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McGuinness C, Britt KL. Estrogen receptor regulation of the immune microenvironment in breast cancer. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2024; 240:106517. [PMID: 38555985 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2024.106517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Breast cancer (BCa) is the most common cancer in women and the estrogen receptor (ER)+ subtype is increasing in incidence. There are numerous therapy options available for patients that target the ER, however issues such as innate and acquired treatment resistance, and treatment related side effects justify research into alternative therapeutic options for these patients. Patients of many solid tumour types have benefitted from immunotherapy, however response rates have been generally low in ER+ BCa. We summarise the recent work assessing CDK4/6 inhibitors for ER+ BCa and how they have been shown to prime anti-tumour immune cells and achieve impressive results in preclinical models. A great example of how the immune system might be activated against ER+ BCa. We review the role of estrogen signalling in immune cells, and explore recent data highlighting the hormonal regulation of the immune microenvironment of normal breast, BCa and immune disorders. As recent data has indicated that macrophages are particularly susceptible to estrogen signalling, we highlight macrophage phagocytosis as a key potential target for priming the tumour immune microenvironment. We challenge the generally accepted paradigm that ER+ BCa are "immune-cold" - advocating instead for research into therapies that could be used in combination with targeted therapies and/or immune checkpoint blockade to achieve durable antitumour responses in ER+ BCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conor McGuinness
- Breast Cancer Risk and Prevention Lab, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan St, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; The Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Kara L Britt
- Breast Cancer Risk and Prevention Lab, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan St, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; The Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
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Silva D, Quintas C, Gonçalves J, Fresco P. β 2-Adrenoceptor Activation Favor Acquisition of Tumorigenic Properties in Non-Tumorigenic MCF-10A Breast Epithelial Cells. Cells 2024; 13:262. [PMID: 38334654 PMCID: PMC10854540 DOI: 10.3390/cells13030262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Noradrenaline and adrenaline, and their cognate receptors, are currently accepted to participate in cancer progression. They may also participate in cancer initiation, although their role in this phase is much less explored. The aim of this work was to study the influence of adrenergic stimulation in several processes related to breast cancer carcinogenesis, using several adrenergic agonists in the MCF-10A non-tumorigenic breast cells. Activation of the β-adrenoceptors promoted an epithelial phenotype in MCF-10A cells, revealed by an increased expression of the epithelial marker E-cadherin and a decrease in the mesenchymal markers, N-cadherin and vimentin. MCF-10A cell motility and migration were also impaired after the β-adrenoceptors activation. Concomitant with this effect, β-adrenoceptors decrease cell protrusions (lamellipodia and filopodia) while increasing cell adhesion. Activation of the β-adrenoceptors also decreases MCF-10A cell proliferation. When the MCF-10A cells were cultured under low attachment conditions, activation the of β- (likely β2) or of α2-adrenoceptors had protective effects against cell death, suggesting a pro-survival role of these adrenoceptors. Overall, our results showed that, in breast cells, adrenoceptor activation (mainly through β-adrenoceptors) may be a risk factor in breast cancer by inducing some cancer hallmarks, providing a mechanistic explanation for the increase in breast cancer incidences that may be associated with conditions that cause massive adrenergic stimulation, such as stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dany Silva
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (D.S.); (C.Q.); (P.F.)
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Clara Quintas
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (D.S.); (C.Q.); (P.F.)
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Jorge Gonçalves
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (D.S.); (C.Q.); (P.F.)
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Paula Fresco
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Drug Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (D.S.); (C.Q.); (P.F.)
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
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3
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Szabo GK, Mogus JP, Vandenberg LN. Effects of perinatal exposures to a TAML catalyst on the mammary gland and hormone-sensitive outcomes in male mice. Reprod Toxicol 2024; 123:108517. [PMID: 38040386 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2023.108517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
Estrogenic chemicals are common pollutants in wastewater and current effluent treatment processes are not typically effective in removing these compounds. Tetra-amido macrocyclic ligands (TAMLs) are catalysts that mimic endogenous peroxidases that may provide a solution to remove environmental pollutants including low concentrations of estrogenic compounds. Yet relatively little is known about the toxicity of TAMLs, and few studies have evaluated whether they may have endocrine disrupting properties. We administered one of three doses of a TAML, NT7, to mice via drinking water throughout pregnancy and lactation. Two pharmacologically active compounds, ethinyl estradiol (EE2) and flutamide were also included to give comparator data for estrogen receptor agonist and androgen receptor antagonist activities. Male pups were evaluated for several outcomes at weaning, puberty, and early adulthood. We found that EE2 exposures during gestation and the perinatal period induced numerous effects that were observed across the three ages including changes to spleen and testis weight and drastic effects on the morphology of the mammary gland. Flutamide had fewer effects but altered anogenital distance at weaning as well as spleen, liver, and kidney weight. In contrast, relatively few effects of NT7 were observed, but included alterations to spleen weight and modest changes to adult testis weight and morphology of the mammary gland at weaning. Collectively, these results provide some of the first evidence suggesting that NT7 may alter some hormone-sensitive outcomes, but that the effects were distinct from either EE2 or flutamide. Additional studies are needed to characterize the biological activity of this and other TAML catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gillian K Szabo
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA
| | - Joshua P Mogus
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA
| | - Laura N Vandenberg
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA.
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4
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Chen Z, Zhao J, Wang C, Liu X, Chen Z, Zhou J, Zhang L, Zhang C, Li H. Epithelial polarity-driven membrane separation but not cavitation regulates lumen formation of rat eccrine sweat glands. Acta Histochem 2023; 125:152093. [PMID: 37757514 DOI: 10.1016/j.acthis.2023.152093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Each eccrine sweat gland (ESG) is a single-tubular structure with a central lumen, and the formation of hollow lumen in the initial solid cell mass is a key developmental process. To date, there are no reports on the mechanism of native ESG lumen formation. METHODS To investigate the lumen morphogenesis and the lumen formation mechanisms of Sprague-Dawley (SD) rat ESGs, SD rat hind-footpads at E20.5, P1-P5, P7, P9, P12, P21, P28 and P56 were obtained. The lumen morphogenesis of ESGs was examined by HE staining and immunofluorescence staining for polarity markers. The possible mechanisms of lumen formation were detected by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) apoptosis assay and autophagy marker LC3B immunofluorescence staining, and further explored by ouabain intervention experiment. RESULTS In SD rat ESGs, the microlumen was formed at P1, and the small intact lumen with apical-basal polarity appeared at P3. The expression of apical marker F-actin, basal marker Laminin, basolateral marker E-cadherin was consistent with the timing of lumen formation of SD rat ESGs. During rat ESG development, apoptosis and autophagy were not detected. However, inhibition of Na+-K+-ATPase (NKA) with ouabain resulted in decreased lumen size, although neither the timing of lumen formation nor the expression of polarity proteins was altered. CONCLUSIONS Epithelial polarity-driven membrane separation but not cavitation regulates lumen formation of SD rat ESGs. NKA-regulated fluid accumulation drives lumen expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zixiu Chen
- Department of Wound Repair and Dermatologic Surgery, Taihe Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine, Jinzhou Medical University Graduate Training Base, Shiyan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Junhong Zhao
- Department of Wound Repair and Dermatologic Surgery, Taihe Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine, Jinzhou Medical University Graduate Training Base, Shiyan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Cangyu Wang
- Department of Wound Repair and Dermatologic Surgery, Taihe Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine, Jinzhou Medical University Graduate Training Base, Shiyan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Xiang Liu
- Department of Wound Repair and Dermatologic Surgery, Taihe Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine, Jinzhou Medical University Graduate Training Base, Shiyan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Zihua Chen
- Department of Wound Repair and Dermatologic Surgery, Taihe Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine, Jinzhou Medical University Graduate Training Base, Shiyan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Jianda Zhou
- Department of Burns and Plastic Surgery, The Third Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Mental Health Center, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province, China.
| | - Cuiping Zhang
- Research Center for Tissue Repair and Regeneration Affiliated to the Medical Innovation Research Department and Fourth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China.
| | - Haihong Li
- Department of Wound Repair and Dermatologic Surgery, Taihe Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine, Jinzhou Medical University Graduate Training Base, Shiyan, Hubei Province, China; Department of Burns and Plastic Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province, China.
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Pfannenstein A, Macara IG. A junction-dependent mechanism drives murine mammary cell intercalation for ductal elongation. Dev Cell 2023; 58:1126-1138.e4. [PMID: 37141887 PMCID: PMC10524519 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2023.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The luminal epithelium of the mammary gland is organized into monolayers; however, it originates from multilayered terminal end buds (TEBs) during development. Although apoptosis provides a plausible mechanism for cavitation of the ductal lumen, it doesn't account for ductal elongation behind TEBs. Spatial calculations in mice suggest that most TEB cells integrate into the outermost luminal layer to generate elongation. We developed a quantitative cell culture assay that models intercalation into epithelial monolayers. We found that tight junction proteins play a key role in this process. ZO-1 puncta form at the new cellular interface and resolve into a new boundary as intercalation proceeds. Deleting ZO-1 suppresses intercalation both in culture and in cells transplanted into mammary glands via intraductal injection. Cytoskeletal rearrangements at the interface are critical for intercalation. These data identify luminal cell rearrangements necessary for mammary development and suggest a mechanism for integration of cells into an existing monolayer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Pfannenstein
- Department of Cell & Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA
| | - Ian G Macara
- Department of Cell & Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA.
