The bone marrow microenvironment in health and disease at a glance

Sacral Bioneuromodulation: The Role of Bone Marrow Aspirate in Spinal Cord Injuries

Spinal cord injury (SCI) represents a severe trauma to the nervous system, leading to significant neurological damage, chronic inflammation, and persistent neuropathic pain. Current treatments, including pharmacotherapy, immobilization, physical therapy, and surgical interventions, often fall short in fully addressing the underlying pathophysiology and resultant disabilities. Emerging research in the field of regenerative medicine has introduced innovative approaches such as autologous orthobiologic therapies, with bone marrow aspirate (BMA) being particularly notable for its regenerative and anti-inflammatory properties. This review focuses on the potential of BMA to modulate inflammatory pathways, enhance tissue regeneration, and restore neurological function disrupted by SCI. We hypothesize that BMA's bioactive components may stimulate reparative processes at the cellular level, particularly when applied at strategic sites like the sacral hiatus to influence lumbar centers and higher neurological structures. By exploring the mechanisms through which BMA influences spinal repair, this review aims to establish a foundation for its application in clinical settings, potentially offering a transformative approach to SCI management that extends beyond symptomatic relief to promoting functional recovery.

Good Cop, Bad Cop: Profiling the Immune Landscape in Multiple Myeloma

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a dyscrasia of plasma cells (PCs) characterized by abnormal immunoglobulin (Ig) production. The disease remains incurable due to a multitude of mutations and structural abnormalities in MM cells, coupled with a favorable microenvironment and immune suppression that eventually contribute to the development of drug resistance. The bone marrow microenvironment (BMME) is composed of a cellular component comprising stromal cells, endothelial cells, osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and immune cells, and a non-cellular component made of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and the liquid milieu, which contains cytokines, growth factors, and chemokines. The bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) are involved in the adhesion of MM cells, promote the growth, proliferation, invasion, and drug resistance of MM cells, and are also crucial in angiogenesis and the formation of lytic bone lesions. Classical immunophenotyping in combination with advanced immune profiling using single-cell sequencing technologies has enabled immune cell-specific gene expression analysis in MM to further elucidate the roles of specific immune cell fractions from peripheral blood and bone marrow (BM) in myelomagenesis and progression, immune evasion and exhaustion mechanisms, and development of drug resistance and relapse. The review describes the role of BMME components in MM development and ongoing clinical trials using immunotherapeutic approaches.

In vitro simulation of the acute lymphoblastic leukemia niche: a critical view on the optimal approximation for drug testing

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia with the worst prognosis is related to minimal residual disease. Minimal residual disease not only depends on the individual peculiarities of leukemic clones but also reflects the protective role of the acute lymphoblastic leukemia microenvironment. In this review, we discuss in detail cell-to-cell interactions in the 2 leukemic niches, more explored bone marrow and less studied extramedullary adipose tissue. A special emphasis is given to multiple ways of interactions of acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells with the bone marrow or extramedullary adipose tissue microenvironment, indicating observed differences in B- and T-cell-derived acute lymphoblastic leukemia behavior. This analysis argued for the usage of coculture systems for drug testing. Starting with a review of available sources and characteristics of acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells, mesenchymal stromal cells, endothelial cells, and adipocytes, we have then made an update of the available 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional systems, which bring together cellular elements, components of the extracellular matrix, or its imitation. We discussed the most complex available 3-dimensional systems like "leukemia-on-a-chip," which include either a prefabricated microfluidics platform or, alternatively, the microarchitecture, designed by using the 3-dimensional bioprinting technologies. From our analysis, it follows that for preclinical antileukemic drug testing, in most cases, intermediately complex in vitro cell systems are optimal, such as a "2.5-dimensional" coculture of acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells with niche cells (mesenchymal stromal cells, endothelial cells) plus matrix components or scaffold-free mesenchymal stromal cell organoids, populated by acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells. Due to emerging evidence for the correlation of obesity and poor prognosis, a coculture of adipocytes with acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells as a drug testing system is gaining shape.

Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells: A Tool for Bone and Cartilage Repair

The osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation ability of adipose-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (ASCs) and their potential therapeutic applications in bone and cartilage defects are reported in this review. This becomes particularly important when these disorders can only be poorly treated by conventional therapeutic approaches, and tissue engineering may represent a valuable alternative. Being of mesodermal origin, ASCs can be easily induced to differentiate into chondrocyte-like and osteocyte-like elements and used to repair damaged tissues. Moreover, they can be easily harvested and used for autologous implantation. A plethora of ASC-based strategies are being developed worldwide: they include the transplantation of freshly harvested cells, in vitro expanded cells or predifferentiated cells. Moreover, improving their positive effects, ASCs can be implanted in combination with several types of scaffolds that ensure the correct cell positioning; support cell viability, proliferation and migration; and may contribute to their osteogenic or chondrogenic differentiation. Examples of these strategies are described here, showing the enormous therapeutic potential of ASCs in this field. For safety and regulatory issues, most investigations are still at the experimental stage and carried out in vitro and in animal models. Clinical applications have, however, been reported with promising results and no serious adverse effects.

Biological research on the occurrence and development of multiple myeloma and its treatment

INTRODUCTION

To review the pathogenesis and treatment of multiple myeloma (MM). MM is a hematological malignancy with abnormal plasma cell proliferation in bone marrow. Due to the emergence of drug resistance, MM is still an incurable malignancy, which requires further exploration of pathogenesis and effective therapeutic targets.

METHODS

In this paper, the method of literature review is adopted to obtain the information about MM. Based on the literature, comprehensive and systematic review is made.

RESULTS

MM is a complex pathophysiological process with great heterogeneity, mainly reflected in genomic instability and bone marrow microenvironment. At present, the treatment of MM has made great progress, proteasome inhibitors and immunomodulatory drugs are widely used in clinic. Allogeneic stem cell transplantation may be the only promising cure for MM, and its high transplant-related mortality limits its clinical application.

CONCLUSIONS

The future of MM treatment lies in the development of more targeted therapies, novel immunotherapies, and a better understanding of the disease's molecular and genetic basis.

