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Dakhel S, Davies WIL, Joseph JV, Tomar T, Remeseiro S, Gunhaga L. Chick fetal organ spheroids as a model to study development and disease. BMC Mol Cell Biol 2021; 22:37. [PMID: 34225662 PMCID: PMC8256237 DOI: 10.1186/s12860-021-00374-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Organ culture models have been used over the past few decades to study development and disease. The in vitro three-dimensional (3D) culture system of organoids is well known, however, these 3D systems are both costly and difficult to culture and maintain. As such, less expensive, faster and less complex methods to maintain 3D cell culture models would complement the use of organoids. Chick embryos have been used as a model to study human biology for centuries, with many fundamental discoveries as a result. These include cell type induction, cell competence, plasticity and contact inhibition, which indicates the relevance of using chick embryos when studying developmental biology and disease mechanisms. RESULTS Here, we present an updated protocol that enables time efficient, cost effective and long-term expansion of fetal organ spheroids (FOSs) from chick embryos. Utilizing this protocol, we generated FOSs in an anchorage-independent growth pattern from seven different organs, including brain, lung, heart, liver, stomach, intestine and epidermis. These three-dimensional (3D) structures recapitulate many cellular and structural aspects of their in vivo counterpart organs and serve as a useful developmental model. In addition, we show a functional application of FOSs to analyze cell-cell interaction and cell invasion patterns as observed in cancer. CONCLUSION The establishment of a broad ranging and highly effective method to generate FOSs from different organs was successful in terms of the formation of healthy, proliferating 3D organ spheroids that exhibited organ-like characteristics. Potential applications of chick FOSs are their use in studies of cell-to-cell contact, cell fusion and tumor invasion under defined conditions. Future studies will reveal whether chick FOSs also can be applicable in scientific areas such as viral infections, drug screening, cancer diagnostics and/or tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soran Dakhel
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87, Umeå, Sweden.,Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Wayne I L Davies
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Justin V Joseph
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Tushar Tomar
- PamGene International B.V, Wolvenhoek 10, 5211 HH, 's-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands
| | - Silvia Remeseiro
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87, Umeå, Sweden.,Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Lena Gunhaga
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87, Umeå, Sweden.
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Common Transcriptional Program of Liver Fibrosis in Mouse Genetic Models and Humans. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22020832. [PMID: 33467660 PMCID: PMC7830925 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22020832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Multifactorial metabolic diseases, such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, are a major burden to modern societies, and frequently present with no clearly defined molecular biomarkers. Herein we used system medicine approaches to decipher signatures of liver fibrosis in mouse models with malfunction in genes from unrelated biological pathways: cholesterol synthesis-Cyp51, notch signaling-Rbpj, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) signaling-Ikbkg, and unknown lysosomal pathway-Glmp. Enrichment analyses of Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), Reactome and TRANScription FACtor (TRANSFAC) databases complemented with genome-scale metabolic modeling revealed fibrotic signatures highly similar to liver pathologies in humans. The diverse genetic models of liver fibrosis exposed a common transcriptional program with activated estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) signaling, and a network of interactions between regulators of lipid metabolism and transcription factors from cancer pathways and the immune system. The novel hallmarks of fibrosis are downregulated lipid pathways, including fatty acid, bile acid, and steroid hormone metabolism. Moreover, distinct metabolic subtypes of liver fibrosis were proposed, supported by unique enrichment of transcription factors based on the type of insult, disease stage, or potentially, also sex. The discovered novel features of multifactorial liver fibrotic pathologies could aid also in improved stratification of other fibrosis related pathologies.