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6
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Paramore SV, Goodwin K, Nelson CM. How to build an epithelial tree. Phys Biol 2022; 19. [DOI: 10.1088/1478-3975/ac9e38] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Nature has evolved a variety of mechanisms to build epithelial trees of diverse architectures within different organs and across species. Epithelial trees are elaborated through branch initiation and extension, and their morphogenesis ends with branch termination. Each of these steps of the branching process can be driven by the actions of epithelial cells themselves (epithelial-intrinsic mechanisms) or by the cells of their surrounding tissues (epithelial-extrinsic mechanisms). Here, we describe examples of how these mechanisms drive each stage of branching morphogenesis, drawing primarily from studies of the lung, kidney, salivary gland, mammary gland, and pancreas, all of which contain epithelial trees that form through collective cell behaviors. Much of our understanding of epithelial branching comes from experiments using mice, but we also include examples here from avian and reptilian models. Throughout, we highlight how distinct mechanisms are employed in different organs and species to build epithelial trees. We also highlight how similar morphogenetic motifs are used to carry out conserved developmental programs or repurposed to support novel ones. Understanding the unique strategies used by nature to build branched epithelia from across the tree of life can help to inspire creative solutions to problems in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
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7
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Matouskova K, Szabo GK, Daum J, Fenton SE, Christiansen S, Soto AM, Kay JE, Cardona B, Vandenberg LN. Best practices to quantify the impact of reproductive toxicants on development, function, and diseases of the rodent mammary gland. Reprod Toxicol 2022; 112:51-67. [PMID: 35764275 PMCID: PMC9491517 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2022.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Work from numerous fields of study suggests that exposures to hormonally active chemicals during sensitive windows of development can alter mammary gland development, function, and disease risk. Stronger links between many environmental pollutants and disruptions to breast health continue to be documented in human populations, and there remain concerns that the methods utilized to identify, characterize, and prioritize these chemicals for risk assessment and risk management purposes are insufficient. There are also concerns that effects on the mammary gland have been largely ignored by regulatory agencies. Here, we provide technical guidance that is intended to enhance collection and evaluation of the mammary gland in mice and rats. We review several features of studies that should be controlled to properly evaluate the mammary gland, and then describe methods to appropriately collect the mammary gland from rodents. Furthermore, we discuss methods for preparing whole mounted mammary glands and numerous approaches that are available for the analysis of these samples. Finally, we conclude with several examples where analysis of the mammary gland revealed effects of environmental toxicants at low doses. Our work argues that the rodent mammary gland should be considered in chemical safety, hazard and risk assessments. It also suggests that improved measures of mammary gland outcomes, such as those we present in this review, should be included in the standardized methods evaluated by regulatory agencies such as the test guidelines used for identifying reproductive and developmental toxicants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klara Matouskova
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health & Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA.
| | - Gillian K Szabo
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health & Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Jessica Daum
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health & Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Suzanne E Fenton
- Mechanistic Toxicology Branch, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institutes of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Sofie Christiansen
- National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs, Lyngby DK 2800, Denmark
| | - Ana M Soto
- Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | | | - Laura N Vandenberg
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health & Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA.
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Cellular Senescence in Normal Mammary Gland and Breast Cancer. Implications for Cancer Therapy. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13060994. [PMID: 35741756 PMCID: PMC9223240 DOI: 10.3390/genes13060994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Cellular senescence (CS) is a major homeostatic biological process, which plays a key role in normal tissue development and provides protection from stressful cell insults. The role of CS in mammary-gland development and breast cancer is not well understood. While there is a lack of experimental data on the role of CS in the development of the pre-pubertal mammary gland, there is evidence for a biphasic senescence response in adult normal-mammary-epithelial cells, where the bypass of the first senescence barrier (M0) seems to be a key step in the development of premalignant lesions, with genetic abnormalities that resemble in situ breast carcinoma. Further, there is accumulating evidence for the role of cellular senescence in breast-cancer response, regarding treatment and patient outcome. Here, we review the current literature on cellular senescence, in epithelial-mammary cells, breast-cancer cells, and breast-tumor-microenvironment-resident cells. Furthermore, we discuss its putative role in breast-cancer response, regarding treatment and disease progression. In addition, we provide preliminary evidence of CS in breast-cancer-microenvironment cells, such as tumor-associated fibroblasts and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, by employing the novel GL13 lipofuscin stain, as a marker of cellular senescence.
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Ge Y, Li F, He Y, Cao Y, Guo W, Hu G, Liu J, Fu S. L-arginine stimulates the proliferation of mouse mammary epithelial cells and the development of mammary gland in pubertal mice by activating the GPRC6A/PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling pathway. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2022; 106:1383-1395. [PMID: 35616019 DOI: 10.1111/jpn.13730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Amino acids have been shown to affect the development of mammary gland (MG). However, it is unclear whether L-arginine promotes the development of pubertal MG. Therefore, our study aims to explore the effect of L-arginine on the development of MG in pubertal mice. To investigate its internal mechanism of action, we will use mouse mammary epithelial cells (mMECs) line. Whole-mount staining showed that L-arginine can promote the extension of MG duct. In vitro, 0.4 mM L-arginine could activate the G protein-coupled receptor family C, group 6, subtype A (GPRC6A)/phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling pathway and increase the phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 4E binding protein 1 (4EBP1) to promote the synthesis of cell cycle regulatory protein D1 (Cyclin D1), leading to the dissociation of the retinoblastoma tumour suppressor protein (Rb)-E2F1 transcription factor (E2F1) complex in mMECs and releasing E2F1 to promote cell proliferation. Furthermore, GPRC6A was knocked down or inhibition of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling pathway with corresponding inhibitors completely abolished the arginine-induced promotion of mMECs proliferation. In vivo, it was further confirmed that 0.1% L-arginine can activate the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling pathway in the MG of pubertal mice. These results were able to indicate that L-arginine stimulates the development of MG in pubertal mice through the GPRC6A/PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusong Ge
- Department of Theoretic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Feng Li
- Department of Theoretic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Yuan He
- Department of Theoretic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Yu Cao
- Department of Theoretic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Wenjin Guo
- Department of Theoretic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Guiqiu Hu
- Department of Theoretic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Juxiong Liu
- Department of Theoretic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Shoupeng Fu
- Department of Theoretic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
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The Mammary Gland: Basic Structure and Molecular Signaling during Development. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23073883. [PMID: 35409243 PMCID: PMC8998991 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23073883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammary gland is a compound, branched tubuloalveolar structure and a major characteristic of mammals. The mammary gland has evolved from epidermal apocrine glands, the skin glands as an accessory reproductive organ to support postnatal survival of offspring by producing milk as a source of nutrition. The mammary gland development begins during embryogenesis as a rudimentary structure that grows into an elementary branched ductal tree and is embedded in one end of a larger mammary fat pad at birth. At the onset of ovarian function at puberty, the rudimentary ductal system undergoes dramatic morphogenetic change with ductal elongation and branching. During pregnancy, the alveolar differentiation and tertiary branching are completed, and during lactation, the mature milk-producing glands eventually develop. The early stages of mammary development are hormonal independent, whereas during puberty and pregnancy, mammary gland development is hormonal dependent. We highlight the current understanding of molecular regulators involved during different stages of mammary gland development.
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12
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Ruiz TFR, Taboga SR, Leonel ECR. Molecular mechanisms of mammary gland remodeling: A review of the homeostatic versus bisphenol a disrupted microenvironment. Reprod Toxicol 2021; 105:1-16. [PMID: 34343637 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2021.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Mammary gland (MG) undergoes critical points of structural changes throughout a woman's life. During the perinatal and pubertal stages, MG develops through growth and differentiation to establish a pre-mature feature. If pregnancy and lactation occur, the epithelial compartment branches and differentiates to create a specialized structure for milk secretion and nurturing of the newborn. However, the ultimate MG modification consists of a regression process aiming to reestablish the smaller and less energy demanding structure until another production cycle happens. The unraveling of these fascinating physiologic cycles has helped the scientific community elucidate aspects of molecular regulation of proliferative and apoptotic events and remodeling of the stromal compartment. However, greater understanding of the hormonal pathways involved in MG developmental stages led to concern that endocrine disruptors such as bisphenol A (BPA), may influence these specific development/involution stages, called "windows of susceptibility". Since it is used in the manufacture of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins, BPA is a ubiquitous chemical present in human everyday life, exerting an estrogenic effect. Thus, descriptions of its deleterious effects on the MG, especially in terms of serum hormone concentrations, hormonal receptor expression, molecular pathways, and epigenetic alterations, have been widely published. Therefore, allied to a didactic description of the main physiological mechanisms involved in different critical points of MG development, the current review provides a summary of key mechanisms by which the endocrine disruptor BPA impacts MG homeostasis at different windows of susceptibility, causing short- and long-term effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thalles Fernando Rocha Ruiz
- São Paulo State University (Unesp), Department of Biology, Institute of Biosciences, Humanities and Exact Sciences, São José Do Rio Preto, Brazil.
| | - Sebastião Roberto Taboga
- São Paulo State University (Unesp), Department of Biology, Institute of Biosciences, Humanities and Exact Sciences, São José Do Rio Preto, Brazil.
| | - Ellen Cristina Rivas Leonel
- São Paulo State University (Unesp), Department of Biology, Institute of Biosciences, Humanities and Exact Sciences, São José Do Rio Preto, Brazil; Federal University of Goiás (UFG), Department of Histology, Embryology and Cell Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Goiânia, Brazil.