Novel differential calcium regulation of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells under physiological low oxygen conditions

Low oxygen bone marrow (BM) niches (~1%-4% low O₂ ) provide critical signals for hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells (HSC/HSPCs). Our presented data are the first to investigate live, sorted HSC/HSPCs in their native low O₂ conditions. Transcriptional and proteomic analysis uncovered differential Ca²⁺ regulation that correlated with overlapping phenotypic populations consisting of robust increases of cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca²⁺ , ABC transporter (ABCG2) expression and sodium/hydrogen exchanger (NHE1) expression in live, HSC/HSPCs remaining in constant low O_2. We identified a novel Ca²⁺ high population in HSPCs predominantly detected in low O₂ that displayed enhanced frequency of phenotypic LSK/LSKCD150 in low O₂ replating assays compared to Ca²⁺ low populations. Inhibition of the Ca²⁺ regulator NHE1 (Cariporide) resulted in attenuation of both the low O₂ induced Ca²⁺ high population and subsequent enhanced maintenance of phenotypic LSK and LSKCD150 during low O₂ replating. These data reveal multiple levels of differential Ca²⁺ regulation in low O₂ resulting in phenotypic, signaling, and functional consequences in HSC/HSPCs.

Functional Roles of Connexins and Gap Junctions in Osteo-Chondral Cellular Components

Gap junctions (GJs) formed by connexins (Cxs) play an important role in the intercellular communication within most body tissues. In this paper, we focus on GJs and Cxs present in skeletal tissues. Cx43 is the most expressed connexin, participating in the formation of both GJs for intercellular communication and hemichannels (HCs) for communication with the external environment. Through GJs in long dendritic-like cytoplasmic processes, osteocytes embedded in deep lacunae are able to form a functional syncytium not only with neighboring osteocytes but also with bone cells located at the bone surface, despite the surrounding mineralized matrix. The functional syncytium allows a coordinated cell activity through the wide propagation of calcium waves, nutrients and anabolic and/or catabolic factors. Acting as mechanosensors, osteocytes are able to transduce mechanical stimuli into biological signals that spread through the syncytium to orchestrate bone remodeling. The fundamental role of Cxs and GJs is confirmed by a plethora of investigations that have highlighted how up- and downregulation of Cxs and GJs critically influence skeletal development and cartilage functions. A better knowledge of GJ and Cx mechanisms in physiological and pathological conditions might help in developing therapeutic approaches aimed at the treatment of human skeletal system disorders.

Compressed Prostate Cancer Cells Decrease Osteoclast Activity While Enhancing Osteoblast Activity In Vitro

Once prostate cancer cells metastasize to bone, they perceive approximately 2 kPa compression. We hypothesize that 2 kPa compression stimulates the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of prostate cancer cells and alters their production of paracrine signals to affect osteoclast and osteoblast behavior. Human DU145 prostate cancer cells were subjected to 2 kPa compression for 2 days. Compression decreased expression of 2 epithelial genes, 5 out of 13 mesenchymal genes, and increased 2 mesenchymal genes by DU145 cells, as quantified by qPCR. Conditioned medium (CM) of DU145 cells was added to human monocytes that were stimulated to differentiate into osteoclasts for 21 days. CM from compressed DU145 cells decreased osteoclast resorptive activity by 38% but did not affect osteoclast size and number compared to CM from non-compressed cells. CM was also added to human adipose stromal cells, grown in osteogenic medium. CM of compressed DU145 cells increased bone nodule production (Alizarin Red) by osteoblasts from four out of six donors. Compression did not affect IL6 or TNF-α production by PC DU145 cells. Our data suggest that compression affects EMT-related gene expression in DU145 cells, and alters their production of paracrine signals to decrease osteoclast resorptive activity while increasing mineralization by osteoblasts is donor dependent. This observation gives further insight in the altered behavior of PC cells upon mechanical stimuli, which could provide novel leads for therapies, preventing bone metastases.

Relative Protein Lifetime Measurement in Plants Using Tandem Fluorescent Protein Timers

Targeted protein degradation plays a wide range of important roles in plant growth and development, but analyzing protein turnover in vivo is technically challenging. Until recently, there has been no straightforward methodology for quantifying protein dynamics at subcellular resolution during cellular transitions in plants. A tandem fluorescent protein timer (tFT) is a fusion of two different fluorescent proteins with distinct fluorophore maturation kinetics, which allows estimation of relative protein age from the ratio of fluorescence intensities of the two fluorescent proteins. Here, we describe approaches to use this technology to report relative protein lifetime in both transient and stable plant transformation systems. tFTs enable in vivo, real-time protein lifetime assessment within subcellular compartments and across tissues, permitting the analysis of protein degradation dynamics in response to stresses or developmental cues and in different genetic backgrounds.

Lymphocytes from B-acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients present differential regulation of the adenosinergic axis depending on risk stratification

PURPOSE

Although risk-stratified chemotherapy regimens improve B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) clinical outcome, relapse occurs in a significant number of cases. The identification of new therapeutic targets as well as prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers can improve B-ALL patients' clinical outcomes. Purinergic signaling is an important pathway in cancer progression, however the expression of ectonucleotidases and their impact on immune cells in B-ALL lacks exploration. We aimed to analyze the expression of ectonucleotidases in B-ALL patients' lymphocyte subpopulations.

METHODS

Peripheral blood samples from 15 patients diagnosed with B-ALL were analyzed. Flow cytometry was used to analyze cellularity, expression level of CD38, CD39, and CD73, and frequency of [Formula: see text], and [Formula: see text] in lymphocyte subpopulations. Plasma was used for cytokines (by CBA kit) and adenine nucleosides/nucleotides detection (by HPLC).

RESULTS

Comparing B-ALL patients to health donors, we observed an increase of CD4 + and CD8 + T-cells. In addition, a decrease in CD38 expression in B and Treg subpopulations and an increase in CD39⁺ CD73⁺  frequency in Breg and CD8+ T-cells. Analyzing cytokines and adenine nucleosides/nucleotides, we found a decrease in TNF, IL-1β, and ADO concentrations, together with an increase in AMP in B-ALL patients' plasma.

