group of rhodopsin receptors that bind to endothelin ligands, which are 21 amino acid long peptides derived from longer prepro-endothelin precursors. The most basal Ednr-like GPCR is found outside vertebrates in the cephalochordate amphioxus, but endothelin ligands are only present among vertebrates, including the lineages of jawless vertebrates (lampreys and hagfishes), cartilaginous vertebrates (sharks, rays, and chimaeras), and bony vertebrates (ray-finned fishes and lobe-finned vertebrates including tetrapods). A bona fide endothelin system is thus a vertebrate-specific innovation with important roles for regulating the cardiovascular system, renal and pulmonary processes, as well as for the development of the vertebrate-specific neural crest cell population and its derivatives. Expectedly, dysregulation of endothelin receptors and the endothelin system leads to a multitude of human diseases. Despite the importance of different types of endothelin receptors for vertebrate development and physiology, current knowledge on endothelin ligand-receptor interactions, on the expression of endothelin receptors and their ligands, and on the functional roles of the endothelin system for embryonic development and in adult vertebrates is very much biased towards amniote vertebrates. Recent analyses from a variety of vertebrate lineages, however, have shown that the endothelin system in lineages such as teleost fish and lampreys is more diverse and is divergent from the mammalian endothelin system. This diversity is mainly based on differential evolution of numerous endothelin system components among vertebrate lineages generated by two rounds of whole genome duplication (three in teleosts) during vertebrate evolution. Here we review current understanding of the evolutionary history of the endothelin receptor family in vertebrates supplemented with surveys on the endothelin receptor gene complement of newly available genome assemblies from phylogenetically informative taxa. Our assessment further highlights the diversity of the vertebrate endothelin system and calls for detailed functional and pharmacological analyses of the endothelin system beyond tetrapods.