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13
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Gouesse RJ, Lavoie M, Dianati E, Wade M, Hales B, Robaire B, Plante I. Gestational and Lactational Exposure to an Environmentally-relevant Mixture of Brominated Flame Retardants Down-regulates Junctional Proteins, Thyroid Hormone Receptor α1 Expression and the Proliferation-Apoptosis Balance in Mammary Glands Post Puberty. Toxicol Sci 2019; 171:13-31. [PMID: 31241157 PMCID: PMC6735962 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfz147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammary gland development requires hormonal regulation during puberty, pregnancy and lactation. Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are endocrine disruptors; they are added to consumer products to satisfy flammability standards. Previously, we showed that gestational and lactational exposure to an environmentally-relevant mixture of BFRs disrupts proteins of the adherens junctions in rat dam mammary glands at weaning. Here, we hypothesize that perinatal exposure to the same BFR mixture also disrupts junctional proteins and signaling pathways controlling mammary gland development in pups. Dams were exposed through diet to a BFR mixture based on the substances in house dust; doses of the mixture used were 0, 0.06, 20 or 60 mg/kg/day. Dams were exposed continuously beginning prior to mating until pups' weaning; female offspring were euthanized on postnatal day (PND) 21, 46 and 208. The lowest dose of BFRs significantly down-regulated adherens junction proteins, E-cadherin and β-catenin, and the gap junction protein p-Cx43, as well as thyroid hormone receptor alpha1 protein at PND 46. No effects were observed on estrogen or progesterone receptors. The low dose also resulted in a decrease in cleaved-caspase 3, a downward trend in PARP levels, proteins involved in apoptosis, and an upward trend in PCNA, a marker of proliferation. No effects were observed on ductal elongation or on the numbers of terminal end buds. Together, our results indicate that gestational and lactational exposure to an environmentally-relevant mixture of BFRs disrupts cell-cell interactions, thyroid hormone homeostasis and the proliferation-apoptosis balance at PND 46, a critical stage for mammary gland development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mélanie Lavoie
- INRS, Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Bioscience, Laval, QC, Canada
| | - Elham Dianati
- INRS, Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Bioscience, Laval, QC, Canada
| | - Mike Wade
- Health Canada, Environmental Health Science and Research Bureau, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Barbara Hales
- McGill University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Bernard Robaire
- McGill University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Montreal, QC, Canada.,McGill University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Isabelle Plante
- INRS, Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Bioscience, Laval, QC, Canada
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Zhao J, Han Y, Ma X, Zhou Y, Yuan S, Shen Q, Ye G, Liu H, Fu P, Zhang G, Qiao B, Liu A. Cysteine Dioxygenase Regulates the Epithelial Morphogenesis of Mammary Gland via Cysteine Sulfinic Acid. iScience 2019; 13:173-189. [PMID: 30849621 PMCID: PMC6406049 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Epithelial morphogenesis is a common feature in various organs and contributes to functional formation. However, the molecular mechanisms behind epithelial morphogenesis remain largely unknown. Mammary gland is an excellent model system to investigate the molecular mechanisms of epithelial morphogenesis. In this study, we found that cysteine dioxygenase (CDO), a key enzyme in cysteine oxidative metabolism, was involved in mammary epithelial morphogenesis. CDO knockout (KO) females exhibited severe defects in mammary branching morphogenesis and ductal elongation, resulting in poor lactation. CDO contributes to the luminal epithelial cell differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis mainly through its downstream product cysteine sulfinic acid (CSA). Exogenous supplementation of CSA not only rescued the defects in CDO KO mouse but also enhanced ductal growth in wild-type mouse. It suggests that CDO regulates luminal epithelial differentiation and regeneration via CSA and consequently contributes to mammary development, which raises important implications for epithelial morphogenesis and pathogenesis of breast cancer. Cysteine dioxygenase (CDO) is necessary for mammary epithelial morphogenesis Cysteine sulfinic acid (CSA) supplementation rescues the mammary defects in CDO KO mouse CDO retains lumen character and maintains luminal cell differentiation via CSA CDO maintains epithelial cell renewal via CSA
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianjun Zhao
- College of Animal Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, China.
| | - Yuzhu Han
- College of Animal Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xingyu Ma
- College of Animal Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yang Zhou
- College of Animal Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Shukai Yuan
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Qian Shen
- Department of Microbiology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Guogen Ye
- College of Animal Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Hongrun Liu
- College of Animal Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Penghui Fu
- College of Animal Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Gongwei Zhang
- College of Animal Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Bingke Qiao
- College of Animal Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Anfang Liu
- College of Animal Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, China.
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15
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Mills KL, Gomes AM, Standlee CR, Rojo MD, Carmeliet P, Lin Z, Machado HL. Gas6 is dispensable for pubertal mammary gland development. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0208550. [PMID: 30533018 PMCID: PMC6289431 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0208550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammary gland development is a complex and dynamic process that occurs mainly postnatally. Ductal elongation and branching morphogenesis are regulated by a plethora of factors, including cytokines, hormones, growth factors and the extracellular matrix. Gas6 is a secreted gamma-carboxylated protein that binds to a family of receptors tyrosine kinase receptors known as the TAMR family (Tyro3, Axl, Mer). Gas6 function in developmental processes has been shown in nervous, reproductive and immune systems. In this study, we found that Gas6 is highly expressed in virgin adult mammary glands but declines during pregnancy and lactation. Specifically, Gas6 is highly expressed in luminal and basal mammary epithelial cells during puberty and adulthood, while TAMR expression is low. Mammary whole mount analysis revealed that Gas6 germline deletion does not impact ductal elongation, branching morphogenesis or terminal end bud formation. Masson's trichrome staining showed that collagen deposition is similar in Gas6-/- mice as compared to wildtype mice. Gas6-/- mammary glands presented an organized luminal and myoepithelial bilayer of cells, and the proportion of mammary stem cells was unchanged in Gas6-/- mammary glands as compared to wildtype. Finally, proliferation of epithelial cells and macrophage number were similar in both groups. These studies suggest that Gas6 is not essential for pubertal mammary gland development in nulliparous mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kylie L. Mills
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, United States of America
| | - Angelica M. Gomes
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, United States of America
| | - Courtney R. Standlee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, United States of America
| | - Michelle D. Rojo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, United States of America
| | - Peter Carmeliet
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism,VIB-KU Leuven Center for Cancer Biology, Leuven, Belgium
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongsan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism, Department of Oncology and Leuven Cancer Institute (LKI), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Zhen Lin
- Department of Pathology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, United States of America
| | - Heather L. Machado
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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16
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Oudenaarden CRL, van de Ven RAH, Derksen PWB. Re-inforcing the cell death army in the fight against breast cancer. J Cell Sci 2018; 131:131/16/jcs212563. [DOI: 10.1242/jcs.212563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Metastatic breast cancer is responsible for most breast cancer-related deaths. Disseminated cancer cells have developed an intrinsic ability to resist anchorage-dependent apoptosis (anoikis). Anoikis is caused by the absence of cellular adhesion, a process that underpins lumen formation and maintenance during mammary gland development and homeostasis. In healthy cells, anoikis is mostly governed by B-cell lymphoma-2 (BCL2) protein family members. Metastatic cancer cells, however, have often developed autocrine BCL2-dependent resistance mechanisms to counteract anoikis. In this Review, we discuss how a pro-apoptotic subgroup of the BCL2 protein family, known as the BH3-only proteins, controls apoptosis and anoikis during mammary gland homeostasis and to what extent their inhibition confers tumor suppressive functions in metastatic breast cancer. Specifically, the role of the two pro-apoptotic BH3-only proteins BCL2-modifying factor (BMF) and BCL2-interacting mediator of cell death (BIM) will be discussed here. We assess current developments in treatment that focus on mimicking the function of the BH3-only proteins to induce apoptosis, and consider their applicability to restore normal apoptotic responses in anchorage-independent disseminating tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara R. L. Oudenaarden
- UMC Utrecht, Department of Pathology, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Lund University, Department of Experimental Oncology, Scheelevägen 2, 22363 Lund, Sweden
| | - Robert A. H. van de Ven
- UMC Utrecht, Department of Pathology, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Harvard Medical School, Department of Cell Biology, 250 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Patrick W. B. Derksen
- UMC Utrecht, Department of Pathology, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
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17
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Girnius N, Davis RJ. JNK Promotes Epithelial Cell Anoikis by Transcriptional and Post-translational Regulation of BH3-Only Proteins. Cell Rep 2018; 21:1910-1921. [PMID: 29141222 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.10.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Revised: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 10/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Developmental morphogenesis, tissue injury, and oncogenic transformation can cause the detachment of epithelial cells. These cells are eliminated by a specialized form of apoptosis (anoikis). While the processes that contribute to this form of cell death have been studied, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we tested the role of the cJUN NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathway using murine models with compound JNK deficiency in mammary and kidney epithelial cells. These studies demonstrated that JNK is required for efficient anoikis in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, JNK-promoted anoikis required pro-apoptotic members of the BCL2 family of proteins. We show that JNK acts through a BAK/BAX-dependent apoptotic pathway by increasing BIM expression and phosphorylating BMF, leading to death of detached epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nomeda Girnius
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Roger J Davis
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
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18
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Abstract
Epithelial tubes are crucial to the function of organ systems including the excretory, gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and pulmonary. Studies in the last two decades using in vitro organotypic systems and a variety of animal models have substantiated a large number of the morphogenetic mechanisms required to form epithelial tubes in development and regeneration. Many of these mechanisms modulate the differentiation and proliferation events necessary for generating the cell movements and changes in cell shape to delineate the wide variety of epithelial tube sizes, lengths, and conformations. For instance, when coupled with oriented cell division, proliferation itself plays a role in changes in tube shape and their directed expansion. Most of these processes are regulated in response to signaling inputs from adjacent cells or soluble factors from the environment. Despite the great deal of recent investigation in this direction, the knowledge we have about the signaling pathways associated with all epithelial tubulogenesis in development and regeneration is still very limited.