CONCLUSION

As immunomodulators, the expression of ectonucleotidases might be associated with activation states, as well as the abundance of different cellular subsets. We observed a pro-tumor immunity expression profile in B-ALL patients at diagnosis, being associated with cell exhaustion and immune evasion in B-ALL.

Molecular Features of the Mesenchymal and Osteoblastic Cells in Multiple Myeloma

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a monoclonal gammopathy characterized by biological heterogeneity and unregulated proliferation of plasma cells (PCs) in bone marrow (BM). MM is a multistep process based on genomic instability, epigenetic dysregulation and a tight cross-talk with the BM microenvironment that plays a pivotal role supporting the proliferation, survival, drug-resistance and homing of PCs. The BM microenvironment consists of a hematopoietic and a non-hematopoietic compartment, which cooperate to create a tumor environment. Among the non-hematopoietic component, mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) and osteoblasts (OBs) appear transcriptionally and functionally different in MM patients compared to healthy donors (HDs) and to patients with pre-malignant monoclonal gammopathies. Alterations of both MSCs and OBs underly the osteolytic lesions that characterize myeloma-associated bone disease. In this review, we will discuss the different characteristics of MSCs and OBs in MM patients, analyzing the transcriptome, the deregulated molecular pathways and the role performed by miRNAs and exosome in the pathophysiology of MM.

Targeting Leukemia-Initiating Cells and Leukemic Niches: The Next Therapy Station for T-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia?

T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) is an aggressive subtype of hematological malignancy characterized by its high heterogeneity and potentially life-threatening clinical features. Despite the advances in risk stratification and therapeutic management of T-ALL, patients often suffer from treatment failure and chemotherapy-induced toxicity, calling for greater efforts to improve therapeutic efficacy and safety in the treatment of T-ALL. During the past decades, increasing evidence has shown the indispensable effects of leukemia-initiating cells (LICs) and leukemic niches on T-ALL initiation and progression. These milestones greatly facilitate precision medicine by interfering with the pathways that are associated with LICs and leukemic niches or by targeting themselves directly. Most of these novel agents, either alone or in combination with conventional chemotherapy, have shown promising preclinical results, facilitating them to be further evaluated under clinical trials. In this review, we summarize the latest discoveries in LICs and leukemic niches in terms of T-ALL, with a particular highlight on the current precision medicine. The challenges and future prospects are also discussed.

Patient-Derived Multiple Myeloma 3D Models for Personalized Medicine-Are We There Yet?

Despite the wide variety of existing therapies, multiple myeloma (MM) remains a disease with dismal prognosis. Choosing the right treatment for each patient remains one of the major challenges. A new approach being explored is the use of ex vivo models for personalized medicine. Two-dimensional culture or animal models often fail to predict clinical outcomes. Three-dimensional ex vivo models using patients' bone marrow (BM) cells may better reproduce the complexity and heterogeneity of the BM microenvironment. Here, we review the strengths and limitations of currently existing patient-derived ex vivo three-dimensional MM models. We analyze their biochemical and biophysical properties, molecular and cellular characteristics, as well as their potential for drug testing and identification of disease biomarkers. Furthermore, we discuss the remaining challenges and give some insight on how to achieve a more biomimetic and accurate MM BM model. Overall, there is still a need for standardized culture methods and refined readout techniques. Including both myeloma and other cells of the BM microenvironment in a simple and reproducible three-dimensional scaffold is the key to faithfully mapping and examining the relationship between these players in MM. This will allow a patient-personalized profile, providing a powerful tool for clinical and research applications.

Tumor-associated macrophages in multiple myeloma: advances in biology and therapy

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a cancer of plasma cells in the bone marrow (BM) and represents the second most common hematological malignancy in the world. The MM tumor microenvironment (TME) within the BM niche consists of a wide range of elements which play important roles in supporting MM disease progression, survival, proliferation, angiogenesis, as well as drug resistance. Together, the TME fosters an immunosuppressive environment in which immune recognition and response are repressed. Macrophages are a central player in the immune system with diverse functions, and it has been long established that macrophages play a critical role in both inducing direct and indirect immune responses in cancer. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are a major population of cells in the tumor site. Rather than contributing to the immune response against tumor cells, TAMs in many cancers are found to exhibit protumor properties including supporting chemoresistance, tumor proliferation and survival, angiogenesis, immunosuppression, and metastasis. Targeting TAM represents a novel strategy for cancer immunotherapy, which has potential to indirectly stimulate cytotoxic T cell activation and recruitment, and synergize with checkpoint inhibitors and chemotherapies. In this review, we will provide an updated and comprehensive overview into the current knowledge on the roles of TAMs in MM, as well as the therapeutic targets that are being explored as macrophage-targeted immunotherapy, which may hold key to future therapeutics against MM.

The mechanisms of mutual relationship between malignant hematologic cells and mesenchymal stem cells: Does it contradict the nursing role of mesenchymal stem cells?

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) are known as the issue in biology because of some unpredictable characteristics in the different microenvironments especially in their bone marrow niche. MSCs are used in the regenerative medicine because of their unique potentials for trans-differentiation, immunomodulation, and paracrine capacity. But, their pathogenic and pro-survival effects in tumors/cancers including hematologic malignancies are indisputable. MSCs and/or their derivatives might be involved in tumor growth, metastasis and drug resistance in the leukemias. One of important relationship is MSCs and hematologic malignancy-derived cells which affects markedly the outcome of disease. The communication between these two cells may be contact-dependent and/or contact-independent. In this review, we studied the crosstalk between MSCs and malignant hematologic cells which results the final feedback either the progression or suppression of blood cell malignancy. Video abstract.