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López DM, Kählau L, Jungnickel KEJ, Löw C, Damme M. Characterization of the complex of the lysosomal membrane transporter MFSD1 and its accessory subunit GLMP. FASEB J 2020; 34:14695-14709. [PMID: 32959924 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202000912rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The two lysosomal integral membrane proteins MFSD1 and GLMP form a tight complex that confers protection of both interaction partners against lysosomal proteolysis. We here refined the molecular interaction of the two proteins and found that the luminal domain of GLMP alone, but not its transmembrane domain or its short cytosolic tail, conveys protection and mediates the interaction with MFSD1. Our data support the finding that the interaction is essential for the stabilization of the complex. These results are complemented by the observation that N-glycosylation of GLMP in general, but not the type of N-glycans (high-mannose-type or complex-type) or individual N-glycan chains, are essential for protection. We observed that the interaction of both proteins already starts in the endoplasmic reticulum, and quantitatively depends on each other. Both proteins can affect vice versa their intracellular trafficking to lysosomes in addition to the protection from proteolysis. Finally, we provide evidence that MFSD1 can form homodimers both in vitro and in vivo. Our data refine the complex interplay between an intimate couple of a lysosomal transporter and its accessory subunit.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Massa López
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Lea Kählau
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | | | - Christian Löw
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology (CSSB), DESY and European Molecular Biology Laboratory Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Markus Damme
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Kiel, Germany
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Massa López D, Thelen M, Stahl F, Thiel C, Linhorst A, Sylvester M, Hermanns-Borgmeyer I, Lüllmann-Rauch R, Eskild W, Saftig P, Damme M. The lysosomal transporter MFSD1 is essential for liver homeostasis and critically depends on its accessory subunit GLMP. eLife 2019; 8:50025. [PMID: 31661432 PMCID: PMC6819133 DOI: 10.7554/elife.50025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysosomes are major sites for intracellular, acidic hydrolase-mediated proteolysis and cellular degradation. The export of low-molecular-weight catabolic end-products is facilitated by polytopic transmembrane proteins mediating secondary active or passive transport. A number of these lysosomal transporters, however, remain enigmatic. We present a detailed analysis of MFSD1, a hitherto uncharacterized lysosomal family member of the major facilitator superfamily. MFSD1 is not N-glycosylated. It contains a dileucine-based sorting motif needed for its transport to lysosomes. Mfsd1 knockout mice develop splenomegaly and severe liver disease. Proteomics of isolated lysosomes from Mfsd1 knockout mice revealed GLMP as a critical accessory subunit for MFSD1. MFSD1 and GLMP physically interact. GLMP is essential for the maintenance of normal levels of MFSD1 in lysosomes and vice versa. Glmp knockout mice mimic the phenotype of Mfsd1 knockout mice. Our data reveal a tightly linked MFSD1/GLMP lysosomal membrane protein transporter complex. Lysosomes are specialized, enclosed compartments within cells with harsh chemical conditions where enzymes break down large molecules into smaller component parts. The products of these reactions are then transported out of the lysosome by transporter proteins so that they can be used to build new molecules that the cell needs. Despite their importance, only a few lysosomal transporters have been thoroughly studied. A protein called MFSD1 had previously been identified as a potential lysosomal transporter, but its precise role has not been described. Now, Massa López et al. have characterized the role of MFSD1, by genetically modifying mice so they could no longer make the transporter. These mice developed severe liver damage. In particular, a specific type of cell that is important for lining blood vessels in the liver, seemed to be lost in these mice. Older MFSD1 deficient mice also had more tumors in their livers compared to normal mice. Massa López et al. next examined what happened to other lysosomal proteins in the MFSD1 deficient mice, and found that these mice had strikingly low levels of a protein called GLMP. To better understand the relationship between GLMP and MFSD1, another strain of genetically modified mice was analyzed, this time missing GLMP. Mice without GLMP were found to have very similar liver problems to those observed in the mice lacking MFSD1. Moreover, the GLMP deficient mice had low levels of the MFSD1 protein. Further experiments demonstrated that MFSD1 and GLMP physically interact with each other: GLMP seemed to protect MFSD1 from being degraded in the harsh internal environment of the lysosome. Thus both GLMP and MFSD1 were needed to form a stable lysosomal transporter. Characterizing MFSD1 is important for scientists attempting to understand how the lysosomal membrane and transporters work. Moreover, these findings may shed light on how defects in lysosomal transporters contribute to metabolic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Massa López
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Melanie Thelen
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Rheinische-Friedrich-Wilhelms-University, Bonn, Germany
| | - Felix Stahl
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christian Thiel
- Center for Child and Adolescent Medicine, Department of Pediatrics I, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Arne Linhorst
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Marc Sylvester
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Rheinische-Friedrich-Wilhelms-University, Bonn, Germany
| | - Irm Hermanns-Borgmeyer
- Center for Molecular Neurobiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Winnie Eskild
- Department of Bioscience, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Paul Saftig
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Markus Damme
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Kiel, Germany