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19
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Sreekumar A, Toneff MJ, Toh E, Roarty K, Creighton CJ, Belka GK, Lee DK, Xu J, Chodosh LA, Richards JS, Rosen JM. WNT-Mediated Regulation of FOXO1 Constitutes a Critical Axis Maintaining Pubertal Mammary Stem Cell Homeostasis. Dev Cell 2017; 43:436-448.e6. [PMID: 29103953 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2017.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Revised: 08/16/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Puberty is characterized by dynamic tissue remodeling in the mammary gland involving ductal elongation, resolution into the mature epithelial bilayer, and lumen formation. To decipher the cellular mechanisms underlying these processes, we studied the fate of putative stem cells, termed cap cells, present in terminal end buds of pubertal mice. Employing a p63CreERT2-based lineage-tracing strategy, we identified a unipotent fate for proliferative cap cells that only generated cells with basal features. Furthermore, we observed that dislocated "cap-in-body" cells underwent apoptosis, which aided lumen formation during ductal development. Basal lineage-specific profiling and genetic loss-of-function experiments revealed a critical role for FOXO transcription factors in mediating these proliferative versus apoptotic fates. Importantly, these studies revealed a mode of WNT signaling-mediated FOXO1 inhibition, potentially mediated through AKT. Together, these data suggest that the WNT pathway confers proliferative and survival advantages on cap cells via regulation of FOXO1 localization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amulya Sreekumar
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Michael J Toneff
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Eajer Toh
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Kevin Roarty
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Chad J Creighton
- Department of Medicine and Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center Division of Biostatistics, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - George K Belka
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Pennsylvania, 421 Curie Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Abramson Family Cancer Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania, 421 Curie Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Dong-Kee Lee
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jianming Xu
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Lewis A Chodosh
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Pennsylvania, 421 Curie Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Abramson Family Cancer Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania, 421 Curie Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 421 Curie Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - JoAnne S Richards
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Rosen
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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20
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Toivanen R, Shen MM. Prostate organogenesis: tissue induction, hormonal regulation and cell type specification. Development 2017; 144:1382-1398. [PMID: 28400434 DOI: 10.1242/dev.148270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Prostate organogenesis is a complex process that is primarily mediated by the presence of androgens and subsequent mesenchyme-epithelial interactions. The investigation of prostate development is partly driven by its potential relevance to prostate cancer, in particular the apparent re-awakening of key developmental programs that occur during tumorigenesis. However, our current knowledge of the mechanisms that drive prostate organogenesis is far from complete. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of prostate development, focusing on recent findings regarding sexual dimorphism, bud induction, branching morphogenesis and cellular differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxanne Toivanen
- Departments of Medicine, Genetics and Development, Urology, and Systems Biology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Michael M Shen
- Departments of Medicine, Genetics and Development, Urology, and Systems Biology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032, USA
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21
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Rädler PD, Wehde BL, Wagner KU. Crosstalk between STAT5 activation and PI3K/AKT functions in normal and transformed mammary epithelial cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2017; 451:31-39. [PMID: 28495456 PMCID: PMC5515553 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 04/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Janus kinases (JAKs) and signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs) have been shown to function downstream of several peptide hormones and cytokines that are required for postnatal development and secretory function of the mammary gland. As part of an extended network, these signal transducers can engage in crosstalk with other pathways to facilitate synergistic, and sometimes antagonistic, actions of different growth factors. Specifically, signaling through the JAK2/STAT5 cascade has been demonstrated to be indispensable for the specification, proliferation, differentiation, and survival of secretory mammary epithelial cells. Following a concise description of major cellular programs in mammary gland development and the role of growth factors that rely on JAK/STAT signaling to orchestrate these programs, this review highlights the significance of active STAT5 and its crosstalk with the PI3 kinase and AKT1 for mediating the proliferation of alveolar progenitors and survival of their functionally differentiated descendants in the mammary gland. Based on its ability to provide self-sufficiency in growth signals that are also capable of overriding intrinsic cell death programs, persistently active STAT5 can serve as a potent oncoprotein that contributes to the genesis of breast cancer. Recent experimental evidence demonstrated that, similar to normal developmental programs, oncogenic functions of STAT5 rely on molecular crosstalk with PI3K/AKT signaling for the initiation, and in some instances the progression, of breast cancer. The multitude by which STATs can interact with individual mediators of the PI3K/AKT signaling cascade may provide novel avenues for targeting signaling nodes within molecular networks that are crucial for the survival of cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick D Rädler
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986805 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-6805, USA
| | - Barbara L Wehde
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986805 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-6805, USA
| | - Kay-Uwe Wagner
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986805 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-6805, USA; Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986805 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-6805, USA.
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22
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Butner JD, Cristini V. Development of a three dimensional, lattice-free multiscale model of the mammary terminal end bud. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2017; 2016:6134-6137. [PMID: 28269652 DOI: 10.1109/embc.2016.7592128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The terminal end bud (TEB) is a bulbous structure composed of highly proliferative cells that is responsible for mammary gland development during the pubertal stage. This is a highly organized process, involving cellular differentiation hierarchies regulated by endocrine and paracrine signaling. Here, we present development of a lattice-free, three dimensional multiscale agent based model of the TEB to study the effects of cellular phenotypic hierarchies, endocrine and paracrine signaling, and proliferation demographics on pubertal mammary gland development. Cells in the TEB experience complex physical interaction during the active growth involved in pubertal ductal elongation, which we represent mathematically based on the physical forces involved in cell-cell and cell-microenvironment interactions. We observe that maximum ductal elongation rates are achievable due to each progenitive phenotype cell only undergoing a couple proliferation cycles before losing the progenitive capability, and that molecular signaling is necessary to restrict ductal elongation to biologically relevant rates. Cellular proliferation and growth is sufficient to achieve these elongation rates in the absence of other cellular behaviors such as migration or conformational changes. This model serves as a valuable tool to gain insights into the cell population dynamics of mammary gland development, and can serve as a foundation to study the early stages of breast cancer development based on endocrine-mediated phenotypic population shifts.
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23
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Monkkonen T, Lewis MT. New paradigms for the Hedgehog signaling network in mammary gland development and breast Cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2017; 1868:315-332. [PMID: 28624497 PMCID: PMC5567999 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2017.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The Hedgehog signaling network regulates organogenesis, cell fate, proliferation, survival, and stem cell self-renewal in many mammalian tissues. Aberrant activation of the Hedgehog signaling network is present in ~25% of all cancers, including breast. Altered expression of Hedgehog network genes in the mammary gland can elicit phenotypes at many stages of development. However, synthesizing a cohesive mechanistic model of signaling at different stages of development has been difficult. Emerging data suggest that this difficulty is due, in part, to non-canonical and tissue compartment-specific (i.e., epithelial, versus stromal, versus systemic) functions of Hedgehog network components. With respect to systemic functions, Hedgehog network genes regulate development of endocrine organs that impinge on mammary gland development extrinsically. These new observations offer insight into previously conflicting data, and have bearing on the potential for anti-Hedgehog therapeutics in the treatment of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Monkkonen
- Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA; University of California, San Francisco, Dept. of Pathology, 513 Parnassus Ave., San Francisco, CA 94118, USA
| | - Michael T Lewis
- Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Radiology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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24
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STAT5 deletion in macrophages alters ductal elongation and branching during mammary gland development. Dev Biol 2017; 428:232-244. [PMID: 28606561 PMCID: PMC5621646 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2017.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Revised: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are required for proper mammary gland development and maintaining tissue homeostasis. However, the mechanisms by which macrophages regulate this process remain unclear. Here, we identify STAT5 as an important regulator of macrophage function in the developing mammary gland. Analysis of mammary glands from mice with STAT5-deficient macrophages demonstrates delayed ductal elongation, enhanced ductal branching and increased epithelial proliferation. Further analysis reveals that STAT5 deletion in macrophages leads to enhanced expression of proliferative factors such as Cyp19a1/aromatase and IL-6. Mechanistic studies demonstrate that STAT5 binds directly to the Cyp19a1 promoter in macrophages to suppress gene expression and that loss of STAT5 results in enhanced stromal expression of aromatase. Finally, we demonstrate that STAT5 deletion in macrophages cooperates with oncogenic initiation in mammary epithelium to accelerate the formation of estrogen receptor (ER)-positive hyperplasias. These studies establish the importance of STAT5 in macrophages during ductal morphogenesis in the mammary gland and demonstrate that altering STAT5 function in macrophages can affect the development of tissue-specific disease.