Bone marrow sinusoidal endothelium controls terminal erythroid differentiation and reticulocyte maturation

Within the bone marrow microenvironment, endothelial cells (EC) exert important functions. Arterial EC support hematopoiesis while H-type capillaries induce bone formation. Here, we show that BM sinusoidal EC (BM-SEC) actively control erythropoiesis. Mice with stabilized β-catenin in BM-SEC (Ctnnb1^OE-SEC) generated by using a BM-SEC-restricted Cre mouse line (Stab2-iCreF3) develop fatal anemia. While activation of Wnt-signaling in BM-SEC causes an increase in erythroblast subsets (PII-PIV), mature erythroid cells (PV) are reduced indicating impairment of terminal erythroid differentiation/reticulocyte maturation. Transplantation of Ctnnb1^OE-SEC hematopoietic stem cells into wildtype recipients confirms lethal anemia to be caused by cell-extrinsic, endothelial-mediated effects. Ctnnb1^OE-SEC BM-SEC reveal aberrant sinusoidal differentiation with altered EC gene expression and perisinusoidal ECM deposition and angiocrine dysregulation with de novo endothelial expression of FGF23 and DKK2, elevated in anemia and involved in vascular stabilization, respectively. Our study demonstrates that BM-SEC play an important role in the bone marrow microenvironment in health and disease.

Resistance to Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia-From Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Relevance

Simple Summary

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is a myeloproliferative neoplasia associated with a molecular alteration, the fusion gene BCR-ABL1, that encodes the tyrosine kinase oncoprotein BCR-ABL1. This led to the development of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI), with Imatinib being the first TKI approved. Although the vast majority of CML patients respond to Imatinib, resistance to this targeted therapy contributes to therapeutic failure and relapse. Here we review the molecular mechanisms and other factors (e.g., patient adherence) involved in TKI resistance, the methodologies to access these mechanisms, and the possible therapeutic approaches to circumvent TKI resistance in CML.

Abstract

Resistance to targeted therapies is a complex and multifactorial process that culminates in the selection of a cancer clone with the ability to evade treatment. Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) was the first malignancy recognized to be associated with a genetic alteration, the t(9;22)(q34;q11). This translocation originates the BCR-ABL1 fusion gene, encoding the cytoplasmic chimeric BCR-ABL1 protein that displays an abnormally high tyrosine kinase activity. Although the vast majority of patients with CML respond to Imatinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI), resistance might occur either de novo or during treatment. In CML, the TKI resistance mechanisms are usually subdivided into BCR-ABL1-dependent and independent mechanisms. Furthermore, patients’ compliance/adherence to therapy is critical to CML management. Techniques with enhanced sensitivity like NGS and dPCR, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) techniques, and the development of mathematical modeling and computational prediction methods could reveal the underlying mechanisms of drug resistance and facilitate the design of more effective treatment strategies for improving drug efficacy in CML patients. Here we review the molecular mechanisms and other factors involved in resistance to TKIs in CML and the new methodologies to access these mechanisms, and the therapeutic approaches to circumvent TKI resistance.

Adult stem cell niches for tissue homeostasis

Adult stem cells are fundamental to maintain tissue homeostasis, growth, and regeneration. They reside in specialized environments called niches. Following activating signals, they proliferate and differentiate into functional cells that are able to preserve tissue physiology, either to guarantee normal turnover or to counteract tissue damage caused by injury or disease. Multiple interactions occur within the niche between stem cell‐intrinsic factors, supporting cells, the extracellular matrix, and signaling pathways. Altogether, these interactions govern cell fate, preserving the stem cell pool, and regulating stem cell proliferation and differentiation. Based on their response to body needs, tissues can be largely classified into three main categories: tissues that even in normal conditions are characterized by an impressive turnover to replace rapidly exhausting cells (blood, epidermis, or intestinal epithelium); tissues that normally require only a basal cell replacement, though able to efficiently respond to increased tissue needs, injury, or disease (skeletal muscle); tissues that are equipped with less powerful stem cell niches, whose repairing ability is not able to overcome severe damage (heart or nervous tissue). The purpose of this review is to describe the main characteristics of stem cell niches in these different tissues, highlighting the various components influencing stem cell activity. Although much has been done, more work is needed to further increase our knowledge of niche interactions. This would be important not only to shed light on this fundamental chapter of human physiology but also to help the development of cell‐based strategies for clinical therapeutic applications, especially when other approaches fail.

Polymeric nanomedicines targeting hematological malignancies

Hematological malignancies (HMs) typically persisting in the blood, lymphoma, and/or bone marrow invalidate surgery and local treatments clinically used for solid tumors. The presence and drug resistance nature of cancer stem cells (CSCs) further lends HMs hard to cure. The development of new treatments like molecular targeted drugs and antibodies has improved the clinical outcomes for HMs but only to a certain extent, due to issues of low bioavailability, moderate response, occurrence of drug resistance, and/or dose-limiting toxicities. In the past years, polymeric nanomedicines targeting HMs including refractory and relapsed lymphoma, leukemia and multiple myeloma have emerged as a promising chemotherapeutic approach that is shown capable of overcoming drug resistance, delivering drugs not only to cancer cells but also CSCs, and increasing therapeutic index by lessening drug-associated adverse effects. In addition, polymeric nanomedicines have shown to potentiate next-generation anticancer modalities such as therapeutic proteins and nucleic acids in effectively treating HMs. In this review, we highlight recent advance in targeted polymeric nanoformulations that are coated with varying ligands (e.g. cancer cell membrane proteins, antibodies, transferrin, hyaluronic acid, aptamer, peptide, and folate) and loaded with different therapeutic agents (e.g. chemotherapeutics, molecular targeted drugs, therapeutic antibodies, nucleic acid drugs, and apoptotic proteins) for directing to distinct targets (e.g. CD19, CD20, CD22, CD30, CD38, CD44, CD64, CXCR, FLT3, VLA-4, and bone marrow microenvironment) in HMs. The advantages and potential challenges of different designs are discussed.

MUFAs in High-Fat Diets Protect against Obesity-Induced Bias of Hematopoietic Cell Lineages

SCOPE

The role of dietary fatty acids in the generation of bone marrow (BM) immune cells and their trafficking to extramedullary compartments in the obesity is not yet fully understood.