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Majora M, Sondenheimer K, Knechten M, Uthe I, Esser C, Schiavi A, Ventura N, Krutmann J. HDAC inhibition improves autophagic and lysosomal function to prevent loss of subcutaneous fat in a mouse model of Cockayne syndrome. Sci Transl Med 2019; 10:10/456/eaam7510. [PMID: 30158153 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aam7510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Revised: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Cockayne syndrome (CS), a hereditary form of premature aging predominantly caused by mutations in the csb gene, affects multiple organs including skin where it manifests with hypersensitivity toward ultraviolet (UV) radiation and loss of subcutaneous fat. There is no curative treatment for CS, and its pathogenesis is only partially understood. Originally considered for its role in DNA repair, Cockayne syndrome group B (CSB) protein most likely serves additional functions. Using CSB-deficient human fibroblasts, Caenorhabditiselegans, and mice, we show that CSB promotes acetylation of α-tubulin and thereby regulates autophagy. At the organ level, chronic exposure of csbm/m mice to UVA radiation caused a severe skin phenotype with loss of subcutaneous fat, inflammation, and fibrosis. These changes in skin tissue were associated with an accumulation of autophagic/lysosomal proteins and reduced amounts of acetylated α-tubulin. At the cellular level, we found that CSB directly interacts with the histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) and the α-tubulin acetyltransferase MEC-17. Upon UVA irradiation, CSB is recruited to the centrosome where it colocalizes with dynein and HDAC6. Administration of the pan-HDAC inhibitor SAHA (suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid) enhanced α-tubulin acetylation, improved autophagic function in CSB-deficient models from all three species, and rescued the skin phenotype in csbm/m mice. HDAC inhibition may thus represent a therapeutic option for CS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Majora
- IUF-Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Kevin Sondenheimer
- IUF-Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Maren Knechten
- IUF-Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Ingo Uthe
- IUF-Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Charlotte Esser
- IUF-Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Alfonso Schiavi
- IUF-Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Natascia Ventura
- IUF-Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.,Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Diagnostics, University of Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jean Krutmann
- IUF-Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany. .,Medical Faculty, University of Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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Bauckman KA, Mysorekar IU. Ferritinophagy drives uropathogenic Escherichia coli persistence in bladder epithelial cells. Autophagy 2018; 12:850-63. [PMID: 27002654 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2016.1160176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a cellular recycling pathway, which in many cases, protects host cells from infections by degrading pathogens. However, uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC), the predominant cause of urinary tract infections (UTIs), persist within the urinary tract epithelium (urothelium) by forming reservoirs within autophagosomes. Iron is a critical nutrient for both host and pathogen, and regulation of iron availability is a key host defense against pathogens. Iron homeostasis depends on the shuttling of iron-bound ferritin to the lysosome for recycling, a process termed ferritinophagy (a form of selective autophagy). Here, we demonstrate for the first time that UPEC shuttles with ferritin-bound iron into the autophagosomal and lysosomal compartments within the urothelium. Iron overload in urothelial cells induces ferritinophagy in an NCOA4-dependent manner causing increased iron availability for UPEC, triggering bacterial overproliferation and host cell death. Addition of even moderate levels of iron is sufficient to increase and prolong bacterial burden. Furthermore, we show that lysosomal damage due to iron overload is the specific mechanism causing host cell death. Significantly, we demonstrate that host cell death and bacterial burden can be reversed by inhibition of autophagy or inhibition of iron-regulatory proteins, or chelation of iron. Together, our findings suggest that UPEC persist in host cells by taking advantage of ferritinophagy. Thus, modulation of iron levels in the bladder may provide a therapeutic avenue to controlling UPEC persistence, epithelial cell death, and recurrent UTIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle A Bauckman
- a Departments of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis , MO , USA
| | - Indira U Mysorekar
- a Departments of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis , MO , USA.,b Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis , MO , USA
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Nesset CK, Kong XY, Damme M, Schjalm C, Roos N, Løberg EM, Eskild W. Age-dependent development of liver fibrosis in Glmp (gt/gt) mice. FIBROGENESIS & TISSUE REPAIR 2016; 9:5. [PMID: 27141234 PMCID: PMC4852418 DOI: 10.1186/s13069-016-0042-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Background Mice lacking glycosylated lysosomal membrane protein (Glmpgt/gt mice) have liver fibrosis as the predominant phenotype due to chronic liver injury. The Glmpgt/gt mice grow and reproduce at the same rate as their wild-type siblings. Life expectancy is around 18 months. Methods Wild-type and Glmpgt/gt mice were studied between 1 week and 18 months of age. Livers were analyzed using histological, immunohistochemical, biochemical, and qPCR analyses. Results It was shown that Glmpgt/gt mice were not born with liver injury; however, it appeared shortly after birth as indicated by excess collagen expression, deposition of fibrous collagen in the periportal areas, and increased levels of hydroxyproline in Glmpgt/gt liver. Liver functional tests indicated a chronic, mild liver injury. Markers of inflammation, fibrosis, apoptosis, and modulation of extracellular matrix increased from an early age, peaking around 4 months of age and followed by attenuation of these signals. To compensate for loss of hepatocytes, the oval cell compartment was activated, with the highest activity of the oval cells detected at 3 months of age, suggesting insufficient hepatocyte proliferation in Glmpgt/gt mice around this age. Although constant proliferation of hepatocytes and oval cells maintained adequate hepatic function in Glmpgt/gt mice, it also resulted in a higher frequency of liver tumors in older animals. Conclusions The Glmpgt/gt mouse is proposed as a model for slowly progressing liver fibrosis and possibly as a model for a yet undescribed human lysosomal disorder. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13069-016-0042-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Xiang Yi Kong