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25
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Paine IS, Lewis MT. The Terminal End Bud: the Little Engine that Could. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2017; 22:93-108. [PMID: 28168376 PMCID: PMC5488158 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-017-9372-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammary gland is one of the most regenerative organs in the body, with the majority of development occurring postnatally and in the adult mammal. Formation of the ductal tree is orchestrated by a specialized structure called the terminal end bud (TEB). The TEB is responsible for the production of mature cell types leading to the elongation of the subtending duct. The TEB is also the regulatory control point for basement membrane deposition, branching, angiogenesis, and pattern formation. While the hormonal control of TEB growth is well characterized, the local regulatory factors are less well understood. Recent studies of pubertal outgrowth and ductal elongation have yielded surprising details in regards to ongoing processes in the TEB. Here we summarize the current understanding of TEB biology, discuss areas of future study, and discuss the use of the TEB as a model for the study of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid S Paine
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Michael T Lewis
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
- Department Radiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
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26
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Kamal M, Holliday DL, Morrison EE, Speirs V, Toomes C, Bell SM. Loss of CSMD1 expression disrupts mammary duct formation while enhancing proliferation, migration and invasion. Oncol Rep 2017; 38:283-292. [PMID: 28534981 DOI: 10.3892/or.2017.5656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The CUB and sushi multiple domains 1 (CSMD1) gene maps to chromosome 8p23, a region deleted in many cancers. Loss of CSMD1 expression is associated with poor prognosis in breast cancer suggesting that it acts as a tumour suppressor in this cancer. However, the function of CSMD1 is largely unknown. Herein, we investigated CSMD1 functions in cell line models. CSMD1 expression was suppressed in MCF10A and LNCaP cells using short hairpin RNA. Functional assays were performed focusing on the 'normal' MCF10A cell line. Suppression of CSMD1 significantly increased the proliferation, cell migration and invasiveness of MCF10A cells compared to shcontrols. shCSMD1 cells also showed significantly reduced adhesion to Matrigel and fibronectin. In a three-dimensional Matrigel model of MCF10A cells, reduced CSMD1 expression resulted in the development of larger and more poorly differentiated breast acini-like structures that displayed impaired lumen formation. Loss of CSMD1 expression disrupts a model of mammary duct formation while enhancing proliferation, migration and invasion. Our data suggest that CSMD1 is involved in the suppression of a transformed phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Kamal
- Leeds Institute of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Leeds, Wellcome Trust Brenner Building, St. James's University Hospital, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Deborah L Holliday
- Leeds Institute of Cancer and Pathology, University of Leeds, Wellcome Trust Brenner Building, St. James's University Hospital, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Ewan E Morrison
- Leeds Institute of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Leeds, Wellcome Trust Brenner Building, St. James's University Hospital, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Valerie Speirs
- Leeds Institute of Cancer and Pathology, University of Leeds, Wellcome Trust Brenner Building, St. James's University Hospital, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Carmel Toomes
- Leeds Institute of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Leeds, Wellcome Trust Brenner Building, St. James's University Hospital, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Sandra M Bell
- Leeds Institute of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Leeds, Wellcome Trust Brenner Building, St. James's University Hospital, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
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27
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Mohapatra B, Zutshi N, An W, Goetz B, Arya P, Bielecki TA, Mushtaq I, Storck MD, Meza JL, Band V, Band H. An essential role of CBL and CBL-B ubiquitin ligases in mammary stem cell maintenance. Development 2017; 144:1072-1086. [PMID: 28100467 DOI: 10.1242/dev.138164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Accepted: 12/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The ubiquitin ligases CBL and CBL-B are negative regulators of tyrosine kinase signaling with established roles in the immune system. However, their physiological roles in epithelial tissues are unknown. Here, we used MMTV-Cre-mediated Cbl gene deletion on a Cbl-b null background, as well as a tamoxifen-inducible mammary stem cell (MaSC)-specific Cbl and Cbl-b double knockout (Cbl/Cbl-b DKO) using Lgr5-EGFP-IRES-CreERT2, to demonstrate a mammary epithelial cell-autonomous requirement of CBL and CBL-B in the maintenance of MaSCs. Using a newly engineered tamoxifen-inducible Cbl and Cbl-b deletion model with a dual fluorescent reporter (Cblflox/flox; Cbl-bflox/flox; Rosa26-CreERT; mT/mG), we show that Cbl/Cbl-b DKO in mammary organoids leads to hyperactivation of AKT-mTOR signaling with depletion of MaSCs. Chemical inhibition of AKT or mTOR rescued MaSCs from Cbl/Cbl-b DKO-induced depletion. Our studies reveal a novel, cell-autonomous requirement of CBL and CBL-B in epithelial stem cell maintenance during organ development and remodeling through modulation of mTOR signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhopal Mohapatra
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.,Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Neha Zutshi
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.,Department of Pathology & Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Wei An
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.,Department of Genetics, Cell Biology & Anatomy, College of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Benjamin Goetz
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Priyanka Arya
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.,Department of Genetics, Cell Biology & Anatomy, College of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Timothy A Bielecki
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Insha Mushtaq
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.,Department of Pathology & Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Matthew D Storck
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Jane L Meza
- Department of Biostatistics, College of Public Health, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Vimla Band
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.,Department of Genetics, Cell Biology & Anatomy, College of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.,Fred & Pamela Buffet Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Hamid Band
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA .,Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.,Department of Pathology & Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.,Department of Genetics, Cell Biology & Anatomy, College of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.,Fred & Pamela Buffet Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
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Abstract
The mouse mammary gland is widely used as a model for human breast cancer and has greatly added to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in breast cancer development and progression. To fully appreciate the validity and limitations of the mouse model, it is essential to be aware of the similarities and also the differences that exist between the mouse mammary gland and the human breast. This introduction therefore describes the parallels and contrasts in mouse mammary gland and human breast morphogenesis from an early embryonic phase through to puberty, adulthood, pregnancy, parturition, and lactation, and finally the regressive stage of involution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara McNally
- UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, 4, Ireland.
| | - Torsten Stein
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, College of MVLS, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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29
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Shirai K, Hagiwara N, Horigome T, Hirose Y, Kadono N, Hirai Y. Extracellularly Extruded Syntaxin-4 Binds to Laminin and Syndecan-1 to Regulate Mammary Epithelial Morphogenesis. J Cell Biochem 2016; 118:686-698. [PMID: 27463539 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.25661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 07/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Epithelial morphogenesis in the mammary gland proceeds as a consequence of complex cell behaviors including apoptotic cell death and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT); the extracellular matrix (ECM) protein laminin is crucially involved. Syntaxins mediate intracellular vesicular fusion, yet certain plasmalemmal members have been shown to possess latent extracellular functions. In this study, the extracellular subpopulation of syntaxin-4, extruded in response to the induction of differentiation or apoptosis in mammary epithelial cells, was detected. Using a tetracycline-repressive transcriptional system and clonal mammary epithelial cells, SCp2, we found that the expression of cell surface syntaxin-4 elicits EMT-like cell behaviors. Intriguingly, these cells did not up-regulate key transcription factors associated with the canonical EMT such as snail, slug, or twist, and repressed translation of E-cadherin. Concurrently, the cells completely evaded the cellular aggregation/rounding triggered by a potent EMT blocker laminin-111. We found that the recombinant form of syntaxin-4 not only bound to laminin but also latched onto the glycosaminoglycan (GAG) side chains of syndecan-1, a laminin receptor that mediates epithelial morphogenesis. Thus, temporal extracellular extrusion of syntaxin-4 emerged as a novel regulatory element for laminin-induced mammary epithelial cell behaviors. J. Cell. Biochem. 118: 686-698, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kota Shirai
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Kwansei Gakuin University. 2-1, Gakuen, Sanda, 669-1337, Japan
| | - Natsumi Hagiwara
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Kwansei Gakuin University. 2-1, Gakuen, Sanda, 669-1337, Japan
| | - Tomoatsu Horigome
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Kwansei Gakuin University. 2-1, Gakuen, Sanda, 669-1337, Japan
| | - Yuina Hirose
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Kwansei Gakuin University. 2-1, Gakuen, Sanda, 669-1337, Japan
| | - Nanako Kadono
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Kwansei Gakuin University. 2-1, Gakuen, Sanda, 669-1337, Japan
| | - Yohei Hirai
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, Kwansei Gakuin University. 2-1, Gakuen, Sanda, 669-1337, Japan
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30
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A hybrid agent-based model of the developing mammary terminal end bud. J Theor Biol 2016; 407:259-270. [PMID: 27475843 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2016.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Revised: 07/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mammary gland ductal elongation is spearheaded by terminal end buds (TEBs), where populations of highly proliferative cells are maintained throughout post-pubertal organogenesis in virgin mice until the mammary fat pad is filled by a mature ductal tree. We have developed a hybrid multiscale agent-based model to study how cellular differentiation pathways, cellular proliferation capacity, and endocrine and paracrine signaling play a role during development of the mammary gland. A simplified cellular phenotypic hierarchy that includes stem, progenitor, and fully differentiated cells within the TEB was implemented. Model analysis finds that mammary gland development was highly sensitive to proliferation events within the TEB, with progenitors likely undergoing 2-3 proliferation cycles before transitioning to a non-proliferative phenotype, and this result is in agreement with our previous experimental work. Endocrine and paracrine signaling were found to provide reliable ductal elongation rate regulation, while variations in the probability a new daughter cell will be of a proliferative phenotype were seen to have minimal effects on ductal elongation rates. Moreover, the distribution of cellular phenotypes within the TEB was highly heterogeneous, demonstrating significant allowable plasticity in possible phenotypic distributions while maintaining biologically relevant growth behavior. Finally, simulation results indicate ductal elongation rates due to cellular proliferation within the TEB may have a greater sensitivity to upstream endocrine signaling than endothelial to stromal paracrine signaling within the TEB. This model provides a useful tool to gain quantitative insights into cellular population dynamics and the effects of endocrine and paracrine signaling within the pubertal terminal end bud.
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31
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A Geometrically-Constrained Mathematical Model of Mammary Gland Ductal Elongation Reveals Novel Cellular Dynamics within the Terminal End Bud. PLoS Comput Biol 2016; 12:e1004839. [PMID: 27115287 PMCID: PMC4845990 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 03/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mathematics is often used to model biological systems. In mammary gland development, mathematical modeling has been limited to acinar and branching morphogenesis and breast cancer, without reference to normal duct formation. We present a model of ductal elongation that exploits the geometrically-constrained shape of the terminal end bud (TEB), the growing tip of the duct, and incorporates morphometrics, region-specific proliferation and apoptosis rates. Iterative model refinement and behavior analysis, compared with biological data, indicated that the traditional metric of nipple to the ductal front distance, or percent fat pad filled to evaluate ductal elongation rate can be misleading, as it disregards branching events that can reduce its magnitude. Further, model driven investigations of the fates of specific TEB cell types confirmed migration of cap cells into the body cell layer, but showed their subsequent preferential elimination by apoptosis, thus minimizing their contribution to the luminal lineage and the mature duct. Our paper describes a mathematical model of mammary ductal elongation during pubertal development. We make several conclusions that will be of interest to scientists studying mammary gland biology, epithelial tube formation, and branching morphogenesis. First, our model indicates that a common measurement of developmental outgrowth (‘percent fat pad filled’) underestimates the total growth and leads to mischaracterization of mutant phenotypes. Second, we show that cap cells, a population enriched with putative mammary stem cells, do not contribute to the luminal lineage as previously hypothesized. Further, we find that a high percentage of proliferation in these cells is not used productively to actually form the mammary duct. We believe our model has future application to other branching organs and also for the modeling of disease states in the breast.