METHODS AND RESULTS

C57BL/6J mice are randomly assigned to isocaloric high-fat diets (HFDs) formulate with dietary fats rich in saturated fatty acids (SFAs), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) or MUFAs fortified with eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids for 20 weeks, followed by profiling of the obese metabolic phenotype and immunophenotypic features of immune cells in blood, spleen, and BM. All HFDs induce an obese phenotype, but it becomes largely less disruptive after the HFDs are enriched in MUFAs, which also induce signs of granulopoiesis and an expansion of long-term hematopoietic stem and granulocyte-macrophage progenitor cells in BM. In contrast, a HFD enriched in SFAs disturbs the fitness of medullary lymphocytes and promotes monopoiesis in favor of pro-inflammatory activated subsets.

CONCLUSION

The reshaping of the fatty acid pools with MUFAs from the diet serves to manipulate the generation and trafficking of immune cells that are biased during obesity. These findings reveal a novel strategy by which dietary MUFAs may be instrumental in combating HFD-induced dysfunctional immune systems.

Protein Kinase D-Dependent Downregulation of Immediate Early Genes through Class IIA Histone Deacetylases in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a leading cause of cancer-related death in children and adolescents, and cure rates for relapsed/refractory ALL remain dismal, highlighting the need for novel targeted therapies. To identify genome-wide metabolic-stress regulated genes, we used RNA-sequencing in ALL cells treated with AICAR, an AMPK activator. RNA-sequencing identified the immediate early genes (IEGs) as a subset of genes downregulated by AICAR. We show that AICAR-induced IEGs downregulation was blocked by an adenosine uptake inhibitor indicating AICAR was responsible for IEGs reprogramming. Using pharmacologic and genetic models we established this mechanism was AMPK-independent. Further investigations using kinase assays, PKD/PKC inhibitors and rescue experiments, demonstrated that AICAR directly inhibited PKD kinase activity and identified PKD as responsible for IEGs downregulation. Mechanistically, PKD inhibition suppressed phosphorylation and nuclear export of class IIa HDACs, which lowered histone H3 acetylation and decreased NFκB(p65) recruitment to IEGs promoters. Finally, PKD inhibition induced apoptosis via DUSP1/DUSP6 downregulation eliciting a DNA damage response. More importantly, ALL patient cells exhibited the same PKD-HDACs-IEGs-mediated mechanism. As proof of principle of the therapeutic potential of targeting PKD, we established the in vivo relevance of our findings using an NSG ALL mouse model. In conclusion, we identified a previously unreported PKD-dependent survival mechanism in response to AICAR-induced cellular stress in ALL through regulation of DUSPs and IEGs' expression. IMPLICATIONS: PKD mediates early transcriptional responses in ALL cells as an adaptive survival mechanism to overcome cellular stress.

Effect of Lipids and Lipoproteins on Hematopoietic Cell Metabolism and Commitment in Atherosclerosis

Hematopoiesis is the process that leads to multiple leukocyte lineage generation within the bone marrow. This process is maintained throughout life thanks to a nonstochastic division of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), where during each division, one daughter cell retains pluripotency while the other differentiates into a restricted multipotent progenitor (MPP) that converts into mature, committed circulating cell. This process is tightly regulated at the level of cellular metabolism and the shift from anaerobic glycolysis, typical of quiescent HSC, to oxidative metabolism fosters HSCs proliferation and commitment. Systemic and local factors influencing metabolism alter HSCs balance under pathological conditions, with chronic metabolic and inflammatory diseases driving HSCs commitment toward activated blood immune cell subsets. This is the case of atherosclerosis, where impaired systemic lipid metabolism affects HSCs epigenetics that reflects into increased differentiation toward activated circulating subsets.

Aim of this review is to discuss the impact of lipids and lipoproteins on HSCs pathophysiology, with a focus on the molecular mechanisms influencing cellular metabolism. A better understanding of these aspects will shed light on innovative strategies to target atherosclerosis-associated inflammation.

Mechanisms of Immune Evasion in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) results from a clonal expansion of abnormal lymphoid progenitors of B cell (BCP-ALL) or T cell (T-ALL) origin that invade bone marrow, peripheral blood, and extramedullary sites. Leukemic cells, apart from their oncogene-driven ability to proliferate and avoid differentiation, also change the phenotype and function of innate and adaptive immune cells, leading to escape from the immune surveillance. In this review, we provide an overview of the genetic heterogeneity and treatment of BCP- and T-ALL. We outline the interactions of leukemic cells in the bone marrow microenvironment, mainly with mesenchymal stem cells and immune cells. We describe the mechanisms by which ALL cells escape from immune recognition and elimination by the immune system. We focus on the alterations in ALL cells, such as overexpression of ligands for various inhibitory receptors, including anti-phagocytic receptors on macrophages, NK cell inhibitory receptors, as well as T cell immune checkpoints. In addition, we describe how developing leukemia shapes the bone marrow microenvironment and alters the function of immune cells. Finally, we emphasize that an immunosuppressive microenvironment can reduce the efficacy of chemo- and immunotherapy and provide examples of preclinical studies showing strategies for improving ALL treatment by targeting these immunosuppressive interactions.

Bone Marrow Aspirate Matrix: A Convenient Ally in Regenerative Medicine

The rise in musculoskeletal disorders has prompted medical experts to devise novel effective alternatives to treat complicated orthopedic conditions. The ever-expanding field of regenerative medicine has allowed researchers to appreciate the therapeutic value of bone marrow-derived biological products, such as the bone marrow aspirate (BMA) clot, a potent orthobiologic which has often been dismissed and regarded as a technical complication. Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have contributed to the expansion of medical knowledge, revealing optimistic results concerning the application of autologous bone marrow towards various impactful disorders. The bone marrow accommodates a diverse family of cell populations and a rich secretome; therefore, autologous BMA-derived products such as the “BMA Matrix”, may represent a safe and viable approach, able to reduce the costs and some drawbacks linked to the expansion of bone marrow. BMA provides —it eliminates many hurdles associated with its preparation, especially in regards to regulatory compliance. The BMA Matrix represents a suitable alternative, indicated for the enhancement of tissue repair mechanisms by modulating inflammation and acting as a natural biological scaffold as well as a reservoir of cytokines and growth factors that support cell activity. Although promising, more clinical studies are warranted in order to further clarify the efficacy of this strategy.