- Department of Bioscience, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway ; Research Institute for Internal Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway ; Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway ; K.G. Jebsen Inflammation Research Centre, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Markus Damme
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | | | - Norbert Roos
- Department of Bioscience, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Else Marit Løberg
- Department of Pathology, Oslo University Hospital Ullevaal, Oslo, Norway
| | - Winnie Eskild
- Department of Bioscience, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Kong XY, Feng YZ, Eftestøl E, Kase ET, Haugum H, Eskild W, Rustan AC, Thoresen GH. Increased glucose utilization and decreased fatty acid metabolism in myotubes from Glmp(gt/gt) mice. Arch Physiol Biochem 2016; 122:36-45. [PMID: 26707125 DOI: 10.3109/13813455.2015.1120752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Glycosylated lysosomal membrane protein (GLMP) has been reported to enhance the expression from a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) responsive promoter, but also to be an integral lysosomal membrane protein. Using myotubes established from wild-type and Glmp(gt/gt) mice, the importance of GLMP in skeletal muscle was examined. Glmp(gt/gt) myotubes expressed a more glycolytic phenotype than wild-type myotubes. Myotubes from Glmp(gt/gt) mice metabolized glucose faster and had a larger pool of intracellular glycogen, while oleic acid uptake, storage and oxidation were significantly reduced. Gene expression analyses indicated lower expression of three PPAR-isoforms, a co-regulator of PPAR (PGC1α) and several genes important for lipid metabolism in Glmp(gt/gt) myotubes. However, ablation of GLMP did not seem to substantially impair the response to PPAR agonists. In conclusion, myotubes established from Glmp(gt/gt) mice were more glycolytic than myotubes from wild-type animals, in spite of no differences in muscle fiber types in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yuan Zeng Feng
- b Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences , School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo , Oslo , Norway , and
| | | | - Eili T Kase
- b Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences , School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo , Oslo , Norway , and
| | - Hanne Haugum
- b Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences , School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo , Oslo , Norway , and
| | | | - Arild C Rustan
- b Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences , School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo , Oslo , Norway , and
| | - G Hege Thoresen
- b Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences , School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo , Oslo , Norway , and
- c Department of Pharmacology , Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo and Oslo University Hospital , Oslo , Norway
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Kong XY, Kase ET, Herskedal A, Schjalm C, Damme M, Nesset CK, Thoresen GH, Rustan AC, Eskild W. Lack of the Lysosomal Membrane Protein, GLMP, in Mice Results in Metabolic Dysregulation in Liver. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0129402. [PMID: 26047317 PMCID: PMC4457871 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 05/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Ablation of glycosylated lysosomal membrane protein (GLMP, formerly known as NCU-G1) has been shown to cause chronic liver injury which progresses into liver fibrosis in mice. Both lysosomal dysfunction and chronic liver injury can cause metabolic dysregulation. Glmpgt/gt mice (formerly known as Ncu-g1gt/gtmice) were studied between 3 weeks and 9 months of age. Body weight gain and feed efficiency of Glmpgt/gt mice were comparable to wild type siblings, only at the age of 9 months the Glmpgt/gt siblings had significantly reduced body weight. Reduced size of epididymal fat pads was accompanied by hepatosplenomegaly in Glmpgt/gt mice. Blood analysis revealed reduced levels of blood glucose, circulating triacylglycerol and non-esterified fatty acids in Glmpgt/gt mice. Increased flux of glucose, increased de novo lipogenesis and lipid accumulation were detected in Glmpgt/gt primary hepatocytes, as well as elevated triacylglycerol levels in Glmpgt/gt liver homogenates, compared to hepatocytes and liver from wild type mice. Gene expression analysis showed an increased expression of genes involved in fatty acid uptake and lipogenesis in Glmpgt/gt liver compared to wild type. Our findings are in agreement with the metabolic alterations observed in other mouse models lacking lysosomal proteins, and with alterations characteristic for advanced chronic liver injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Yi Kong
- Department of Bioscience, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Eili Tranheim Kase
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | | | - Markus Damme
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | | | - G. Hege Thoresen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo and Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Arild C. Rustan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Winnie Eskild
- Department of Bioscience, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- * E-mail:
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