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32
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Restraining FOXO3-dependent transcriptional BMF activation underpins tumour growth and metastasis of E-cadherin-negative breast cancer. Cell Death Differ 2016; 23:1483-92. [PMID: 27035620 DOI: 10.1038/cdd.2016.33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Revised: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Loss of cellular adhesion leads to the progression of breast cancer through acquisition of anchorage independence, also known as resistance to anoikis. Although inactivation of E-cadherin is essential for acquisition of anoikis resistance, it has remained unclear how metastatic breast cancer cells counterbalance the induction of apoptosis without E-cadherin-dependent cellular adhesion. We report here that E-cadherin inactivation in breast cancer cells induces PI3K/AKT-dependent FOXO3 inhibition and identify FOXO3 as a novel and direct transcriptional activator of the pro-apoptotic protein BMF. As a result, E-cadherin-negative breast fail to upregulate BMF upon transfer to anchorage independence, leading to anoikis resistance. Conversely, expression of BMF in E-cadherin-negative metastatic breast cancer cells is sufficient to inhibit tumour growth and dissemination in mice. In conclusion, we have identified repression of BMF as a major cue that underpins anoikis resistance and tumour dissemination in E-cadherin-deficient metastatic breast cancer.
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33
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Macrophages: Regulators of the Inflammatory Microenvironment during Mammary Gland Development and Breast Cancer. Mediators Inflamm 2016; 2016:4549676. [PMID: 26884646 PMCID: PMC4739263 DOI: 10.1155/2016/4549676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are critical mediators of inflammation and important regulators of developmental processes. As a key phagocytic cell type, macrophages evolved as part of the innate immune system to engulf and process cell debris and pathogens. Macrophages produce factors that act directly on their microenvironment and also bridge innate immune responses to the adaptive immune system. Resident macrophages are important for acting as sensors for tissue damage and maintaining tissue homeostasis. It is now well-established that macrophages are an integral component of the breast tumor microenvironment, where they contribute to tumor growth and progression, likely through many of the mechanisms that are utilized during normal wound healing responses. Because macrophages contribute to normal mammary gland development and breast cancer growth and progression, this review will discuss both resident mammary gland macrophages and tumor-associated macrophages with an emphasis on describing how macrophages interact with their surrounding environment during normal development and in the context of cancer.
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34
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Chang CH, Zhang M, Rajapakshe K, Coarfa C, Edwards D, Huang S, Rosen JM. Mammary Stem Cells and Tumor-Initiating Cells Are More Resistant to Apoptosis and Exhibit Increased DNA Repair Activity in Response to DNA Damage. Stem Cell Reports 2015; 5:378-91. [PMID: 26300228 PMCID: PMC4618454 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2015.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Revised: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 07/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Adult stem cells and tumor-initiating cells (TICs) often employ different mechanisms of DNA damage response (DDR) as compared to other tissue cell types. However, little is known about how mammary stem cells (MaSCs) and mammary TICs respond to DNA damage. Using the mouse mammary gland and syngeneic p53-null tumors as models, we investigated the molecular and physiological consequences of DNA damage in wild-type MaSCs, p53-null MaSCs, and p53-null TICs. We showed that wild-type MaSCs and basal cells are more resistant to apoptosis and exhibit increased non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) activity. Loss of p53 in mammary epithelium affected both cell-cycle regulation and DNA repair efficiency. In p53-null tumors, we showed that TICs are more resistant to ionizing radiation (IR) due to decreased apoptosis, elevated NHEJ activity, and more-rapid DNA repair. These results have important implications for understanding DDR mechanisms involved in both tumorigenesis and therapy resistance. MaSCs are more resistant to apoptosis and exhibit increased NHEJ activity Loss of p53 in MECs impairs cell-cycle regulation and DNA repair efficiency TICs exhibit decreased apoptosis, increased DNA repair efficiency, and NHEJ activity TICs are highly proliferative and exhibit improper cell-cycle regulation after IR
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Hsuan Chang
- Integrative Molecular and Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Mei Zhang
- Department of Developmental Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Kimal Rajapakshe
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Cristian Coarfa
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Dean Edwards
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Shixia Huang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Rosen
- Integrative Molecular and Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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35
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Prolactin/Jak2 directs apical/basal polarization and luminal linage maturation of mammary epithelial cells through regulation of the Erk1/2 pathway. Stem Cell Res 2015; 15:376-83. [PMID: 26318719 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2015.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Revised: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Tissue development/remodeling requires modulations in both cellular architecture and phenotype. Aberration in these processes leads to tumorigenesis. During the pregnancy/lactation cycle the mammary epithelial cells undergo complex morphological and phenotypic programs resulting in the acquisition of apical/basal (A/B) polarization and cellular maturation necessary for proper lactation. Still the hormonal regulations and cellular mechanisms controlling these events are not entirely elucidated. Here we show that prolactin (PRL)/Jak2 pathway in mammary epithelial cells uniquely signals to establish A/B polarity as determined by the apical localization of the tight junction protein zona occludens 1 (ZO-1) and the basal/lateral localization of E-cadherin, and the apical trafficking of lipid droplets. As well, our results indicate that this pathway regulates mammary stem cell hierarchy by inducing the differentiation of luminal progenitor (EpCAMhi/CD49fhi) cells to mature luminal (EpCAMhi/CD49flow) cells. Moreover, our data indicate that PRL/Jak2 coordinates both of these cellular events through limiting the mitogen activated protein kinase (Erk1/2) pathway. Together our findings define a novel unifying mechanism coupling mammary epithelial cell A/B polarization and terminal differentiation.
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36
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Targeting BCL-2 to enhance vulnerability to therapy in estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer. Oncogene 2015; 35:1877-87. [PMID: 26257067 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2015.287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Revised: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The last three decades have seen significant progress in our understanding of the role of the pro-survival protein BCL-2 and its family members in apoptosis and cancer. BCL-2 and other pro-survival family members including Mcl-1 and BCL-XL have been shown to have a key role in keeping pro-apoptotic 'effector' proteins BAK and BAX in check. They also neutralize a group of 'sensor' proteins (such as BIM), which are triggered by cytotoxic stimuli such as chemotherapy. BCL-2 proteins therefore have a central role as guardians against apoptosis, helping cancer cells to evade cell death. More recently, an increasing number of BH3 mimetics, which bind and neutralize BCL-2 and/or its pro-survival relatives, have been developed. The utility of targeting BCL-2 in hematological malignancies has become evident in early-phase studies, with remarkable clinical responses seen in heavily pretreated patients. As BCL-2 is overexpressed in ~75% of breast cancer, there has been growing interest in determining whether this new class of drug could show similar promise in breast cancer. This review summarizes our current understanding of the role of BCL-2 and its family members in mammary gland development and breast cancer, recent progress in the development of new BH3 mimetics as well as their potential for targeting estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer.