Chronic Myeloid Leukemia: A Model Disease of the Past, Present and Future

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) has been a "model disease" with a long history. Beginning with the first discovery of leukemia and the description of the Philadelphia Chromosome and ending with the current goal of achieving treatment-free remission after targeted therapies, we describe here the journey of CML, focusing on molecular pathways relating to signaling, metabolism and the bone marrow microenvironment. We highlight current strategies for combination therapies aimed at eradicating the CML stem cell; hopefully the final destination of this long voyage.

Cadherins, Selectins, and Integrins in CAM-DR in Leukemia

The interaction between leukemia cells and the bone microenvironment is known to provide drug resistance in leukemia cells. This phenomenon, called cell adhesion-mediated drug resistance (CAM-DR), has been demonstrated in many subsets of leukemia including B- and T-acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B- and T-ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are surface molecules that allow cell-cell or cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) adhesion. CAMs not only recognize ligands for binding but also initiate the intracellular signaling pathways that are associated with cell proliferation, survival, and drug resistance upon binding to their ligands. Cadherins, selectins, and integrins are well-known cell adhesion molecules that allow binding to neighboring cells, ECM proteins, and soluble factors. The expression of cadherin, selectin, and integrin correlates with the increased drug resistance of leukemia cells. This paper will review the role of cadherins, selectins, and integrins in CAM-DR and the results of clinical trials targeting these molecules.

Stromal cells promote chemoresistance of acute myeloid leukemia cells via activation of the IL-6/STAT3/OXPHOS axis

Background

Bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) are known to promote chemoresistance in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells. However, the molecular basis for BMSC-associated AML chemoresistance remains largely unexplored.

Methods

The mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) levels of AML cells were measured by a Seahorse XFe24 cell metabolic analyzer. The activity of total or mitochondrial signal transducer and transcription activator 3 (STAT3) in AML cells was explored by flow cytometry and Western blotting. Real-time quantitative PCR, Western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were used to analyze expression of interleukin 6 (IL-6) in the human BMSC line HS-5, and IL-6 was knocked out in HS-5 cells by CRISPR/Cas9 system.

Results

In this study, we observed that co-culturing with BMSCs heightened OXPHOS levels in AML cells, thus promoting chemoresistance in these cells. HS-5 cell-induced upregulation of OXPHOS is dependent on the activation of STAT3, especially on that of mitochondrial serine phosphorylated STAT3 (pS-STAT3) in AML cells. The relationship among pS-STAT3, OXPHOS, and chemosensitivity of AML cells induced by BMSCs was demonstrated by the STAT3 activator and inhibitor, which upregulated and downregulated the levels of mitochondrial pS-STAT3 and OXPHOS, respectively. Intriguingly, AML cells remodeled HS-5 cells to secrete more IL-6, which augmented mitochondrial OXPHOS in AML cells and stimulated their chemoresistance. IL-6 knockout in HS-5 cells impaired the ability of these cells to activate STAT3, to increase OXPHOS, or to promote chemoresistance in AML cells.

Conclusions

BMSCs promoted chemoresistance in AML cells via the activation of the IL-6/STAT3/OXPHOS pathway. These findings exhibit a novel mechanism of chemoresistance in AML cells in the bone marrow microenvironment from a metabolic perspective.

Bone marrow aspirate clot: A feasible orthobiologic

Musculoskeletal disorders are one of the major health burdens and a leading source of disability worldwide, affecting both juvenile and elderly populations either as a consequence of ageing or extrinsic factors such as physical injuries. This condition often involves a group of locomotor structures such as the bones, joints and muscles and may therefore cause significant economic and emotional impact. Some pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments have been considered as potential solutions, however, these alternatives have provided quite limited efficacy due to the short-term effect on pain management and inability to restore damaged tissue. The emergence of novel therapeutic alternatives such as the application of orthobiologics, particularly bone marrow aspirate (BMA) clot, have bestowed medical experts with considerable optimism as evidenced by the significant results found in numerous studies addressed in this manuscript. Although other products have been proposed for the treatment of musculoskeletal injuries, the peculiar interest in BMA, fibrin clot and associated fibrinolytic mechanisms continues to expand. BMA is a rich source of various cellular and molecular components which have demonstrated positive effects on tissue regeneration in many in vitro and in vivo models of musculoskeletal injuries. In addition to being able to undergo self-renewal and differentiation, the hematopoietic and mesenchymal stem cells present in this orthobiologic elicit key immunomodulatory and paracrine roles in inflammatory responses in tissue injury and drive the coagulation cascade towards tissue repair via different mechanisms. Although promising, these complex regenerative mechanisms have not yet been fully elucidated.

Case Report: Concomitant Diagnosis of Plasma Cell Leukemia in Patient With JAK2 Positive Myeloproliferative Neoplasm

Plasma cell dyscrasias and myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN) are hematologic malignancies arising from two distinct hematopoietic cell lineages. They rarely occur concomitantly. Here, we report a case of a patient with a recent diagnosis of a JAK2 V617F positive MPN who presented with a new diagnosis of plasma cell leukemia. The patient had presented to the hospital with a leukocytosis predominantly comprised of plasma cells, followed by work-up involving peripheral blood flow cytometry, FISH analysis, and bone-marrow biopsy. FISH analysis was suggestive of a common progenitor cell for these distinct hematologic malignancies. To our knowledge, this case represents the second reported instance of a concomitant JAK2 positive MPN with primary plasma cell leukemia.

A Review of the Action of Magnesium on Several Processes Involved in the Modulation of Hematopoiesis

Magnesium (Mg²⁺) is an essential mineral for the functioning and maintenance of the body. Disturbances in Mg²⁺ intracellular homeostasis result in cell-membrane modification, an increase in oxidative stress, alteration in the proliferation mechanism, differentiation, and apoptosis. Mg²⁺ deficiency often results in inflammation, with activation of inflammatory pathways and increased production of proinflammatory cytokines by immune cells. Immune cells and others that make up the blood system are from hematopoietic tissue in the bone marrow. The hematopoietic tissue is a tissue with high indices of renovation, and Mg²⁺ has a pivotal role in the cell replication process, as well as DNA and RNA synthesis. However, the impact of the intra- and extracellular disturbance of Mg²⁺ homeostasis on the hematopoietic tissue is little explored. This review deals specifically with the physiological requirements of Mg²⁺ on hematopoiesis, showing various studies related to the physiological requirements and the effects of deficiency or excess of this mineral on the hematopoiesis regulation, as well as on the specific process of erythropoiesis, granulopoiesis, lymphopoiesis, and thrombopoiesis. The literature selected includes studies in vitro, in animal models, and in humans, giving details about the impact that alterations of Mg²⁺ homeostasis can have on hematopoietic cells and hematopoietic tissue.

Kindlin-3 loss curbs chronic myeloid leukemia in mice by mobilizing leukemic stem cells from protective bone marrow niches

Kindlin-3 (K3)-mediated integrin adhesion controls homing and bone marrow (BM) retention of normal hematopoietic cells. However, the role of K3 in leukemic stem cell (LSC) retention and growth in the remodeled tumor-promoting BM is unclear. We report that loss of K3 in a mouse model of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) triggers the release of LSCs from the BM into the circulation and impairs their retention, proliferation, and survival in secondary organs, which curbs CML development, progression, and metastatic dissemination. We found de novo expression of cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) on CML-LSCs but not normal hematopoietic stem cells and this enabled us to specifically deplete K3 with a CTLA-4-binding RNA aptamer linked to a K3-siRNA (small interfering RNA) in CTLA-4⁺ LSCs in vivo, which mobilized LSCs in the BM, induced disease remission, and prolonged survival of mice with CML. Thus, disrupting interactions of LSCs with the BM environment is a promising strategy to halt the disease-inducing and relapse potential of LSCs.

In Vitro Modeling of Non-Solid Tumors: How Far Can Tissue Engineering Go?

In hematological malignancies, leukemias or myelomas, malignant cells present bone marrow (BM) homing, in which the niche contributes to tumor development and drug resistance. BM architecture, cellular and molecular composition and interactions define differential microenvironments that govern cell fate under physiological and pathological conditions and serve as a reference for the native biological landscape to be replicated in engineered platforms attempting to reproduce blood cancer behavior. This review summarizes the different models used to efficiently reproduce certain aspects of BM in vitro; however, they still lack the complexity of this tissue, which is relevant for fundamental aspects such as drug resistance development in multiple myeloma. Extracellular matrix composition, material topography, vascularization, cellular composition or stemness vs. differentiation balance are discussed as variables that could be rationally defined in tissue engineering approaches for achieving more relevant in vitro models. Fully humanized platforms closely resembling natural interactions still remain challenging and the question of to what extent accurate tissue complexity reproduction is essential to reliably predict drug responses is controversial. However, the contributions of these approaches to the fundamental knowledge of non-solid tumor biology, its regulation by niches, and the advance of personalized medicine are unquestionable.

Extracellular Adenine Nucleotides and Adenosine Modulate the Growth and Survival of THP-1 Leukemia Cells

A new approach to improve the effectiveness of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) treatment is to use the properties of purinergic signaling molecules secreted into the bone marrow milieu in response to leukemic cell growth. Therefore, our study aimed to evaluate the effects of extracellular adenine nucleotides and adenosine on the growth and death parameters in the leukemic THP-1 cell line. Cells were exposed to ATP, ADP, AMP, adenosine and nonhydrolyzable analogues of ATP and ADP (ATPγS and ADPβS) in a 1–1000 μM broad concentration range. The basal mRNA expression of the P1 and P2 receptors was evaluated by real-time PCR. Changes in the processes of cell growth and death were assessed by flow cytometry analysis of proliferation, cell cycle and apoptosis. Chemotaxis toward stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) was performed using the modified Boyden chamber assay, and chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) surface expression was quantified by flow cytometry. We indicated several antileukemic actions. High micromolar concentrations (100–1000 μM) of extracellular adenine nucleotides and adenosine inhibit the growth of cells by arresting the cell cycle and/or inducing apoptosis. ATP is characterized by the highest potency and widest range of effects, and is responsible for the cell cycle arrest and the apoptosis induction. Compared to ATP, the effect of ADP is slightly weaker. Adenosine mostly has a cytotoxic effect, with the induction of apoptosis. The last studied nucleotide, AMP, demonstrated only a weak cytotoxic effect without affecting the cell cycle. In addition, cell migration towards SDF-1 was inhibited by low micromolar concentrations (10 μM). One of the reasons for this action of ATPγS and adenosine was a reduction in CXCR4 surface expression, but this only partially explains the mechanism of antimigratory action. In summary, extracellular adenine nucleotides and adenosine inhibit THP-1 cell growth, cause death of cells and modulate the functioning of the SDF-1/CXCR4 axis. Thus, they negatively affect the processes that are responsible for the progression of AML and the difficulties in AML treatment.

Role of the Bone Marrow Milieu in Multiple Myeloma Progression and Therapeutic Resistance

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a cancer of the plasma cells within the bone marrow (BM). Studies have shown that the cellular and noncellular components of the BM milieu, such as cytokines and exosomes, play an integral role in MM pathogenesis and progression by mediating drug resistance and inducing MM proliferation. Moreover, the BM microenvironment of patients with MM facilitates cancer tolerance and immune evasion through the expansion of regulatory immune cells, inhibition of antitumor effector cells, and disruption of the antigen presentation machinery. These are of special relevance, especially in the current era of cancer immunotherapy. An improved understanding of the supportive role of the MM BM microenvironment will allow for the development of future therapies targeting MM in the context of the BM milieu to elicit deeper and more durable responses. In the present review, we have discussed our current understanding of the role of the BM microenvironment in MM progression and resistance to therapy and discuss novel potential approaches to alter its pro-MM function.