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37
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Lee S, Hennigar SR, Alam S, Nishida K, Kelleher SL. Essential Role for Zinc Transporter 2 (ZnT2)-mediated Zinc Transport in Mammary Gland Development and Function during Lactation. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:13064-78. [PMID: 25851903 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.637439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The zinc transporter ZnT2 (SLC30A2) imports zinc into vesicles in secreting mammary epithelial cells (MECs) and is critical for zinc efflux into milk during lactation. Recent studies show that ZnT2 also imports zinc into mitochondria and is expressed in the non-lactating mammary gland and non-secreting MECs, highlighting the importance of ZnT2 in general mammary gland biology. In this study we used nulliparous and lactating ZnT2-null mice and characterized the consequences on mammary gland development, function during lactation, and milk composition. We found that ZnT2 was primarily expressed in MECs and to a limited extent in macrophages in the nulliparous mammary gland and loss of ZnT2 impaired mammary expansion during development. Secondly, we found that lactating ZnT2-null mice had substantial defects in mammary gland architecture and MEC function during secretion, including fewer, condensed and disorganized alveoli, impaired Stat5 activation, and unpolarized MECs. Loss of ZnT2 led to reduced milk volume and milk containing less protein, fat, and lactose compared with wild-type littermates, implicating ZnT2 in the regulation of mammary differentiation and optimal milk production during lactation. Together, these results demonstrate that ZnT2-mediated zinc transport is critical for mammary gland function, suggesting that defects in ZnT2 not only reduce milk zinc concentration but may compromise breast health and increase the risk for lactation insufficiency in lactating women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sooyeon Lee
- From the Interdisciplinary Graduate Physiology Program and Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, Departments of Cellular and Molecular Physiology
| | - Stephen R Hennigar
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Samina Alam
- Departments of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Surgery, Penn State Hershey College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033
| | - Keigo Nishida
- Laboratory for Homeostatic Network, RCAI, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences (IMS-RCAI), Yokohama 230-0045, Japan, and Laboratory of Immune Regulation, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Suzuka University of Medical Science, Suzuka 513-8670, Japan
| | - Shannon L Kelleher
- From the Interdisciplinary Graduate Physiology Program and Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, Departments of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Surgery, Penn State Hershey College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033, Pharmacology, and
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38
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Iglesias JM, Cairney CJ, Ferrier RK, McDonald L, Soady K, Kendrick H, Pringle MA, Morgan RO, Martin F, Smalley MJ, Blyth K, Stein T. Annexin A8 identifies a subpopulation of transiently quiescent c-kit positive luminal progenitor cells of the ductal mammary epithelium. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0119718. [PMID: 25803307 PMCID: PMC4372349 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0119718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2012] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously shown that Annexin A8 (ANXA8) is strongly associated with the basal-like subgroup of breast cancers, including BRCA1-associated breast cancers, and poor prognosis; while in the mouse mammary gland AnxA8 mRNA is expressed in low-proliferative isolated pubertal mouse mammary ductal epithelium and after enforced involution, but not in isolated highly proliferative terminal end buds (TEB) or during pregnancy. To better understand ANXA8's association with this breast cancer subgroup we established ANXA8's cellular distribution in the mammary gland and ANXA8's effect on cell proliferation. We show that ANXA8 expression in the mouse mammary gland was strong during pre-puberty before the expansion of the rudimentary ductal network and was limited to a distinct subpopulation of ductal luminal epithelial cells but was not detected in TEB or in alveoli during pregnancy. Similarly, during late involution its expression was found in the surviving ductal epithelium, but not in the apoptotic alveoli. Double-immunofluorescence (IF) showed that ANXA8 positive (+ve) cells were ER-alpha negative (-ve) and mostly quiescent, as defined by lack of Ki67 expression during puberty and mid-pregnancy, but not terminally differentiated with ∼15% of ANXA8 +ve cells re-entering the cell cycle at the start of pregnancy (day 4.5). RT-PCR on RNA from FACS-sorted cells and double-IF showed that ANXA8+ve cells were a subpopulation of c-kit +ve luminal progenitor cells, which have recently been identified as the cells of origin of basal-like breast cancers. Over expression of ANXA8 in the mammary epithelial cell line Kim-2 led to a G0/G1 arrest and suppressed Ki67 expression, indicating cell cycle exit. Our data therefore identify ANXA8 as a potential mediator of quiescence in the normal mouse mammary ductal epithelium, while its expression in basal-like breast cancers may be linked to ANXA8's association with their specific cells of origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Manuel Iglesias
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Synpromics Limited, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Claire J. Cairney
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Roderick K. Ferrier
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | - Kelly Soady
- Medical Research Council Molecular Haematology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Howard Kendrick
- European Cancer Stem Cell Research Institute, Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Marie-Anne Pringle
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Institute of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Reginald O. Morgan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and the Institute of Biotechnology of Asturias (IUBA), University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Finian Martin
- Conway Institute and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Matthew J. Smalley
- European Cancer Stem Cell Research Institute, Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Karen Blyth
- CRUK Beatson Institute, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Torsten Stein
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
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39
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Williams MM, Cook RS. Bcl-2 family proteins in breast development and cancer: could Mcl-1 targeting overcome therapeutic resistance? Oncotarget 2015; 6:3519-30. [PMID: 25784482 PMCID: PMC4414133 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Apoptosis, cell death executed by caspases, is essential to normal breast development and homeostasis. Pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic signals are tightly regulated in normal breast epithelial cells. Dysregulation of this balance is required for breast tumorigenesis and increases acquired resistance to treatments, including molecularly targeted therapies, radiation and chemotherapies. The pro-apoptotic or anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members interact with each other to maintain mitochondrial integrity and regulate cellular commitment to apoptosis. Among the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members, Mcl-1 is uniquely regulated by numerous oncogenic signaling pathways. This review will focus on the role of Bcl-2 family proteins in normal breast development, breast tumorigenesis and acquired resistance to breast cancer treatment strategies, while highlighting Mcl-1 as a promising target to improve breast cancer tumor cell killing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle M. Williams
- Department of Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville TN 27232, USA
| | - Rebecca S. Cook
- Department of Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville TN 27232, USA
- Department of Vanderbilt Ingram Cancer Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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40
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Loss of anchorage primarily induces non-apoptotic cell death in a human mammary epithelial cell line under atypical focal adhesion kinase signaling. Cell Death Dis 2015; 6:e1619. [PMID: 25611393 PMCID: PMC4669778 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2014.583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Revised: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Anchorage dependence of cellular growth and survival prevents inappropriate cell growth or survival in ectopic environments, and serves as a potential barrier to metastasis of cancer cells. Therefore, obtaining a better understanding of anchorage-dependent responses in normal cells is the first step to understand and impede anchorage independence of growth and survival in cancer cells and finally to eradicate cancer cells during metastasis. Anoikis, a type of apoptosis specifically induced by lack of appropriate cell-extracellular matrix adhesion, has been established as the dominant response of normal epithelial cells to anchorage loss. For example, under detached conditions, the untransformed mammary epithelial cell (MEC) line MCF-10 A, which exhibits myoepithelial characteristics, underwent anoikis dependent on classical ERK signaling. On the other hand, recent studies have revealed a variety of phenotypes resulting in cell death modalities distinct from anoikis, such as autophagy, necrosis, and cornification, in detached epithelial cells. In the present study, we characterized detachment-induced cell death (DICD) in primary human MECs immortalized with hTERT (TertHMECs), which are bipotent progenitor-like cells with a differentiating phenotype to luminal cells. In contrast to MCF-10 A cells, apoptosis was not observed in detached TertHMECs; instead, non-apoptotic cell death marked by features of entosis, cornification, and necrosis was observed along with downregulation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) signaling. Cell death was overcome by anchorage-independent activities of FAK but not PI3K/AKT, SRC, and MEK/ERK, suggesting critical roles of atypical FAK signaling pathways in the regulation of non-apoptotic cell death. Further analysis revealed an important role of TRAIL (tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand) as a mediator of FAK signaling in regulation of entosis and necrosis and a role of p38 MAPK in the induction of necrosis. Overall, the present study highlighted outstanding cell subtype or differentiation stage specificity in cell death phenotypes induced upon anchorage loss in human MECs.
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41
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Gao YRE, Walters KA, Desai R, Zhou H, Handelsman DJ, Simanainen U. Androgen receptor inactivation resulted in acceleration in pubertal mammary gland growth, upregulation of ERα expression, and Wnt/β-catenin signaling in female mice. Endocrinology 2014; 155:4951-63. [PMID: 25076121 DOI: 10.1210/en.2014-1226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) is widely expressed in mammary cells of female mammals including humans and mice, indicating a possible role for AR-mediated androgen actions in breast development, function, and pathology, although the specific mechanisms remain unclear. To elucidate the mechanisms of androgen action in mammary gland physiology and development, we used AR-knockout (AR(Δex3)KO) female mice with a universally expressed, transcriptionally inactive AR protein harboring an in-frame deletion of its second zinc finger. Although in sexually mature wild-type (WT) and AR(ex3Δ)KO females, the mammary epithelial growth was fully extended to the edge of the fat pad, during puberty, AR(ex3Δ)KO females exhibit significantly accelerated mammary ductal growth and an increased number of terminal end buds compared with WT females. Accelerated AR(ex3Δ)KO female mammary growth was associated with significantly increased mammary epithelial ERα expression and activated Wnt/β-catenin signaling as shown by increased Wnt4 expression and accumulation of nuclear β-catenin. These findings are consistent with increased mammary estrogen exposure although ovarian estradiol content was unchanged compared with WT females. Furthermore, treatment with the potent pure androgen DHT markedly reduced ductal extension and terminal end bud numbers in WT but not in AR(Δex3)KO females, further supporting the concept that AR-mediated, androgen-induced suppression of murine mammary growth is a physiological characteristic of puberty. In summary, our findings reveal an inhibitory role of AR-mediated androgen actions in pubertal mammary gland development by reducing epithelial cell proliferation and could be mediated by regulation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Ru Ellen Gao
- Andrology Laboratory (Y.R.G., K.A.W., R.D., D.J.H., U.S.) and Bone research Program (H.Z.), ANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney New South Wales 2139, Australia
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42
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Nedvetsky PI, Emmerson E, Finley JK, Ettinger A, Cruz-Pacheco N, Prochazka J, Haddox CL, Northrup E, Hodges C, Mostov KE, Hoffman MP, Knox SM. Parasympathetic innervation regulates tubulogenesis in the developing salivary gland. Dev Cell 2014; 30:449-62. [PMID: 25158854 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2014.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2013] [Revised: 04/25/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A fundamental question in development is how cells assemble to form a tubular network during organ formation. In glandular organs, tubulogenesis is a multistep process requiring coordinated proliferation, polarization and reorganization of epithelial cells to form a lumen, and lumen expansion. Although it is clear that epithelial cells possess an intrinsic ability to organize into polarized structures, the mechanisms coordinating morphogenetic processes during tubulogenesis are poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that parasympathetic nerves regulate tubulogenesis in the developing salivary gland. We show that vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) secreted by the innervating ganglia promotes ductal growth, leads to the formation of a contiguous lumen, and facilitates lumen expansion through a cyclic AMP/protein kinase A (cAMP/PKA)-dependent pathway. Furthermore, we provide evidence that lumen expansion is independent of apoptosis and involves the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), a cAMP-regulated Cl(-) channel. Thus, parasympathetic innervation coordinates multiple steps in tubulogenesis during organogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel I Nedvetsky
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Elaine Emmerson
- Department of Cell and Tissue Biology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Jennifer K Finley
- Department of Cell and Tissue Biology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Andreas Ettinger
- Department of Cell and Tissue Biology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Noel Cruz-Pacheco
- Department of Cell and Tissue Biology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Jan Prochazka
- Department of Orofacial Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Candace L Haddox
- National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Emily Northrup
- Department of Cell and Tissue Biology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Craig Hodges
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Keith E Mostov
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Matthew P Hoffman
- National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Sarah M Knox
- Department of Cell and Tissue Biology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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43
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Scheeren FA, Kuo AH, van Weele LJ, Cai S, Glykofridis I, Sikandar SS, Zabala M, Qian D, Lam JS, Johnston D, Volkmer JP, Sahoo D, van de Rijn M, Dirbas FM, Somlo G, Kalisky T, Rothenberg ME, Quake SR, Clarke MF. A cell-intrinsic role for TLR2–MYD88 in intestinal and breast epithelia and oncogenesis. Nat Cell Biol 2014; 16:1238-48. [DOI: 10.1038/ncb3058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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44
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The mammary cellular hierarchy and breast cancer. Cell Mol Life Sci 2014; 71:4301-24. [PMID: 25080108 PMCID: PMC4207940 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-014-1674-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2013] [Revised: 05/29/2014] [Accepted: 06/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Advances in the study of hematopoietic cell maturation have paved the way to a deeper understanding the stem and progenitor cellular hierarchy in the mammary gland. The mammary epithelium, unlike the hematopoietic cellular hierarchy, sits in a complex niche where communication between epithelial cells and signals from the systemic hormonal milieu, as well as from extra-cellular matrix, influence cell fate decisions and contribute to tissue homeostasis. We review the discovery, definition and regulation of the mammary cellular hierarchy and we describe the development of the concepts that have guided our investigations. We outline recent advances in in vivo lineage tracing that is now challenging many of our assumptions regarding the behavior of mammary stem cells, and we show how understanding these cellular lineages has altered our view of breast cancer.