Reliable isolation of human mesenchymal stromal cells from bone marrow biopsy specimens in patients after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation

Isolation of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) from pretreated, hematologic patients is challenging. Especially after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT), standard protocols using bone marrow aspirates fail to reliably recover sufficient cell numbers. Because MSCs are considered to contribute to processes that mainly affect the outcome after transplantation, such as an efficient lymphohematopoietic recovery, extent of graft-versus-host disease as well as the occurrence of leukemic relapse, it is of great clinical relevance to investigate MSC function in this context. Previous studies showed that MSCs can be isolated by collagenase digestion of large bone fragments of hematologically healthy patients undergoing hip replacement or knee surgeries. We have now further developed this procedure for the isolation of MSCs from hematologic patients after allogeneic HCT by using trephine biopsy specimens obtained during routine examinations. Comparison of aspirates and trephine biopsy specimens from patients after allogeneic HCT revealed a significantly higher frequency of clonogenic MSCs (colony-forming unit-fibroblast [CFU-F]) in trephine biopsy specimens (mean, 289.8 ± standard deviation 322.5 CFU-F colonies/1 × 10⁶ total nucleated cells versus 4.2 ± 9.9; P < 0.0001). Subsequent expansion of functional MSCs isolated from trephine biopsy specimen was more robust and led to a significantly higher yield compared with control samples expanded from aspirates (median, 1.6 × 10⁶; range, 0-2.3 × 10⁷ P0 MSCs versus 5.4 × 10⁴; range, 0-8.9 × 10⁶; P < 0.0001). Using trephine biopsy specimens as MSC source facilitates the investigation of various clinical questions.

Cancer-educated mesenchymal stem cells promote the survival of cancer cells at primary and distant metastatic sites via the expansion of bone marrow-derived-PMN-MDSCs

Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) are multipotent stromal cells that can differentiate into a variety of cell types. BMSCs are chemotactically guided towards the cancer cells and contribute to the formation of a cancer microenvironment. The homing of BMSCs was affected by various factors. Disseminated tumour cells (DTCs) in distant organs, especially in the bone marrow, are the source of cancer metastasis and cancer relapse. DTC survival is also determined by the microenvironment. Here we aim to elucidate how cancer-educated BMSCs promote the survival of cancer cells at primary tumour sites and distant sites. We highlight the dynamic change by identifying different gene expression signatures in intratumoral BMSCs and in BMSCs that move back in the bone marrow. Intratumoral BMSCs acquire high mobility and displayed immunosuppressive effects. Intratumoral BMSCs that ultimately home to the bone marrow exhibit a strong immunosuppressive function. Cancer-educated BMSCs promote the survival of lung cancer cells via expansion of MDSCs in bone marrow, primary tumour sites and metastatic sites. These Ly6G+ MDSCs suppress proliferation of T cells. CXCL5, nitric oxide and GM-CSF produced by cancer-educated BMSCs contribute to the formation of malignant microenvironments. Treatment with CXCL5 antibody, the iNOS inhibitor 1400w and GM-CSF antibody reduced MDSC expansion in the bone marrow, primary tumour sites and metastatic sites, and promoted the efficiency of PD-L1 antibody. Our study reveals that cancer-educated BMSCs are the component of the niche for primary lung cancer cells and DTCs, and that they can be the target for immunotherapy.

Acute Myeloid and Lymphoblastic Leukemia Cell Interactions with Endothelial Selectins: Critical Role of PSGL-1, CD44 and CD43

Acute myeloid and lymphoblastic leukemia are poor prognosis hematologic malignancies, which disseminate from the bone marrow into the blood. Blast interactions with selectins expressed by vascular endothelium promote the development of drug resistance and leukostasis. While the role of selectins in initiating leukemia blast adhesion is established, our knowledge of the involved selectin ligands is incomplete. Using various primary acute leukemia cells and U937 monoblasts, we identified here functional selectin ligands expressed by myeloblasts and lymphoblasts by performing biochemical studies, expression inhibition by RNA interference and flow adhesion assays on recombinant selectins or selectin ligands immunoadsorbed from primary blast cells. Results demonstrate that P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1) is the major P-selectin ligand on myeloblasts, while it is much less frequently expressed and used by lymphoblasts to interact with endothelial selectins. To roll on E-selectin, myeloblasts use PSGL-1, CD44, and CD43 to various extents and the contribution of these ligands varies strongly among patients. In contrast, the interactions of PSGL-1-deficient lymphoblasts with E-selectin are mainly supported by CD43 and/or CD44. By identifying key selectin ligands expressed by acute leukemia blasts, this study offers novel insight into their involvement in mediating acute leukemia cell adhesion with vascular endothelium and may identify novel therapeutic targets.

An early-senescence state in aged mesenchymal stromal cells contributes to hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell clonogenic impairment through the activation of a pro-inflammatory program

Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPC) reside in the bone marrow (BM) niche and serve as a reservoir for mature blood cells throughout life. Aging in the BM is characterized by low‐grade chronic inflammation that could contribute to the reduced functionality of aged HSPC. Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) in the BM support HSPC self‐renewal. However, changes in MSC function with age and the crosstalk between MSC and HSPC remain understudied. Here, we conducted an extensive characterization of senescence features in BM‐derived MSC from young and aged healthy donors. Aged MSC displayed an enlarged senescent‐like morphology, a delayed clonogenic potential and reduced proliferation ability when compared to younger counterparts. Of note, the observed proliferation delay was associated with increased levels of SA‐β‐galactosidase (SA‐β‐Gal) and lipofuscin in aged MSC at early passages and a modest but consistent accumulation of physical DNA damage and DNA damage response (DDR) activation. Consistent with the establishment of a senescence‐like state in aged MSC, we detected an increase in pro‐inflammatory senescence‐associated secretory phenotype (SASP) factors, both at the transcript and protein levels. Conversely, the immunomodulatory properties of aged MSC were significantly reduced. Importantly, exposure of young HSPC to factors secreted by aged MSC induced pro‐inflammatory genes in HSPC and impaired HSPC clonogenic potential in a SASP‐dependent manner. Altogether, our results reveal that BM‐derived MSC from aged healthy donors display features of senescence and that, during aging, MSC‐associated secretomes contribute to activate an inflammatory transcriptional program in HSPC that may ultimately impair their functionality.