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45
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Godde NJ, Sheridan JM, Smith LK, Pearson HB, Britt KL, Galea RC, Yates LL, Visvader JE, Humbert PO. Scribble modulates the MAPK/Fra1 pathway to disrupt luminal and ductal integrity and suppress tumour formation in the mammary gland. PLoS Genet 2014; 10:e1004323. [PMID: 24852022 PMCID: PMC4031063 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2013] [Accepted: 03/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Polarity coordinates cell movement, differentiation, proliferation and apoptosis to build and maintain complex epithelial tissues such as the mammary gland. Loss of polarity and the deregulation of these processes are critical events in malignant progression but precisely how and at which stage polarity loss impacts on mammary development and tumourigenesis is unclear. Scrib is a core polarity regulator and tumour suppressor gene however to date our understanding of Scrib function in the mammary gland has been limited to cell culture and transplantation studies of cell lines. Utilizing a conditional mouse model of Scrib loss we report for the first time that Scrib is essential for mammary duct morphogenesis, mammary progenitor cell fate and maintenance, and we demonstrate a critical and specific role for Scribble in the control of the early steps of breast cancer progression. In particular, Scrib-deficiency significantly induced Fra1 expression and basal progenitor clonogenicity, which resulted in fully penetrant ductal hyperplasia characterized by high cell turnover, MAPK hyperactivity, frank polarity loss with mixing of apical and basolateral membrane constituents and expansion of atypical luminal cells. We also show for the first time a role for Scribble in mammalian spindle orientation with the onset of mammary hyperplasia being associated with aberrant luminal cell spindle orientation and a failure to apoptose during the final stage of duct tubulogenesis. Restoring MAPK/Fra1 to baseline levels prevented Scrib-hyperplasia, whereas persistent Scrib deficiency induced alveolar hyperplasia and increased the incidence, onset and grade of mammary tumours. These findings, based on a definitive genetic mouse model provide fundamental insights into mammary duct maturation and homeostasis and reveal that Scrib loss activates a MAPK/Fra1 pathway that alters mammary progenitor activity to drive premalignancy and accelerate tumour progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan J. Godde
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Julie M. Sheridan
- ACRF Stem Cells and Cancer Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Lorey K. Smith
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Helen B. Pearson
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kara L. Britt
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Metastasis Research Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ryan C. Galea
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Laura L. Yates
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jane E. Visvader
- ACRF Stem Cells and Cancer Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Patrick O. Humbert
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
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Michalak EM, Nacerddine K, Pietersen A, Beuger V, Pawlitzky I, Cornelissen-Steijger P, Wientjens E, Tanger E, Seibler J, van Lohuizen M, Jonkers J. Polycomb group gene Ezh2 regulates mammary gland morphogenesis and maintains the luminal progenitor pool. Stem Cells 2014; 31:1910-20. [PMID: 23712803 DOI: 10.1002/stem.1437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2013] [Revised: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 04/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Specification of the cellular hierarchy in the mammary gland involves complex signaling that remains poorly defined. Polycomb group proteins are known to contribute to the maintenance of stem cell identity through epigenetic modifications, leading to stable alterations in gene expression. The polycomb protein family member EZH2 is known to be important for stem cell maintenance in multiple tissues, but its role in mammary gland development and differentiation remains unknown. Our analyses show that EZH2 is predominantly expressed in luminal cells of the mouse mammary epithelium. As mammary gland development occurs mostly after birth, the analysis of EZH2 gene function in postnatal development is precluded by embryonic lethality of conventional EZH2 knockout mice. To investigate the role of EZH2 in normal mammary gland epithelium, we have generated novel transgenic mice that express doxycycline-regulatable short hairpin (sh) RNAs directed against Ezh2. Knockdown of EZH2 results in delayed outgrowth of the mammary epithelium during puberty, due to impaired terminal end bud formation and ductal elongation. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that EZH2 is required to maintain the luminal cell pool and may limit differentiation of luminal progenitors into CD61(+) differentiated luminal cells, suggesting a role for EZH2 in mammary luminal cell fate determination. Consistent with this, EZH2 knockdown reduced lobuloalveolar expansion during pregnancy, suggesting EZH2 is required for the differentiation of luminal progenitors to alveolar cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Malgorzata Michalak
- Division of Molecular Pathology and Cancer Genomics Centre, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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47
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Zegers MM. 3D in vitro cell culture models of tube formation. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2014; 31:132-40. [PMID: 24613912 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2014.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2014] [Revised: 02/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Building the complex architecture of tubular organs is a highly dynamic process that involves cell migration, polarization, shape changes, adhesion to neighboring cells and the extracellular matrix, physicochemical characteristics of the extracellular matrix and reciprocal signaling with the mesenchyme. Understanding these processes in vivo has been challenging as they take place over extended time periods deep within the developing organism. Here, I will discuss 3D in vitro models that have been crucial to understand many of the molecular and cellular mechanisms and key concepts underlying branching morphogenesis in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirjam M Zegers
- Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Department of Cell Biology, P.O. Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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48
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Villegas E, Kabotyanski EB, Shore AN, Creighton CJ, Westbrook TF, Rosen JM. Plk2 regulates mitotic spindle orientation and mammary gland development. Development 2014; 141:1562-71. [PMID: 24598160 DOI: 10.1242/dev.108258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Disruptions in polarity and mitotic spindle orientation contribute to the progression and evolution of tumorigenesis. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms regulating these processes in vivo. Here, we demonstrate that Polo-like kinase 2 (Plk2) regulates mitotic spindle orientation in the mammary gland and that this might account for its suggested role as a tumor suppressor. Plk2 is highly expressed in the mammary gland and is required for proper mammary gland development. Loss of Plk2 leads to increased mammary epithelial cell proliferation and ductal hyperbranching. Additionally, a novel role for Plk2 in regulating the orientation of the mitotic spindle and maintaining proper cell polarity in the ductal epithelium was discovered. In support of a tumor suppressor function for Plk2, loss of Plk2 increased the formation of lesions in multiparous glands. Collectively, these results demonstrate a novel role for Plk2 in regulating mammary gland development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Villegas
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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49
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Avivar-Valderas A, Wen HC, Aguirre-Ghiso JA. Stress signaling and the shaping of the mammary tissue in development and cancer. Oncogene 2014; 33:5483-90. [PMID: 24413078 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2013.554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2013] [Revised: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The postnatal mammary gland develops extensively through cycles of proliferation, branching, involution and remodeling. We review recent advances made in the field of stress signaling pathways and its roles in mammary gland organogenesis, how they contribute to normal organ specification and homeostasis and how its subversion by oncogenes leads to cancer. We analyze stress signaling in mammary gland biology taking into account the interrelationship with the extracellular matrix and adhesion signaling during morphogenesis. By integrating the information gathered from in vivo and three dimensional in vitro organogenesis studies, we review the novel contribution of p38(SAPK), c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase and PKR-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) signaling pathways to the timely activation of cell death, correct establishment of polarity and growth arrest and autophagy, respectively. We also review the evidence supporting that the activation of the aforementioned stress kinases maintain breast acinar structures as part of a tumor suppressive program and that its deregulation is commonplace during breast cancer initiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Avivar-Valderas
- 1] Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA [2] Department of Otolaryngology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA [3] Tisch Cancer Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - H C Wen
- 1] Tisch Cancer Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA [2] Department of Oncological Sciences, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - J A Aguirre-Ghiso
- 1] Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA [2] Department of Otolaryngology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA [3] Tisch Cancer Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA [4] Black Family Stem Cell Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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50
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Lain AR, Creighton CJ, Conneely OM. Research resource: progesterone receptor targetome underlying mammary gland branching morphogenesis. Mol Endocrinol 2013; 27:1743-61. [PMID: 23979845 DOI: 10.1210/me.2013-1144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Progesterone (P4)-activated progesterone receptors (PRs) play an essential role in driving pregnancy-associated mammary ductal side-branching morphogenesis and alveologenesis. However, the global cistromic and transcriptome responses that are required to elicit P4-dependent branching morphogenesis have not been elucidated. By combining chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by deep sequencing to identify genome-wide PR-binding sites in PR-positive luminal epithelial cells with global gene expression signatures acutely regulated by PRs in the mammary gland, we have identified a mammary epithelial PR targetome associated with active P4-dependent branching morphogenesis in vivo. We demonstrate that P4-induced side-branching is initiated by epithelial cell rearrangement into a multilayered epithelium that sprouts laterally from quiescent ducts via a mechanism requiring P4-dependent activation of Rac-GTPase signaling. We identify effectors of Rac-GTPases as direct transcriptional targets of PRs, and we demonstrate that disruption of the P4-activated Rac-GTPase signaling axis is sufficient to eliminate P4-dependent side-branching. Our data reveal that the molecular mediators of P4-dependent ductal side-branching overlap with those implicated in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashlee R Lain
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas 77030.
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